Negative Heritage and PastMastering in Archaeology

Lynn MeskellColumbia University

I September 11, and have continued to do so in New York City. The World

Monuments Watch moved quickly to feature Ground Zero in its October 2001 is-

sue as a place of heritage, requiring both salvage and commemoratioti. The site

was supra-positioned, listed as site 101 in their register of 100 endangered sites

around the globe. Ihc lingering physical marks of violence coupled with the mass

grave site have reconfigured its value as a newly constituted tourist site, eti-

couraging us to reflect on the economic and symbolic dimensions of heritage

making. The president and the chairman of tfie World Monuments Watch de-

clared that "weapons of mass destruction are tiot always aimed at battleships or

military installations, but at the cultural icons that bind and inspire communi-

ties around the world." underscoring the significance ot the WTC's historic import

and potent symbolic capital. They describe how "our landmarks—the Mostar

Bridge, the Bamiyan Buddhas in Atghanistan. and the World Trade Center-

have become prized targets for terrorists because they are what defines the cul-

tures, ideals, and achievements of the people who created them, who use them,

who live with them" (Perry and Burnham 2001:3). Quite understandably, the au-

thors have made a personal connection between their own expertise in the her-

557

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n . i h l v n l ( f i L i i n s\[v\ i-, r i i s h M i i c d in o u r n w i i u i l t u r e a n d h o w r l o n n n . i r i l I h e k m

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• i r n p l e o t w l i j l I w o u l d l r t " m " i i c g j i i v c h r i " i l , i g r ' " <i ( o n f l i d u . i l -^ite i h a l h i - ( o m c s

[ l i r i i ' i j o s i l o r v o l n e g a t i v e m e m o r y i n I h r ( o i l e d i v e i m a g i n a r y . As j s iLr o t m e m

o r v , n r g a l i v c h r r i t a g e o ( ( u p u ' s a d u a l i "otr ' il ( , H I b e tnc) l .") i l i /ed l o i j j o s i l i v e d i

il<u I n p u r i i o s r s (V.g. A u s d i w i t / , I l i r o s h j m . i , D i s t n d Six; o r a i I c r n a l i v e l y b e e r a s e d

it su( II p l a i r s ( a n n o t b e ( i i l i u r a l l y i r h , i i ) i l i l a k ' ( t a n ( t I l i u s res is l in ( n t | ) ( j t " i i { i on i n

l o l l i r i K i l i o n c i t I m a g m a IV : r . g N a / i a n d S n v i t i s l a t i i e s . u i d <it i h i l r d u i ( \ i

i V l o i u i i n r n I s j r r i t m e n i n n i f s t h a i m a v s e r v e h o i h as r e m i n d e r s o i H i e p a s l

a n d t i a r t i i n g e r s o l t t i r t u t u i " e i l n w e r i t i i a l I ' l r r i : W h i l e s r r m i n g l y i i t u o n l r o v e t

s ia t , " h e i i i , r ^ e ' o u i i [ ) i i ' s <i | ) o s i l i v e an ( t ( i i l l U M l t v r t e v a t r d p o s i t i o n w i t t i i n i n a i i v

< i i t t i i r e s , ve t \ v r s l u i u i d r r ( o g n i / e t t i a i n o l a l l i i i d i V K l u a l s , g r o u p s l u n a t i o n s

st i< i re I l i u s r v i e w s , n r t i a v e l\]o l u x u r y ot a t t l u e i u e t o i n d u l g e t h e s r d e s i r e s .

M o r e d v r t , vv r u i u n t i i a t t v t m t d i h , i t i i e r i l a g e , s p ( H i i i ( a l l y " \vo i " t ( l t K M i t , i g e , " i n u s l

M i H e s s a r i l y l i r <i g o o d i h m g a i u l t h u s t i n d it d i l l i d l i t l o ( o m p i e h e i u l g r o u p s w h o

s i i p p n r t ( o i i i i t e i d . n n i s , v v t i r l h r r l o i t h e r e a s o n s o t <i l e t i g i o u s , m o r j t , e i o

n o n i K 01 p o t i t i i a l n a t u r e t x p t o m i g h o w ( t i l l u i a t d i f f i ' t e i u e is a i ( n n i m o d a t i ^ d

01 e l i d e d w i t h i n t h e I .T i ignage , u i d p i a t i i c r o i a r d i a e o l o g i c a l h e n l a g r i o r n i s t h e

l o ( us ot t t i i s p a p e r , t a k i n g t h r s r t w o v o l a i i i e l a n ( l s ( a p e s tis m v s t . u i i n g f ) o i n i , t

a f g i i r i h a l t h e B a m i y a n V a t l e v <inft i o w e r M a i i h a t l a n a t e s a l i e n l n i , i i "ke i "s t h a i

( o m f i e l u s f o u ^ f l r d u | ) o i i i h e o i x l i n a i v u i n s t H K i i o i i , n i d ( o i i v e n t i o r i s s u r

r o u n d i n g h e r i t a g e , at h o m e .uMl r t s r w t i e i e .

The World Trade Center as Heritage

In N r w Y o r k C i i y o n t J r c e m h r r ; t , 2 0 0 t , t t i r V V a i e r i o r d < r y s l a i h<iit f i r o p p e d in

I n n r s S ( ] u a r ( * l o h e r a l d t h e N c v \ Y e a r . I l i e i a l t y m a r k e d b v t h e e v r n l s o i

S e p t e m h r t " t t . t h e b . i l l w a s ins ( r i h e d w i t l i t h r n a m e s o( t f i o s e w h o d i e d .\\^^i

s o n u M i f l i i e ( o u n i r i e s w t i o tost ( l i I / e n s i n i h r a i t a ( ks . I h e m e m o r i a l i / a i i o n o f

t h e r i ( M i l i h r o u g f i r n a l e n a t u i l t u r e h a s I x n i i n i i ' a h a l l m a r k o t | )os t S e f i f e m l i e r

1 I ( u l i u i e . f ' t .K r - n i a t \ i u g i n N e w Y o r k i i a s s i m i l a r l y i n t e n s i f i e d , t i o i n t e m p o r a r y

n i e n u ) i " i a l s , i o t i i o u s a i u l s o l t o u r i s t s v i e w i n g t h e d e v a s t a f i u n . t o t i i e p l a n n i n g

anct i m | ) i e n i e n i , i t r o n o f n e w h u i t d i n g s . m d s t a t u e s . S o m e h< ive r x | ) r r i e i K e d

t h e m a i e r i a l i / a t i o n as t i i ' l p l u i i n t h e h e a l i n g ( i K x e s s , w l i i t r o l h r i s s e e it as

( o m m o d i f i e d o u t g r o w t h t y p i u i l o t l o u n s t v o y r i i r i s n i . '

5 5 8

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Closer to home there w is an out(ry jg.nrist the blatant profiteering of .i

Georgia company marketing commemorative medals out oi recycled steel Irom

the WTC site. Selling for $M) on the web. the jewelry bolh represent the twin

lowers on the exterior and is p>irt ol the WTC by its very fabric.-' f heir c le.irly cap

italist incentive was touched in claims to historic authenticity, asking "who

wants d piece of bistury": whereas relatives of the victims were outraged that

some are "making money out ol our loss." 1 he very fabric ol the destroyed WTC

towers will bean ever-present reminder ol the attacks. In December 20UI large

swathes of sfeel from the- lowers were hauled off to be recycled into appropri-

ate memorial structures: "\ ragments of tbe ternfying but graceful facades ol the

towers, which remained standing like some Gothic cathedral amid tlie ruins,

had to be saved" (Lipton and Glan/ 2002: 16). The structures will not he re-

membered in fbeir present state but in an ac^sthetic and c ulturally acceptable

design. Discussion over the potential form of the memorial and Ihe projected

use of space itself started almost immediately following tbe attacks.

