Methane Mitigation Strategies From Livestock by Sk Asraf Hossain

7/27/2019 Methane Mitigation Strategies From Livestock by Sk Asraf Hossain

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Ruminants are unique

- Ability to digest fibrous feedstuffs otherwise indigestible.

- But produce methane --a potential greenhouse gas

- As an unavoidable waste product of enteric fermentation,- Global warming.

Enteric fermentation digestive process -CHO are broken

down by MO simple molecules for absorption into the bloodstream.

2


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Globally, ruminants produce 80 MMT of methane annually.(NRC, 2002)

India has largest livestock population in the world & estimated toemit about 10.8 MMT of CH4 annually or 405.75 x 10

8 Kcal/dayfrom enteric fermentation.

(Singh and Sikka, 2007)

Dairy animals are most popular livestock enterprises in the countryand account for nearly 60% of these enteric emissions.

(Singhal et al., 2005)

From agricultural sector, ruminants contribute major 49 %methane in India. (NATCOM, 2004)

In ruminants, 87% CH4 is produced in the rumen & remaining13% from hindgut fermentation.

(Moss et al., 2000)3


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GHG METHANE

Global antropogenic sources of Methane

Source: US-EPA, 2000

http://www.epa.gov/methane/intlanalyses.html

Natural gas

15%

Biomass

burning

5%

Biofuel

combustion

4%Waste water

10%

Fuel mobile1%

Enteric

fermentation

28%

Rice

11%

Manure

4%

Oil

1%

Solid waste13%

Coal

8%

4


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Per cent Contribution of methane by Different Categories of Livestock(enteric fermentation and manure management).

(Swamy and Bhattacharya, 2006)

Cattle Indigen- Buffalo Dairy Cattle Indigen- Buffalo Non- Cattle cross Cattle crossbred

ous Non-dairy ous Dairy Dairy bred Dairy Non- dairy

%Emission

Bovines

%Emission

Small Ruminants & other Animals

Goat Sheep Pigs Camels Horses and DonkeysPonies 5


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0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

Crossbred Indigenous Buffalo Average

4-12 months 1-3 yr breeding bulls

Working Breeding+ working Others

Methane emission in India (kg/male/year)

(kg

/male/year)


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Methane emission in India (kg/female/year)

0.0

10.0

20.030.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

Crossbred Indi enous Buffalo Avera e

4-12 months 1-3 yr Milking Dry cow s Heifers Others

(kg/female/year)


7


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State-wise methane emission from Indian livestockin 1994.


8


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Distribution of methane density (Gg/sq. km/yr)

(Swamy and Bhattacharya, 2006)

9


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Why Inhibit Methane?

I. Loss of feed energy:

1 L of CH4 = 39.5 kJ of feed energy. Methane emission: 8 % GEI loss.

- varies with diet from 2% (cattle in feedlots) to

15% (animals eating very poor quality forage).(Johnson and Johnson, 1995)

Disadvantage for both cows and producers as this energy could bechanneled for production purposes.

II. Green House Effect & Global Warming:

Methane contributes 15 - 20% of total GHG. CH4 has 21 times more GWP than CO2. (IPCC, 1996)

-Weather change (By the year 2030 the world is likely to be12 C warmer than today).

- Increase in sea level (17 - 26 cm rise in global mean sea level).(Khan et al., 2001)

- Health hazards. (Moss, 1993)10


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Many practices to reduce GHG emissions increase production

efficiency and profitability of agricultural operations.

Producers verifiable, quantifiable GHG emission or carbonsequestration able to receive revenue from Carbon Trading

markets in the future.

So,The inhibition of CH4 production in the rumen would havesignificant economic and environmental benefits.

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Substrates used in the

process include:a) H2b) CO2

c) Formate,

d) Acetate,

e) Methanol,f) Methylamines,

g) Dimethyl sulfide,

h) Some alcohols.