We are witnessing tbe dc sire for grounded materiality at a staggerini; rapidity,

to apprehend fbe objects and physical signs of a newfound heriiage ui real and

tangible ways. This familiar desire iur material commemoration and the phys-

ical marking of fhe event, is juxtaposed against the realization Ihat theatlacks

(and the subsequent war on Afghanistan} have been experienced througb vir-

tual means. The events of September 11 have inaugurated a resuryence of the

real, and of the violence of the real, supplanted within a supposedly virtual uni-

verse (Baudillard 2001). The moments ol impact when the hijacked planes hit

the towers were televised repeatedly, a fdiitasmatic screen apparition turned re

ality. It was the ultimate tantasy. albeit nightmare fantasy, foretold in H. G.

Wells novel War in the Air {\908). loria's New York poeiry. penned in 192'}, and

in innumerable Hollywood disaster movies (Zi/ek 2001: 17). "The Attack on

America" and its sequels, "America Fights Back" and "America Freaks Out" have

continued to unspool as a succession ot celluloid hallucinations ear h ol which

can be rented from the corner video shop: Jhe S/r tjc, Independence Dav.

Executive Decision, Outbreak, and so on" (Oavis 2001). Bul even in fhc MatriK

with \ts desert of the real, lamously recaptured by Zi/ek, the iwin towers ol the

WTC survived civilization's destruction.'

The American puhlic has been thrust hack dm] torth between these two

poles: the endless virtuality of the media coverage wi th its endless reprcj-

ducibility and the aura ot the real, material and spatial realities Ihat have lol-

lowed f rom the attacks. As a conseciuence of the vir lual material tension.

Ground Zero has been mythologi/ed in what Blake has rc^-ferred to as the "seis-

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NLCAIIVI H I K I I A C J I A M D I ' A S I M A S I I klN(.. IN A R ( I IA I Ol CKiY

mic shift of the spatiality of American patriotism" (Soja and Blake 2002:157). As

part of a patriotic resurgence we have witnessed an increasing desire for ma-

teriality, for historical marking and heritage creation and consumption. We can

be sure that another landmark will be added to the list, a yet untitled museum

dedicated to the disaster, for which the selection of objecfs is already underway.

A team of architects, museum experts and city officials have been sifting and

gathering artefacts and architectural pieces from Ground Zero for some time.

They are compiling the "raw materials" for potential display as part of a mu-

seum collection and memorial, "fhe attempt is to create an archive that is al-

ready attracting interest from dozens of museums and artists, from the

Smithsonian Institution to a museum in France to a sculptor in Greensboro

North Carolina" (Lipton and Grian? 2002:1). Yet the fetishization of the site and

the objects within it has been left unchecked, they are simply "artefacts of an-

guish". There is something inherently disturbing about the incipient museal-

ization of Ground Zero, about the desire to instantly represent it, capture its

aura, commodify it, and publicly perform it again and again, simply because we

can. "The artifacts, as the collectors call them, will be invaluable, if only as a tac-

tile, three-dimensional expression of the unspeakable scale of the

disaster...they serve as an ad hoc museum, though one unlike any museum

that has existed before" (Lipton and Glanz 2002:16)''

In December 2001, the Coalition for the Rebuilding of Lower Manhattan re-

leased a pamphlet and reconfigured map of fhe area, simply entitled Above

Ground Zero. It mirrors the site's transformations; a walking trail is delineated,

viewing platforms are marked, ghost buildings are delineated by dotted lines,

and temporary memorials are mapped onto the site with the iconic symbol of

the teddy bear. Yet fhe map is not static, it has a built-in periodicity. The map

makers indicate which buildings were struck by other buildings, and where

debris is being hauled from cranes to barges on the Hudson river. This endless

reproducability of the event in two and now three dimensions, inflected with

an equally vehement desire for authenticity and material expression, has be-

come the hallmark ot our relationship with the recent past in Lower Manhattan,

Yet one has the sneaking suspicion that already this negative heritage will be-

come at best a global commodity fetish or, at worst, a nightmarish theme park.

Coupled with the presidential mandate to buy, travel, visit, dine out, go to

the theatre and generally consume, some are encouraging us to voyeuristical-

ly participate in the constitution uf a new tourist enclave. A Pennsylvania com-

pany planned to charge S2000 (U.S.) for an exclusive weekend package with

extensive tours of the site. As one grieving family member remarked, "it is a bur-

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iai ground...a cemetery, where the men an6 women we loved are buried."

Others have likened it to "a freak show" where visitors gaze in the hope of see-

ing bodies retrieved (Murphy 2002), complaining that the site constitutes an

open grave that does not have to be publicly viewed in its present state, but

could rather wait till all operations were completed and a memorial erected.

The new musealization (Huyssen 199^:14) down town iterates the deathlike

qualities of heritage, made famous hy Benjamin and Adorno. Museum and

mausolea have more than a semantic overlap, l:)oth entomb dead visions. So

how do we responsibly tour, much less capitalize upon, such a recent and dev-

astating nightmare come true? Surely this is fhe real unimaginable.

The Bamiyan Buddhas: Politics and NegativeHeritage in AfghanistanWith political intent, the president and the chairman of Ihe World MonLiments

Watch (Perry and Burnham 2001) situate the destruction in New York City next

to that of the Taliban erasure of the Bamiyan Buddhas, suggesting an overt par-

allelism in both the perpetrators and causalities. Discourse surrounding de-

struction of the statues is linked to that of the WTC towers themselves, iterating

a discursive culture of barbarity and cultural iconoclasni- Both were undeniably

political acts with devastating results of diffc^ring extremes. As arc:haeoic)gists we

might pause to consider the Bamiyan destruction since this does fall within our

purview and we are obliged to think through the entangled and uncomfortable

issues this episode presents. Here I want to explore the polymorphous inter-

ventions of negative heritage, since it can he mobilized in strategies of re-

membering or forgetting. For the Taliban, the Buddhist statues represented a

site of negative memory, one that necessitated jettisoning from the nation's con-

struction of contemporary identity, and the act of erasure was a political state-

ment about religious difference and international exclusion. For many others

today that site of erasure in turn represents negative heritage, a permanent scar

that reminds certain constituencies of intolerance, symbolic violence, loss and

the "barbarity" of the Taliban regime.

Decried as "cultural terrorism," the iconic destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas

is inexorably the major episode that defined the Taliban's relationship with the

past. They were destroyed using strategically placed dynamite as onlookers pho-

tographed the detonations. While a full discussion of the mediating circum-

stances lies beyond the scope of this paper, I attempt to hriefly chart the diverse

and sometimes contradictory agendas oi both the Taliban and the internation-

561

ilv, uwtVA ti '( I'lit M'p(jrls th, i l r | ) i t ( n n i / r Ihc (on ih * l i ng [ id l i t i ts Mir

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ll i. irs 111)1 en I.III Di i i 'n t . i l is l I ID IUMIS t l i . i l fvlickilc 1 J S U M I I M K irii<;s h, ivr Uii lcd Id

(ons l i l uk ' ,1 ( iv i l siK i r l v ( lu r i i c r !*)9'l/ i)i Ih.it ••priniil ivc n iDdr tn i ln ' s " l.ick [(tr i il l

l u i r d pnoi"ili(*s i.)l I h n i i Mill A i n r t K . i n ( nuiiU'i"[)Lit"ls, siiTiply Ih. i l (crl.Tin i^roiip'^

i i i j y M.ivc d i t t c r c i i l t i ' l . i t id i ish ips w i i h I I K ' H d i l l r t f ! i l ( ons l ' i i i i r n l p.isK

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,in r t i i d Ui^il the sMLui-'s '•should l) iM"irs[ i i iy i 'd so l i j . i t tli i 'V ' H I M K U wors l i i p iK 'd

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. i l l r,u"licr" Ih r iM l of dcs t ru i l io f i m I'J't ". Mis d c d s i u i i lo r c s d o d I h r c i i l i r i

j ;4n-(^mci i l ( x u i r r r d tn i . i nd rn i w i l h i . i l i l i . in • l( tt(s' oppos i l i on to i h r dispLiv oi

| j ( r - is l , inn( iigui"''s m i h r ls,i l ini im iMn in i . ind ni. iv i i , i \ r b i ' cn s p i i n r d hy ,i vis

il hv l i j l i . i n r i i id{ i l i is ls . A p topo i i i ' i i i of l ) i r I I I I I . K O I I S I T V J I I V C VV.ihh.'ibi l ine o i

Sunni isl.nn. Mi l l ki l l Oinai i i . \d picvioi is iv issued a d i . \ fcv to |j(oU'( t Ihc n. i l ion s

( U I I U M I i i f ' i i L i j iC si.it;|4(-s|ing t f i . i l nn i f i n r . i i cxpk in . i l i ons l.)dsrd sini;Lll<irlv upon

r r l i j i i on or pol i l ics ( , inno l suf (u <• 01 i ie is i itc ( o l k U c r . i l i j i lo is , invo lv ing n i i l i

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10 rxpk i i t ) wf iv i i r r i f . i ^ c \v,r> hck l host.i i^r. VVV u n n o t ovc i i ook l l u ' f.i(.l Ihdl

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I j c i o i c I h r ( ' d i f l , i o n f n i i o l Ihis tmst. ib lc f i ' i ' j on v .K i l k i l cd h i i v v c r n Ihc Ki l ih . in

, ind Uicir oppos i l io r i A n o l h c i dcU't niinin,t; ku lor" vv.is < cf t . i i i i iv j n i m o s i t v over

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c (onon i i ( s, in( l ions imposed i)v Ihc | in i l ( -d fM,itions Scd i i i f y Coun( i! were on ,K

( o i i n l ol . iHcgcfl l inks to i s i jn iK t c i i o i i sn t I ton ic iNy, si m e l i i c Un i led N j l i o i i s

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till.' i i . u t i i y j n i iuddh. is ior Ihc VVorici Hc!it,i;^e i isl o! | ) io ie( led siics.

I \]V i k ' s t i i u i i o n l o i n If H I .i noc i j l p(»ini in n.tt ion.i l , ind i n len i . i l i on . i i

vet ic l i t ; ion ,n id pol i iK s , i ic not c.isiiv ( i tscnlanj^k 'd, d a m horn !.M)(\ I • I 11 ,iry,ucs

f h j l " i c l u r n i n , ^ or rcdiKi iK' , t i i r Huddi i . is tn i i ic i r o r r ^mn i i c i ig ious f n n i l i o n

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not (] i l ly u p o n l i i c tci r i to is .t i i t l t hi- peop le huf u|)on Ihc vaiues," Some inter-

n. i l iot ia l ( o m m e n t a i o i s saw these st.itnes as |)(iit o i l iv ing i iu tk i i i i s l i r a d i t i o n ,

w i i i i e inanv saw then* s impiy as s!atu m.irkecs u l t i ie p.isV i t ia ! had i)<issed m-

10 tf ie n'airi i of a r le i .K lna l i i is lor\ " 1 hesc v j n o n s assertions unde is io re lii(> i on

ilic t i ia i na l u re I'i i i c r iL ige in n iu l l i le i ig ions, t iansn. i t io r ia l (on tex is . Ami wh i l e

t lN I S( O IS making, IK/VV a t len ip ts Ui iC(.ogni/e ^ u i t u u i l A\U\ rchgnuis viivvtsiW,

l i iesc (io noi cxt<-'iid lo cx l r cn i c hci iels i nvoKn ig i i iol<itt \ . 'Xi ( oK i i ng to a lah i ian

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I YNK Mi SKI I I

envoy, the destruction was underljken <is a "reaction ol rage after d foreign del-

egation offered money to preserve the ancient works at .i time when a million

Afghans fdced starvation," The Metropolitan Mtisctim of Art in New York had

previously offered to buy the st.itucs. Wluit was clearly an icunoclastic gesture

might havr also been considered a vita! intt'rnationcil move to draw attention

to the nation's plight, whik? sinuiltaneously reinforcing its religious specificities.

That most countries, orgatnzations atid individuals cannot condone this .u-

tion is a given, my point here is to demonstrate the volatility of negative her-

itage, anci its mobilizations, in specific politic.il climates.

Just as there has been a new rhetcjrit of heritage aroutid the site of Lower

Manhatt.in, there has been an almost deafening (ry over the "antiquities" toll

in the devastated and war-ravaged Aighatnstan, While many of these reported

incidents are not new, they have suddenly been foregrounded as a result ot

Operation Lnduring Freedom, American [politics, and more cynically, by the

U,S,-backed desire for the IJNICAL pipeline that would potentially traverse the

country. Archaeologists have recently been Interviewed about the loss of an-

tiquities and archaeological sites in Atghanistan and, given our profession, per-

haps it is not surprising that many speak exclusively about the cultural toll of

the war. One archaeologist stated that the American boiiibing would not do as

much damage as the Taliban had done themselves, while another comment-

ed that archaeologists "would need to include a new line in the their grant pro-

posals— for a "herd of goats" to walk first through suspicious terrain" (Cook

2001:2), Archaeologists are not generally known for their political acuity. In

the widespread c:overage of reported looting (museums and archaeological

sites), little mention is made of the loreign intervention and warmongering

that have framed the current situation. One Afghani interviewee encapsulat-

ed the problem very simply: "What can we do? We are hungry. We have no food

in our homes. We have to dig up these things and sell theni,. We don't worry

about our history. We jusl think ol our hunger" And while Afghanistan's provi-

sional government claims a cessation of looting, others report that digging has

continued, A local police chief retorted quite rightly that in the midst of such

devastation archaeology seems like a small matter: "The government is very

busy and has more important things to deal with, like kidnappings and killings."

There are uncomfortable repercussions from the outcry against Afghanistan

and other developing countries over the |:)rotection of their own heritage, Fur

example, many counties have yet to sign the 1^54 Hague Convention, includ-

ing Afghanistan, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Japan, Tfie con-

vention states that "damage to cultural property belonging to any people

5 6 3

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r means dciiTi.igc to ihc culLur.il heritage oi alt m j i i k i nd , since cvich

pcopir nuikc's Ms own contribution to the culture of the world" lUNTSCO 2000: i).