Methanogensis

}Prime precursor Need methanogens:

Methanomicrobium

Methanobacterium

Methanosarcina

37% rumen methanogenesis is due to methanogens living in

or on the rumen protozoa.

Methanogens use the process of formation of CH4 to generateenergy for growth.

(Hegarty, 1999)

(Baker, 1998 ; Jarvis et al., 2000)

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VFA+CO2 +H2 +NH3VFA+CO2+H2

CO2 + 4H2

Pyruvate

Formate

Pyruvate formate

lyase system

Primary fermentersSecondary fermenters

Sugars and proteinDietary starch and plant

cell wall

Methanogens,

anaerobic condition

More negative than -200 mV,

No electron acceptor

CH4 +2 H2O

In Rumen

Ruminobacter amylophi lus,

Streptococcus bovis, R. albus,

F. f lavifaciens, F.succinogenes

Megasphaera elsdenii

Treponema bryanti i

(Mc Allister et al., 1996)

G= -31 Kcal 13


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H2 produced by microbes in the rumen

Methanogensis Uses H2 to reduce CO2 to form CH4 If we eliminate methanogens

Reduces CH4But leaves high partial pressure of H

2

Inhibition of NADH reoxidation & ruminal Fermentn

Reduced digestion of fiber and microbial growth.

Importance of Methahonogenesis

Elimination of methanogens without alternative route ofelectron transfer affect the enteric fermentation.

(Wolin et al., 1997) 14
http://images.google.com.au/imgres?imgurl=http://www.msue.msu.edu/dairy/dairycd/rumen.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.msue.msu.edu/dairy/dairycd/cow6.html&h=210&w=300&sz=13&tbnid=F5xnhcm5rO0J:&tbnh=77&tbnw=110&start=5&prev=/images%3Fq%3Drumen%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26sa%3


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Microbesinvolved in

digestionMethanogens

CH4CO2

H2

Possible intervention sites for lowering ruminant methane.

Hydrogenformationinhibitors

1. Alternative H2 sinks2. Increase microbial

growth yields

1. Anti-methanogens2. Removal of protozoa

(Joblin, 1999) 15


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Influencing Factors

Internal factors:-Methanogens, protozoa, feed residence time,animal species & its production level.

External factors:

Diet composition.

Level of feed intake.

Forage processing.

Feeding frequency. Environmental factors.

Internal factors are under strong influence of externalfactors.

( Jarvis,2000 : Lee et al.,2003)

(Johnson et al., 1993)

(Balch,1960)

( Takashi, 2001 ; Santoso et al., 2003)

(McAllister et al.,1996)

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Methane Abatement Options in Ruminant

Dietary Manipulation

Concentrate proportion

Grazingmanegment

Additives

Molasses/ UMNB

Fats,Oil

Direct Inhibitors: bromochloromethane

amichloral, chloroform,chloral hydrate etc

Tannins, saponins

Manegement Rumen manipulation

Animal numbers

Forage quality

Efficiency/ Less RFI

Geneticengineering

Defaunation

AntibioticsBacteriocin

Vaccines

Acetogenes

Probiotics

Longevity ofanimals

Ionophores:monensin, lasalocid, salinomycin

Propionate enhancers/Organicacids: fumarate, malate

Essential oils

digestibility of forage

Methane oxidizers

Conc. type

Animal ProductivityLeguminous fodder

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1. Increasing Animal Productivity(quite tough)


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Increased productivity/animal dairy cows

25.821.6

18.3

0

5

1015

20

2530

4000 5000 6000

gCH4/k

gmilk

Annual milk production (l)

Increasing milk yield from 4000 to 5000 kg/yr increases annual CH4

emissions, but decrease emissions per kg of milk by 16% & 29% for 4000

to 6000 kg/yr for a 600 kg cow. 19

(Kirchgesser et al., 1995)


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Methane emission per kg of milk in dairy cow

CH4(g/kgmilk)

Milk (kg/d)

(Tamminga et al., 2007)

2030% reduction by increasing milk prod. from 10 to 25 kg/d.