I l ie (.(jkl VV,ir dcst.i l j i l i /ed l lu ' iJ.S. ,ind f ir i t . i ins commitntent lo [^reserving

lieril.igt^ in thc^ (Otilext lit war, ,iiul (ertain countries were Linwilling [o pNice lini-

ilciliotis un the nie.ms of vv.irt.uc. Siiu v the Balkan crisis there has hecn active

proscc ulion of ollc^iisos against ctiltural propcTty hy an inleriiation.il trihunal in

the- l l . igur, spccificdily Ihc desiruction of the Mostar Bridge .md Dtibrovnik

iProti, (\c Li h)ri"c, and I cviri 200 1:1 >;. f'firased in terms of war (rimes, this h.is

sri ,1 precrdctU ioi" lulLire actiiins, prrhaps potetititiily even those stich as the

hoinhing ut Algh.niistafi. Speaking speciIii,illy about Afghanistan, (ol in RcMilrow

lias sl.U(xl th.il "the i imr is rifjc lor , in inleniatiuii. i l convention lo m,ikc' the do

sljuit icin ot i t i l tural .irtciacls <i crime .igainsl fuimanity" (Rone 2001;. Ihe loss

nt hc i i l jg i - c<ui c\isily he ilecriecl .is A crime t h j l elfects rruiltiple genrratiuns,

etasnig iiil1ur.il metnorv anci severing links with the! past th.it are integral to

lotgii ig .ind m.iint,l ining modern identities. Yd it is dangerous to f)i.icc coin-

niensur.i lr value on people and thmgs .inci to couch these acts in .i kingu^^igt'

reserved loi genocide, sinre (iiey do nol inhahjt Ihe same order of existence.

I herr are other contrjdic.tKitis lor .irclideologists lo l.icc, such as the recent

(JNI;S( 0 recuynition ut cullural diversity Within the discourse uf glohai heritage

thi.'ri' IS lit Ik' ruum lor s[)erilK cultur.il, |)C)litical ur religious pusiliuiis tluit di-

verge 1rum Western, seciil.irist vievvf)uints. World hc'ritage is but une tacet ui tlie

m()V(~ tovv.uds gluhalis.itiun -.iiid while .i shared world heritage is desired by ter-

Uiin (uunrries. il is tioi j universal presuinpliun. The strategies Ihruugh which

such ,1 lunsfrucl vvuuki he .i( hievixi .ire alsu Ir.icfious. As of 2O(JI, v.irious cuiin-

tries \tu ludin^ l ir i t . i in, (jermady, SwiL^ierland, and lapaii have tailed [o raliW Ilie

107(1 UNI SCO (unvcntiun tu ptevcnl the iiuernational trade in stolen art and an-

iiciuilies. Since the I'JSOs then.' have been separate irUer-Ameritan and

i i troi ir.ui curiventums m cipcuUuiti. C>iven Ihese inequities, how (an specific na-

liiins -iiici insriUttions take Ihe initialive tu legislate for others.' I am nut sug-

.gesting we teliiRiUisli the ciesiie to preserve internatiunal heritage, simply Ihat

wr ackiuiwieciv^e ihe iiypoerisv oi specitif or^aniziitions and inshluhons, cspe-

(lallv t l i r iiieci!,!, in iheir uiitciies to nil plenum it (ertain gkibal policies and thai

we recugni/e the cumplexiMes ul (-mhr.iciiig real cultural diversity on thejironnd.

Moieovei, ihere are iAilt.Lir.il poiilics of a more transparent nature. First, on

Oitui i i ' t I I , 2001, huiiclri'ds o\ iight-vving Mitidu rnilitanls storiried the Ta]

Mahal .md defaied the whi le rn.irbk' walls with graffiti, althuugh it w.is bare

Iv covc'ied !n Uie Western niedi.i i,(>ha/aleh 2(102). Ihe religious nature of tliese

liestrut live acUuns iI.e. anti Musii111; had lu be elided in the fa<e ul polilical rie-

564

IVNN Ml SKH I.

cessity. Second, Saudi Arabia has recently iicfn chcirgt d with "cultural mas-

sacre" by the Turks over the demolition of an Ottoman fort in Mecca (al Ajyad

Castle). The 220-year-old castlf, which was demolished despite protests and re-

assurances from the Saudis, was built on a hill overlooking the Grand Mosque

by the ruling Ottomans in order to protect the city and its Muslim shrines from

invaders. The Turks believe that the Saudis are trying to erase any memory of

the Ottoman empire, while the Saudis claim that more space is needed to ac-

commodate the increasing numbers of pilgrims who visit the holy shrines. The

Turkish cultural minister has already made the obvitjus claim, likening the

Saudi government to tbe Taliban and tbeir destruction at Baniiyan. Yet the

Saudi Arabian situation is formulated upon ethic cultural difference rather

tban religious, since both are Islamic contexts. Tbis incident has received little

coverage and, since Saudi Arabia is an important American ally and oil provider,

it is unlikely to cause many ripples. To date neither the U.S. or UNESCO has in-

tervened for a number of reasons: politics, timing, and cultural vaiue. Tbis in-

cident provides a sobering example of tbe political dimensionality of heritage,

and wbat constitutes worth saving. '

Destruction of a specifically "monumental" past was at issue in the Barniyan

valley. Yet the past is destroyed in every excavation performed; it is a central un-

derstanding of the discipline that archaeology is a destructive process.

Professionals also make choices about wbat is saved and wbat \s not; "salvage

archaeology" is premised on tbe recognition that not everything can be main-

tained or preserved. Innumerable sites are also destroyed for economic reasons,

mostly for the purposes of development, and decisions are made on a daily ba-

sis about what constitutes historical significance and what falls short.

Conservation is a critical act and a means of extending and cementing cultural

identities and historical narratives overtime througb the instantiation of cultural

heritage (Matero 2000:5). Similarly, the very concept of destruction is a culturally

situated one. For example, the implementation (if the ICAHM (barter in Thailand

ensures tbe integrity of existing pbysical fabric of religious shrines (stupas),

whereas Tbai practice acknowledges the inevitability of decay, mirrored in tbe

Buddha's final lesson on impermanence (Byrne 1995). Furthermore, the practice

of removing antiquities, preserving them and even museum containment may

be considered destructive by indigenous groups: Native American and Aboriginal

communities would be tbe most obvious examples. Wbat bappens wben tbe di-

rective to conserve results in d cultural construal of loss? If heritage must be prob-

lematized tbrough the lens of cultural difference, tben the related antithetical

concepts of conservation and destruction also have to be rethought.

565

Past Mastering

B(}lh the World Iracle (enter .uui the H<u)iiyan v.illey ;^ive us fi.uise tn ask .111 uii

|)k\isanl (iLiestion. Whal 1-. Id br (fonc vvith iliss<in,inl herit,i;-;i', hi ' i i lage thai

does i iol (onfot in lo prevailing norms or siles 111.si <ire miierenllv dislurbing,'

Arcli.ieologists ,ind ollu^i (nl lur. i l arbiters tn.ikc rle< isions ,iboui er.isuir, Ihe

liirins ot bislorv dial ,ire di'sigii.itefi as uiiw()rlhv or uiidesitalilr. All iK^gotialions

wit i i (ontlu tual lientage ulli it i, itclv cii lail J (rr i -nn [j.ist niaslcrinv;.