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2. Reducing Livestock Population & Longevity

Desirable economically also, considering the feed and

fodder shortage in our country.

May not be practically feasible strategy until: Shift in the rural areas from subsistence to

commercial dairy farming

National policy on slaughtering ofeconomicallyunviable animals

religious and social taboos on animal slaughtering

in India.

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(Frank OMara, 2004)


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Effect of Age at Slaughter on LifetimeMethane Production

0

50

100

150

200

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28

25 month

25 month

30 month

16.5 % reduction in lifetime emissions and 12% reduction in emissions per

kg carcass by going from a 30 to 25 month slaughter 22


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3. Management Practices:

Pasture management:

forage species selection inclusion of legumes. (McCaughey et al., 1999)

continuous vs. rotational grazing strategies.

Management-intensive grazing:

- BMP- more efficient utilization of grazed forage crops via controlled

rotational grazing

- efficient conversion of forage into meat and milk.(DeRamus et al., 2003)

Animal selection for increased production

Use of growth promoting agents

Application of more refined ration balancing technologies.

23(Wittenberg, 2003)


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Monthly CH4 emission in beef cows on Best ManagementPractices v/s Conventional Forage Management Systems

(De Ramus et al., 2003)

Annual CH4 emissions in cows reflect a 22% reduction from

BMP when compared with continuous grazing. 24


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4. Effect of Residual Feed Intake

Low RFI group have lower MPR and reduced methane cost ofgrowth (24% of total CH4/d & 25% of CH4/kg ADG).

(Hegarty et al., 2007)

MOA:

Differences in metabolizability Genetic link between methanogens and their hosts.

(Hackstein et al., 1996)

Useful for the efficient planning of breeding strategies toselect animals that eat considerably less to achieve a similar

growth rate and body wt.

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R l h f f dl RF h h d


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(Nkrumah et al., 2006)

Trait RFI group

High Medium Low

Methane, L/kg of BW0.75 1.71c 1.68 c 1.28d

Intake energy, kcal/kg of BW0.75 384.77 382.24 387.98

Methane energy, kcal/kg BW0.75 16.08c 15.90cd 12.09d

Methane Energy loss % of GEI 4.28c 4.25c 3.19d

(25%)

26

28% & 24% less total CH4 prod. in low- RFI than high &

medium RFI animals.

Relationship of feedlot RFI with methane production


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Dietary manipulation(strategic feeding)


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Principlesof reduction in EntericCH4 Production

Reducing H2 & CO2 production (Ionophores).

Reducing protozoa or Defaunation- prevention of interspecies H2transfer ( Fats, Saponins, UMMB).

Enhancing propionate production (Acrylate, Organic acids)

Rechanneling H2 & CO2 to acetate (Enhancing acetogenesis).

Reducing or killing methanogens ( AQ, BES, Vaccines).

Use of alternate electron sink ( OA, Nitrate, Sulfate).

Enhancing hydrogen utilizers (Microbes) .

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5. Effect of Concentrate


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A. Effect of Concentrate proportion

Negatively correlated with methane emissions.

(Holter and Young, 1992; Kurihara et al., 1998; Yan et al., 2000)

propionate

acetate (and sometimes butyrate).

rumenpH

Methanogens are pH sensitive

animal performance

(Johnson and Johnson, 1995)

Forage replaced by concentrate rich diet

lowered CH4 production by 40% (from 272 to 170 g/day).

(Veen. 2000) Limitations:

Required minimum level of physical structure in the diet

Balance between energy intake and requirements

(Kadokawa & Martin, 2006)

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The effect of increasing the Proportion ofConcentrates in the diet

(Yan et al ., 2000)

methaneoutput

Proportion of Concentrate

Total DE,DMI and feeding level are kept constant

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Effect of Concentrate Level on Methane Emissions andtheir relationship to animal productivity.

(Lovett et al., 2005)

Item Low concentrate

(0.87 kg on DM basis)

High concentrate

(5.24 kg on DM basis)

CH4 (g/d) 346 399

CH4 (g/kg of DMI) 19.60 17.83 (9%)

CH4 (g/kg of milk) 21.0 17.7 (15%)

CH4 (g/kg of FCM) 19.26 16.02

CH4 (g/kg of milk protein) 555 509

CH4 (g/kg of milk fat) 525 428

32

Free - ranging dairy cows

Effective within dairy industry

M h d i b l i b ff l d


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Methane production by lactating buffaloes under

different feeding regimes

ParametersBerseem +

Wheat straw

Berseem+

wheat straw +

Concentrate

Wheat straw +

Concentrate

Total DM intake (kg) 14.68 9.90 9.28

Milk yield(kg/d/animal) 7.01 7.42 7.61

Methane production

Total production (g/d) 259.74a 162.67 b 177.03 b

g /kg DMI17.76 a 16.52 ac 19.13 ab

g /kg DDMI 22.31 b 22.08 b 30.20 a

g /kg milk yield 38.16 a 22.12 b 23.45 b

( Singhal et al., 2006 ) 33


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B. Effect of Concentrate Type

Variable to: Structural (cellulose, hemicellulose)

Non-structural (starch, sugars) carbohydrates.(Ovenell-Roy et al., 1998)

CH4 emision:

For every g of cellulose digested = 3 hemicellulose = 5 solubleresidue. (Moe and Tyrrell, 1979)

Soluble sugars > potential than starch.(Johnson & Johnson, 1995)

Cattle in finishing phase fed with

barley - 2.8 %

corn based diets - 4.0% of GEI CH4 losses accounted.(Beauchemin & McGinn, 2005)

Feeding more concentrates per cow, with a higher amount of (rumen

resistant) starch and less sugars has a very positive effect.

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6. Effect of Forage Quality

Digestibility of cell walls in forages lower CH4 emission.(Johnson and Johnson, 1995)

Forage maturity and physical form influence CH4

production:

Higher for:

mature forage vs. immature forage,

coarse chopped vs. finely ground or pelleted low quality

forage, hay vs. silage.

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Effect of Forage OM Digestibility on CH4 Emission

(Boadi et al., 2002)

Parameter Forage QualityHigh Medium Low

IVOMD, % 61.5 50.7 38.5

Ad-libitum

DMI, kg/d 9.7a 8.9a 6.3c

CH4, L/d 281.7a 289.8a 203.5b

CH4, %GEI 6.0 7.1 6.9

Restricted Intake (2% BW)DMI, kg/d 6.4 6.1 6.1

CH4, L/d 224.6 193.3 195.6

CH4, %GEI 7.6 7.1 7.1

36

Eff f F


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7. Effect of Forage Type Forage legumes:(lucerne or red clover)

less CH4 emisssion (g/kg DMI) than grass.(Ramirez and Barry, 2005)

Due to: - lower proportion of SC and faster passage rate.

- Presence of tannin, saponin.

(McCaughey et al., 1999)

Fresh grass < Grass silage(CH4 emission)

Maize silage and Whole Cereal Plant silage (WPS):

High starch, less CH4 emission. (Tamminga et al., 2007)

Replacing half of the 60% of grass silage with maize silage in mid-lactation dairy cattle reduced CH4 production from 6.0 to 5.8% of GEI.

(Van Laar and Van Straalen, 2004)37


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8. Use of Molasses/ UMB

Cost effective

Potential to reduce CH4 emissions by 25 to 27%.

(Bowman et al., 1992; Robertson et al., 1994)

In India CH4 reduction from 10 to 15%.

(Singh 2001; Srivastava et al., 2002)

Increase milk production at the same time.

Chemical upgrading of poor quality roughage.

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Bio-hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acid.

Enhances propionic acid production.

Protozoal inhibition. (Dohme et al., 1997)

Coconut oil addition at 3.5 and 7.0% reduces CH4 production by 28 and

73% respectively. (Machmullar and Kreuzer, 1997)

Addition of mustard oil (68 mg) in WS + Conc. based diet reduced 18% ofmethane production in vitro.