A s<ilifnt cx.imtlle of ne.qativi' iKTitage, as pi,wed out over Ihe jont; term, i.iri

be sren with (ert.iin slr.inds ot ie<enl i.-uropciii iiistory. 1 urope has witnessed

a Ion;.; fiislory ot war .tiid ))fi"Sci u11011 hetvvi'en iialions, ( kisses, laa's and reh

gions that h.is left ils own legat irs, whu h ineviLtblv (ontratticl ()ul<ilivr nol ions

ol i inily ,iiul thus preseiii a i ic.u 1 lMlleng<' !o ,iiiv deploymeii i ot (he |),ist lo

promote inlc'gr.iti(jn. In th r 19;^) (.onvciilion ior l i i r Proiec t ion ol AichiUc !ur,ii

fHiTitage oi Lurope, (ui lurai heritage is lo he (ii'f}loyf'(l ,it t i i rcr pr io i i l i /e i i ii'v-

ois. [ i trope.in, nation.it <ind region,:i :UNI S( 0 .^l)(ll):7():i inEegralion being lite

prime motivation. Negative i i rntagi ' wili i indoubiediy i)e iHided in J cieliijcralc^

[•}oiic\' oi (oiiective .mtncsi.i, 01 v\ili .litein.itivt.'iy i)e r( iniiTpreleci (IK t ioi iai i/ed;

wit i i in <i new conimocliiic.it ion ol L(ito[)ean henlagc lAsii worth l')9'") H i;

Not evervti l ing c<in hc s.i\'(>d oi perhaps siiouki hv An oiivuuis rxauij i le

would bi^ the rfntn.Hils ol a N,i/i |)iist, as svniboiit capital iiiilec led vvilii l i i i '

eftiotioiis 0I guilt, loss and mourning Negative liiTitag^' ii.is lietMi \o piTvasivi'

in post war (jermany that a speatic tL-nn, \'fi-i\(ui;^<'nl]ci('^i)cw<iili':i{ii]y,, is used Us

((jnvt'V !he process ol coming lo Icriiis wi l i i tiic pasi, oi ttiastering il (ixosenlcid

2000). I'osI w.ir Muriicii conirouted its survivois wit i i an enotntoiis l.isk with fr-

;i,aKi io iK architc-ctuial k'y,.uv. scunc oysled Im .i s.Kliial pui^j,iny, ami (lena/i l i

c.ilion, oli icrs for adaptive normaii /al ion. Ihrer lonsti tunicies cmi' igcd in the

decades tlial ki i iowed: modeii i is l , ir.ul it ion,1 list, and ihose thai s.iw tiic did.x •

IK potcnUial ol <i ••< n l i ta l pvesoi-v.ilion" ni l lu ' Na/i p,isl. Moniinii-nt.i l i ly was in

lim.i leiy lied to meniorv. but aiso wit l i iorgeit ing ,ind moving io iward. P,v

preserving the rnonumeii l l i ie soci.ii oi)lig,ilion to engage 111 moic aclive re

i iu 'n ibf .mie is pariially rfnuws.-ti, s\s mhiMrnl exteriontv alliHis tl ic iiilcrTial ex

perience (2000:108), Morc'ovei, Hoiociusl monuments havr lic-eii acc.used ol

iopoialry, especiaily .il i i ie sites of I'xlerniii i. it ion. i ins view iioicis thai inc)nu

nicnls l,n:'li",iy tl ie nirniDcv, s i iur n innorv is inlcrnal .HI(.1 siilijectivr ,\\H\ Ihiis 111

comp.itii^ir with pubin (iispl.iv anci rnuse.ili/atiofi (Huvsscii i')'lS:2r->8)."

i i ieri- lias iic'en no fixed piiiicv ovei li ic ensuing di'cicies towards ( ic i i ing

wi lh Nazi heritage. While ininirrmiN liuiidings and svTiihois wei r rradic aU'ti al

ler t iu ' cMci o\ li ic wai", in the l')70s some vvcic proles Icci .is pdlcnti. i l did.n IK

Ml SKI

hrrildgc in the ongoing project of pcniiiue, r<'sultir\g in an inconsistent treat-

ment of Nazi architecture. Probt<'nialically, these sites have also been relnvig-

orated as neo-Nazi places of pilgrimage and operate as staging grounds for the

potential resurgence o1 Nazi ideology, diTtnany still wrestles with the pol.ir

positions of cleansing the Na/i past or mobilizing it as a didactic ruin Neld: vcr-

gangenheitsb(.'waUigung remains .^u ambiguous concept of past m.istering.

Ironically and hauntingly parallel to the heightened activities at Ground Zero,

Rosenfeld suggests that touring Nazi buildings in uties like Munich may provide

the most effective strategy oi eronomic and emotional tidjustment so that

tourism may represent the ultimate past mastering.

Past Talk: The Language of Heritage

From the outset, heritage has (otuerned itsfHt with issues ol identity, locality, ter-

ritory, ethnicity, religion and etonomic valu(\ Western constructions of heritage

have also been consistently informed by the fabric ol Christianity, despite tbe

avowedly secular nature ol contemporary society, and bave yet to find a way ol

incorporating Christianity's bistorif enemy, Islam (Grabam et al 200U:2S).

Historically, our present concept of heritage crystallized in Curope in syntbronv

with tbe origins ol the nation-slate, wbile tbe notion of the past as a resource for

tbe present is also cliaracteristic ot the modc-rn era. Intimately connected to tbe

Enlightenment, tbe lormation oi national identity relied (KI a coberent nation-

al bcritage that could be deployed to fend oft tbe countcT claims ot otber groups

and nations.'"

Heritage is connected to issues ot ownership and like otber natural, non-re-

newable resources, is seen as a scarce commodity or firoperty. There are two im-

plications bere worth exploring: tbe first deals witb notions of ownt'rsbip and

control, fhe second with ^iu essentialized yision ot tbe past as akin to a natural

resource. AtTiong many Native American or Australian Aboriginal groups "tbe

past" is not to be bougbt or sold, studied or scientitic.ally tested, displayed orob-

jeclified in Wctys that Wrsteni participants ini,t;bt see fit or unproblemattc. Tbe

past is a teleological category in our case, wfiereas otber groups do not perceive

our yersion of tbe past as past al all. Contemporary repainting of Aboriginal rock

art sites is a cnsc in point: some may see ihis as tantamount to vandalism,

wbereas indigenous people are ap|)n:)priatc>ly conducting tbeir traditional life-

ways, living and interacting witb wbat outsiders deem a separate, reified cate

gory, the past {Mowaijaddi ct ai 1988:6^)2). Relationships to hrrit^ige suc:h as

these cannot be raptured in tbe male-biasoc! language of patrimony or own-

567

i \ M \ I

ership, nor (,iri they reside vviEhin tho ddrninrinl perspective that v.ilorizes J v<ii-

ue hi(fr<.ir(hi<:,il, dualistit., nights b.ised Ir.imework (VVurren 1999: IS-6), thus

(h.il lenjiuig rhc<Kle(|ii,KV not only ul our scni.infit (ategorirs, but of our fun

damenlal conteplLi.il taxououiies (hdl reflecl Ihe very hallmarks of our dis-

1in< rive inodertiily.