(Tyagi and Singhal, 1998)

Fish oil at 7.5% reduces 80% methane production.

(Fievez et al., 2003) Disadvantage:

Decreases DMI and Fiber digestion (at 5% inclusion level).

High oil prices and sustainability(Barun Bairagi and Mohini, 2005 )

9. Effect of Dietary Oil/ Lipids

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Eff f R fi d S Oil Wh l S b


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(Jordan et al., 2006)

Effect of Refined Soy Oilor Whole Soybean

Item Treatment

Control Whole soybean(6% of DMI)

Refined soy oil(6% of DMI)

DMI, kg 7.88 6.32 7.52

CH4, L/d 137.8 103.0 (25%) 83.9 (40%)

CH4, L/kg of DMI 17.9 15.2 11.2

CH4, % GEI 3.9 3.7 (5%) 2.3 (41%)

CH4, L/kg of ADG 99.4 89.3 56.0

CH4, L/kg of ADCG 141.4 125.1 85.2

Protozoa, 106/mL 1.87 1.19 0.88

Control: Barley/Soybean meal-based concentrate, (F:C = 10:90) 40

Hi h f di t ith C l Oil CH i i


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(Beauchemin and McGinn, 2006)

High-forage diet with Canola Oil - CH4 emissions

Item Treatment

Control Canola oil

DMI 6.38a 5.07b

Methane

g/heifer 159.3a 108.0b (32%)

g/kg of DMI 25.5 21.7

% of GE intake 7.93ab 6.30a (21%)

% of DE intake 12.76 11.97

Angus heifers fed Canola oil (6% in DM) + barley silage (75%) + 19% barley grain

Reduced CH4 emissions by 32%. 41


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A high-forage diet with Additives

(McGinn et al., 2004)

In beef cattle, the addition of sunflower oil (400 g/d or 5% of DMI)

decreased CH4 emissions by 22% without -ve effect on DMI.

Item Treatment

Control Enzyme(1mL/kg DM)

Monensin(33mg/kg DM)

Sunflower oil

(5% of DMI)

DMI, kg/d 7.40 7.55 7.71 6.91

Methane

g/steer

166.2b 164.4b 159.6b 129.0c(22%)

g/kg of DMI 22.64b 22.11b 20.70b,e 18.81c

% GE intake 6.47b 6.32b(3%) 5.91b,e(9%) 5.08c(21%)

% DE intake 10.51bc 11.27b 9.31cd,e 8.76d

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Effect of crushed seed oil on in vitro


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Effect of crushed seed oil on in vitromethanogenesis

Without

fat

Rumen

Protected

fat

Coconut

oil

Rape-

seed

Sun

flower

seed

Linseed

43

(Machmulleret al., 1998)

10 Pl t S d M t b lit


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10. Plant Secondary Metabolites

Mechanism:

1)Indirectly reduction in fiber digestion H2 prod.

2)Directly inhibit the growth ofmethanogen.

(Tavendale et al., 2005)

Cichory (Chichorium intybus) promising forage also reduce CH4

emission. (Ramirez & Barry, 2005)

Potential plants / tropical MPT bioactive secondary plantmetabolites (saponins and tannins) able to suppress methanogenesis.

(Carulla et al., 2005; Hu et al., 2006)

A. Condensed tannins:

Risk of bloat (Singh and Sikka, 2007)

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B. Saponin No direct effect but reduce protozoa (50-60%).

70% methanogenes associated with protozoa.(1983,Moss et al., 2001)

Tea saponin (0.2 and 0.4 mg/ml) decreased (12.7% and 14.0%) CH4

emission in in vitro.(Hu et al., 2005)

Source:

Extract of soapnut (Kamra, 1993)

Yucca extracts (Wallace et al., 1994)

Fruit ofSapindus saponaria (Diaz et al., 1999) Leaves ofEntrobium timoba (Gupta et al., 1993)

Methanol extracts ofSapindus rarak fruit (Thalib etal.,1996)

Tree leaves ofEnterolobium ciclocarpum (Alberto et al., 1992)

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The effect of Condensed Tannin, PEG, BES

(Tavendale et al., 2005)

Medicago sativa: - condensed tannin, PEG (to bind condensed tannins)

Lotus pedunculatus: + condensed tannin BES (to inhibit methanogens)

Measured after 12 h.