Residues of the pasi exisi in the present as archaic teininders ol a world Lhat

was, albeit in inlinile vanabililv rather than niunolithir expressions or reflections,

f hose inatenal residues umnol be •authenti(aliv" re< re.iled and arv thus finite.

In the U.S. the iirst steps toward site [jrotet tion larne about witb Roosevelt's 1901

Fore^t Servrce, lolkivved hv the t90i> Anticiuities Act, the natural preceding and

shaping any notions oi an arc haeolojiical past, the Anticiuities A(t gave the pres

ident discretion to protcxt "liistoric landmarks, historic and prehistoric, struetures"

thai were situated on lands owned ur controlled by tbe gcjvernrnent and also to

create reserves. This ,KA also r-ecognrzed that ••significance' is tantarirount to

"historical, scenrc and/or suentrlic values^'as mirrored by tbe tirst sites rromiriated

(drand (anvon, Death Valley, Joshua Tree etc: McGrrnsc-'y and Davis 1984), Natural

rc^sources and places provrdecl the mcxiel tor this [paradigm of non-renewabilr-

ty and .ire similarly marked as sit.-s <inci places tbat entreat pr'otectron and visi-

tatrort," I niploying the same language and crrLerra for irrclusion (i.e. outstanding

aestbc^tic and scientific valire, univers.il value, historical import), arcliacxilogical

remains are Irterally natur,ili/ed, perh.ips everr percerved as "god grven.'" It rs un-

likeiv tbat tbe two afv ideologrcallv or conceptually comparable (although Irving

comrnunrtiesare simil.irly tiiargmal loeachi, and the conflation eschews the so-

cial corrstfuctiorr and valrie systems inbeient to botb. Su(b compounding serves

to present tbe lole of arcbaeologists as good conservationists or ec.ologists (lit-

erally saving tbe planet;.

I focus on tbe construct ot global world heritage, siric.e rts discursrve formu-

latitjn Ir.is assumed an overwhelnunglv positive mantle in recent decades.

However, global world beritage (ould be perceived by some as an c^xtensron of

thecolorual projcYt, Irayelinglo, knowing and nia|)ping lerrrtoric-s outside one's

own national boundaries. Ibe language of tbe UNtSCO conventions reiriforc:es

Western notions ol value and niihl\. wbrle Ihe mv/ifTs/i/p and mainlenanceol tfie

past IS sullused with tbe concepts suriounding/?ra/;(T(>', A close reading of tbe

language ol beritage, spc'c ifically tbe tINFSCO (onventions embody older para-

digms ol cuitnral bistorv and traditional a\\ bistorual yalue svstems instead of

tbe more recent alrgruiient ol .ircbaeologv wi)fi social anthropology and tbe

social sciences.'' tbc^ convention clearly recognizes that not all property can be

listed, ratber only tbosc> selec t few tbat arc outstanding from an "international

5 6 8

IVNN MISKhl I.

viewpoint," Furtber it states thai the committee can aclwith •'full independence

in evaluating tbe intrinsic merit of property, without regard to other considera-

tion" (tJNESCO 2000:26), hirst ot all, this operates within tbe language of pre-

sumed objectivity, a bangover from tbe era of positivism, and second, it erases

the centrality of cultural issues whetber, social, political or religious. Other sec-

tions of the convention make overtures to •"local people" that might be construed

as cultural pluralism: "participation of local people in tbe nomination process is

essential to make tbem feel a shared responsibility" (2000:27). However, much

of tbis redeeming language is paternalistic, interpolating "locals' and their ber-

itage into predetermined sc:hemes of global world beritage.

The notion of a common heritage bas recently been amplified by tbe bur-

geoning global museum, beritage park and tourist industries. World heritage

and world tourism recursively reinforce and enhance eacb cjtber In an ever-grow-

ing and influential lobby. Since tbe proliferation of global tourism after WWII, high

profile campaigns sucb as the "Save Venice" movement or the UNESCO rescue of

Abu Simbel are salient examples of tbis connectivity (Asbwortb 1995:71-2),

Furthermore, the very c:oncept ol world heritage is Hawed by the fact that it priv-

ileges an idea originating in the West and rc^quires an attitude toward material cul-

ture tbat is also distinctly European in origin, Tbe tact tbat world beritage is

underpinned by tbe globalization of Western values has ultimately prompted

challenges, resistance, and misundiTstandings, t_INESC.O policy (2000:1) analo-

gously attempts to conflate global and local interests: "cultural and natural prop-

erty demonstrate the importance, lor all the peoples of the world, of safeguarding

this unique and irreplaceable [)roperty, to whatever people it may belong...parts

of the cultural or natural beritage,ire of outstanding interest and tberetore need

to be preserved as part of tbe world heritage of mankind as a whole," I rencb ar-

cbitectural bistorian Franc,oise Cboay. bas reterred to tbis imperialism as the "ec-

umenical expansion of beritage practices" (Gjmboni 2001.9)- Any real success of

world beritage will depend upon tbe degree to whicb the Enligbtenment in-

spired universalism gets sanctioned as truly uruversal.

The language of UNFStt) might seem pervasive and implacable: bowever tbere

are dear national alternatives .ilready in operation, I see real potentials for tbe fu-

ture of heritage as crystallized in tbe language arul expressed sentiment of tbe

Australian Burra Charter. The charier rrcei?lers the place oi culture in a living

context termed "places of cultural significance," ratber tban as redurtively static ob-

jects of outstanding artistic or scientific merit. These places are important be-

cause they provide an "inspirational sense of conncrt'ion to comrnunhy and

landscape" that are part of lived experience. Place is connected to "tangible ex-

569

prc-s io i is ot Ai is l r . i l i .m idenl i lv .mi l expcr-icMur" w i l h [ i ic . K k n o w l c d ^ e n i r n l I hat

f)l<Ke^ ot "c u l iu r . i l s ign i l i ' a f i cc ir f lc< i l i i r d iv i ' rs i ly of { o m n i u n i l i c ^ , I lerit.igc^ is

both lo b r c,ii"ed foi . lud u\cd b\ var ious gron i 's , il deemed a i ^p rop f i a t c . ' ' I b c i e

arc wel l k i i ow f i t. iscs vvbere pub l i i inlo[ [ i i . i l io i i is w i l i i h c l d . siu h .-is Ibc l ou i t i ous

of sac f rd sitc^, >ii!d en! i r ( ' t iacis o i (ou i i l r ys ide I I .A 'C b r i ' i i i c i u r i i c d lo Abof i j^ i i ia i

I us lod i , i i i ssu t l i as U iu iu . (orrrs| ionfl in;-; lv, I l icrc is. i cicar lecogni l ion ib.it loi sonie

ck'cisions. . inciudin.^, bu i nof l i m i t r i i lo p o l i l i c i l . rcHi^^ious, spirHu,!l aud mora l be-

l ic is, fh is IS l)("o<i(k'r !h , i t i v, i lucs .issocuiic-d NVitb d i l f i i r a l s i ' ^n i fu , ince" i;l5urra

( f h i r l c i l'-)9<)i.'' VViiile thts nahona l doc l unen l c J i m o l doub le as a e,lobal t i u u c U t e ,

It cei i . i in ly does r-cllcct ,i heif-jlUe-ned -iw.ucness and l o i u c n i kir c ul t i i r . i l difk^-eiic-e,

l i i r ciear iu( lusioi i o l inck.^etuius groups w i l h w h o m u l t ima le dec isiou m a k i n g re-

sides. , i iu i a fcKUson a i n l l i ' l resolut ion iti.U is nol cv idcu l la the uk le t LI

vcn l ions . Moreover, il cx[)lic i l ly . idvo i , l i es ,i mu l t i d isc ip l inai v . lpproat l i ,

ncoo l i a l i on , and . l i ins k i i , where possif)ie, I b r (O'cxistcf icc ol f l i l l c r i i i g vi(

111 f ) . i r tncrshi j i w i t h ind igenous ( o n i m u n i t i e s j n d lias i io[ been f>|)rn to t b r l\

o l (r-itl( isrn sustained bv the Uni ted SI.lies iscc I iilev _•

Closing Thoughts

Vio lence , s . i i u l umec ! n i n n o t v .wul ^^H- \-5U\I\\^S VA p \ .ue ^lave incs^ . ip ' iWy con

s l i l u l e d s i lcs o i hc["il.i;.4c in I ovvei fv l .mh. i l t .ni . n i d m the l i . i n i i v -n i v . i l i cy .

Ihr'ouj^h Ihcsc cx i r c f t i e (^x,unpk's we <HC i rnpe l l cd Ici i c t i i i n k I he n io rc n i u n

( lane , l3u\ no less p o h i i u i l . u i \ is \v \K\u>ns \>\ \ i ie }).is\ <intl l^iosc specific siies Hiat

v i rcconse i [Mtcd ds hcr i t - ige. A t l c i . i l l , the nu i i c rh i l w o r l d is .1 (uns l^ml rc^innclei

o l .III ever -presen l |)<ist j i i d yr( c c t k i n i dec isions by p.irhc u l . i i inc l iv iduals d i i d

nr ; j ,an i /aUo\ is rcuc lc i P .UVKVIUM ) ) \ .H CS , I \ v . iUhib le , in i | )Cir l , in l , j c s l i i e l n j r i d

rne. i inn i^ tu l . Hcr i f . ioc it ih.i l>i(s s p j l i . i l . k ' n i p o r . i l , ( n l l i i r - i l .\\}d r ( o n o n n c cio

in , i ins , howcvec t h r n o l i o n o i m l t i i r a l ^^ood is o l l c n svnonv fnous w i t h r ( o

i io iUK s u e ess, U ie k i i v ^uanen l l u U i n a ) \ ie i i la! . ; r is s v i u t i i o n o u s vvitb lh, i l ot the

n. i l i i r . i l vvofid -.1 [ ion- rcn(nv , ]b ic resou i i c Ih. i i is to i jc |)rc-scivc(l lor l i i c licMi

c h l o i a c o i n n i o n hu in , i n i l \ ' , i i n i w h o d r h n e s .1 ' 1 o n i i n o n l i e i i i . i ge ' and " c o m

n i o n h u n n n i l v " m \hv ,ige ol i ccogn i /ec i c nll i ir-al d i t f r renc r.' i h c l iLHM Cf ia i t c f

i i, is l ieen i isc i l as .i [ j os i l i v r c x j i n p i c of one i i a i i on ' s , i l tem[>t to n c g o l u i l c , j i i d

v^jcn ( c i i n i i n i s i i c o n ! n i l o i iic^r[(,iv;c\ in Ihe f.icc o i cnl! [ i f<i l d iv i ^s i ty .

Ih is css.iv i ias levolvcHi a r o u n d ! l ie d e p l o v i n e n l s <irul i n t e r vcn l i ons of so i i i c

I h . iv r i r u T i c d i ie.t ialive bc f i l agc , wi iK h of )cr , i lcs b c f w c r n ih<' du . i i po ics

5 7 0

of twnsiormation and erasure, depending un the social and temporal context,

liming is key in decisions to erase heriUigc sites, whether Nazi architecture or

the Bamiyan Buddhas, where specific, national modernities cannot rehabili-

tate or accommodate specitit manifestations ol the past. And only time trans-

forms negative or dissonant heritage into the romantic monuments and theme

parks of collective nostalgi.i. Anc:ient sites are purified through the march of

time and the cultural amnesia that acconi|)anies temporal passing. How can we

define or apprehend an arbitrary moment in time that transforms the product

ol the past into an object of heritage? Preservation privileges the construct ol

historical respec:t rather tlian the needs of the present (Adorno 1981:173),

Arthaeologically, an object re-touched or re-worked in antiquity is of interest to

sc.tiolars, yet this same process is denounced or actively prevented when it oc-

curs in living contexts. By what mechanism is authenticity compromised? It

can only be the arbitrary passing of culturally determincxl time that sanctifies

the past as past.

Returning to Ground Zero, we have witnessed the rapid afid devastating

transformation of the World Trade Center from the penultimate site of virtual

capital Into a site of negative heritage, replete with numerous instancc-s ol

contemporary and potential musealization. It is timely tliat we thus ask what

constitutes appropriate memorialization in this volatile context. What will be re-

membered and forgotten? How will 1 he didactic, potential of the site and the cul-

tural capital of museums and memorials be balanced against the extreme

pressure of economic and political lorces' Numerous groups remain buried at

the site: occupants of the WIC, fireman and policemen, migrant workers and

the highjac:kers. We are now at an important |unc:ture: the ongoing memorial-

ization of the event can take Ihe shape of current nationalist fervor, highlight-

ing the "axis of evil" and the war against terrorism, or can attempt to mediate

between the numerous agendas and interest groLips and mobilize the materi-

als of the very recent past to confront religious, national and cultural difference,

and to perform a service in tiie public sphere. Given the disenchantment of a

post 9/11 world, the latter calls for a hybrid heritage where multiple meanings

and a multicultural agend.i are tacitly embraced from the outset. New York City,

the ultimate world city, can make a piiblic and powerful connection between

the events of September 11 and thus potetitially further the understanding of

cultural difference and intolerance in a global context.

571

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I h i s p a p e i owes m n d i to i b c l i i o L i g h l l u i i ns igh ts o l r i n i i i a B lake . Ru .ha i i i hox, F',itt\

( . e i s l enbh tb , Chad i.,illor(f, M a r l i n 1 k i l l , Ian l i o d d c r . Rosemary |ov (e , Ian I i l lev, Claire Lvons,

a n d ,N<in R o l h s d i i l d w h o eat h read w i r i ous d i a f i s , [iroviciecJ cr i t ica l references a n d be lped

d a n k mar tv of I he ideas p r e s e n t e d in tbe p a p e i , I h e studcMits u\ inv i ; r a d u a t e class

"Revea l ing Iden l i t i i ' s " afso | ) rov ided vvoncierful fe<'dbac k on f i iariv of Ibe a r g u m e n t s , Sonu '

v e i \ h e l p l i i i r e l e i e i K c ^ were [ ) i ov ided b\ James ( o n i o n Marisa L a / / a r i , a n d ( l a ire S i r i i lh .

l i n a l l v , I w a i i l lo ad<,nowledge the be l [ i ot m v r e s e a r d i ass is lan ts A n n a B o o / e r ,

k i e m ka i l , A / I / Mesh lea a n d Danief Cue r las w h o he lped w i t b t be col lee l i on o l ma te r i a l s

END NOTES

' M a l e n a l signs also serv.- lo l ink ua l i ons a n d i r td iv idua ls , m a k i n g e m o t i o n a l an( i

s t a l emen i s A ba t te red Hag, laiseri bv l i ref ighters at Ifte WTC site in the e.irlv a f t e i n i a t b o l

a t iacks . was sent lo ,A lghai i is ta i i io be f l o w n a l t f ie site o l a I c m p o r a r v p r i son

l a i i b a n [ j r isoners Asa m a l e n a l l e l e ren i fo i Ihe events of Sep le rnber I I l i nscn l i ed w i l l i t be

n a m e s oi the v i d i n i s , , it was a svmbo lK act I l iat i ns tan t i a ted a n d jusl i f leci t f ie re ta l i a t i on

Or ig ina l o w n e r s h i p ol Ihe fla;.^ was t f ie i i ca l led i n i o ques t i on bv vacfU owne rs , Shir lev a n d

Spircj, W'ho ( l a i m e d it was laken Ircnn Iheir boat tnoor<'d in Lower M a n h a t t a n . I h e n , U. VV

.;.<)0I "f-oi History Ol Fax HreaL C la im ing a Sepi. 11 k o r i , ' in Ihc New Yaik Times, pp..'>""!, New

Yoik , M a i d I ; In al l Ihese m o b i l i / a h o n s , au t f i en i it i lv is p a r a m o u n t

' h e m s si i j h as shel l casings a n d l )u l ie ls f r o m i u ro ( jean ba t l l e l i e lds in VVVV t were a K u i r . i l l

ed ,uu l t r a n s f o r m e d in to m a l e i lal c u l t u r e men io ra l ) i l i a bv solciiers aiicJ wick ' ly d i s t r i b u l e d .

Hie |)MKi'sses of i o m m o d i lie at ion a n d prof i t were , however , no l t he f i r in ia rv m o t i v a t i o n ot

( o n i e r n , San rulers, N |, i()()() "Bod ies of M<'tal, Sfiells of Mer i i o r v : "Trenc l i A r l " a n d Ibc

1,-iieat War Rei vi l ed , " loiniinl ol MutciKil (.ullurc "i:4 !-t)7.

' in Ibe Irhn I I I !man l)eings a ie i iu-re ba l l e i i es loi the new niech. inrca l w o r l d o ider , a l t h o u g h

Ihev ti'-e III a perpe tua l d r e a m slate, delndecf th rougf i v i r tua l mearis hv a s imu la t i on p rog ram

cal led Ihe mat r ix , Manv (L i l lura l ( o m i i i e n t a t o r s havc> d r . iwn a t t e n t i o n to t f ie |)resenl b l u r r i n g

of ge i i i es

',A c u m [ j a t a b i e e \ a m | i l e w o u l d be i l ie m u s e a l i / a t i o n o l H i ros f i ima

'I 111' l i m i n g ol , \ iu l lab Omar 's edu t was IM'V it was issued w h i l e a SPACM d e l e g a t i o n was in

Afgbanis t , tn and d i i i i n g a b ig l i - | i ro l i l e UNI'S( 1) < o r i le rence on tbe fate ot c u l l n ra l beiMage m

i e n u . ' l Asia

' 'Pakis la i i i ai( haeo log is l A h m e d I Jasan l l a n i , a igueci " t f iev are no l here to bc' wo is f i i f jpec i

I f iey a ie wo rks ol art

l o o l i n g in the I.,S a n d o tber na l i ons s im i la i l v rema ins a s ignr l i i .ant t o i u e i n l i t u d i e , K,

Dooie, I and Renfrew' ( Tdiioi i ( l ( } | luul'' in Illuil AiUujiiitie-^ Ihc Ik'stnidion oj IIK'\V<)ih!'\ Aifhiicnlo;J.ifnl llrntnt'c I .nnfuidge" McDciriakI Insti tute for Arc.baeolcjgical Ki 'seardi

"Cases whi( b evoke Ibe mosl vo( ifcaous ont(r ies over loss ar"e tbose w b n h re|iresc*nt aesll ieti i

sites tbose vvbic h tacitK lit VVeslern c i i ter ia for atUstu mer i l and (".ultiical nu 'an in^ , Wl i i le

not all bei i tage is salvaged, m a i n < n i lu ra l commenta to rs feel more able lo point the finger

at develop ing coLinlries such as Afgh.inistan l i l i n g reasons of ignorance and barbar ism,

wbi le dovMiplaving religious M'nsitivrlic's, local feelings, economic: ik' iessitv or Ibe irnple

men ia l ion of o t i ie i systems ol knowledge ancj value. ,Archaeoloi^Kal lierilai!,e in these spc

( i l i f l o i a l e s < a n easilv be tranvfor i i ied bv pol i t ical mac binat iorrs: Ibc Buddbas w<'re in

dexfjeiate need ol cor tserv.it ion lor manv years wrth hi l ie rone ern. H igud i i . I, and t. Rarin^s

l')'iS "Hamivan BiicJdbist d n e "Iemf>les in Afghari istan," World /\i(i'ucokiy,\ 27.1'dZ ',01

ivig.blenns indignat ion lomei i ted wben Alghanistarr bei ame a flasli poinl and Ibc' Taliban be

came de inon i /ed Ihroi ighout the w o i k i reiterating the d ru i s in tbat arciiaeologv is im brie a led

i!i pu l i tKal xtinggles and is kn I rom \ i l i ie tree

572

KM Ml SK[

'^Auschwitz receives over 70,00(1 visitors or pilgrims cvich ycir. Coir, L )')')'). Sriliiiii the

Holocaust. Nfw York: Routlecific.

'"In England, John Ruskin and Willidtti Morris were (ui i l roi i tcd with ihc ni.iss destrLutiixi ofthe p<ist from burgeoning capit.ilisrn and industrii i l izjtion. They were .imong the first to pro-mote stew^rdsliip, arguing th<5t one generation had no right lo destroy rcnin.ints of the pastsince heritage belonged equally to fifture generations {Ganihoni 201)1.7),

" A n examination ot the UNESCO Protection ot VViirid (u i t i i ra i <irul Natiirai Herit<igeConvention and the European Landscape Convention (iciirly reve.il Ihe isomorphic relationship between cultural and natural heritage.

'-'Article ') ot the convention purports tiirce t jtegories: itioiiuitients, groups of buildings ,iii(isites. In defining what constitutes "outstatiding value." criteria are listed as "history, art or s( i-ence" as opposed to living traditions, comniuni(ies etc CriliTia include ",i masterpiece o) hu-man creative genius." "a civilisation." or ",i sigii it icint stage in luinian history" Ihat tan"meet the test of authenticity." liNESCO. 2000. "Cdrivcnlion Concerning the iVotection ot theWorld Cultural and Natural Hc-ritage (Paris !(-> November 1972}." US/K()M()S S<ienlificjournal-Internationa I Cultural Heritage Conventions 2: l9 - i6 .

"Here Aboriginal people are the most important sl.ikelioldcrs. Article 1,1.Z.

"The Cultural Diversity Code (essentially d\^ ethics code that acciinipanies the Charter) acknowic^dges that "cultural difference is the responsibility of society as a wlinle; in a pluralistsociety, value differences exist and contain the potential for cniillict; and ctfucal practice is nec-essary for the just and effective inanagetnetit of places of diverse cultur.il significance,"

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574