Parameter Medicago sativa Lotus pedunculatus

Control PEG BES PEG +

BES

Control PEG BES PEG

+ BES

pH 6.48 6.48 6.47 6.21 6.14 6.50 6.30 6.26

CH4(ml) 12.51 11.88 1.80 1.63 8.80 10.58 1.86 1.95

CH4 (%) 18.13 11.88 1.80 1.63 15.19 16.25 3.86 3.31

H2(ml) 0.14 0

.17 6

.55 6

.57 0

.07 0

.14 1

.94 3

.30

H2 (%)b 0.20 0.24 10.13 10.53 0.11 0.22 3.84 5.73

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11 Di t I hibit


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11. Direct Inhibitors

Halogenated methane analogues and related compounds.(Van Nevel and Demeyer, 1995)

Chloroform (Bauchop,1967)

Chloral hydrate- converted to chloroform in rumen.(Prins, 1965)

Amichloral-(a hemiacetal of chloral and starch):

safer but activity declined with prolonged feeding.(Johnson, 1974)

Trichloroacetamide and trichloroethyl adipate(Clapperton, 1974 & 77)

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Cont


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Cont.

Bromochloromethane (Sawyeret al., 1974)

Combination of bromochloromethane and -cyclodextrin(May et al., 1995)

2-bromoethanesulfonic acid (BES):Specific potent inhibitor of methanogen, not inhibit other bacteria.

(Sparling and Daniels, 1987)

9,10-anthraquinone: Naturally occurring glycoside.

Methyl Co A CH4

(Odom et al., 1995)

Methyl reductase

Demethylation

48

h b b H l d d


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Inhibition by Halogenated Compounds

Comp. Amount /day Inhibition (%) Animal

TCE1 120 mg

240 mg

21-53

53-59

Sheep

HCS

2

2.2 g 50-82 SheepTCA3 120 mg 94 Sheep

CH4 4 g 100 Sheep

BCM5 5.5 g 100 Steers

BES6 0.03 mM 76 In vitro

1) Trichloroethyl adipate 2) Hemiacetyl of chloral & starch 3) Trichloroacetamide

4) Chloral hydrate 5) Bromochloromethane 6) Bromoethane sulfonic acid

49

Effect of 2 BES on methane emission from


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Effect of 2-BESon methane emission fromLucerne (L) & Maize (M)

0

10

20

30

40

4 8 12 24

M

ethaneml/gDM

L

L+BES

M

M+BES

(Agarwal et al., 2005)

50

Effect of 9 10 AQ (10 ppm/12 h)


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(Garcia-Lopez et al., 1996)

In vitro microbial continuous culture fermentation

10:90 forage concentrate diet.

Effect of 9,10-AQ (10 ppm/12 h)

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12 U f I h


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12. Use of Ionophores

Monensin, Rumensin, Lasalosid, Salinomysin:

- shift the H2 producing gram +ve gram ve

- shift in fermentation from acetate to propionate

- Reduction in voluntary feed intake causing fermentation.(Goodrich et al., 1984)- Selectively acetate (and therefore H2) production.

(Slyter, 1979)

- Inhibiting the release of H2 from formate.(Van Nevel and Demeyer 1977)

Rumen microbes adapt to monensin on continuous feeding.(Johnson & Johnson, 1995; 2002)

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Effects of Monensin lactating dairy cows

Response* TMR

Control Monensin

DMI, kg/d 19.7 19.1

Methane production, g/d 458.7a 428.7b (7%)

Methane production, g/kg BW 0.738a 0.675b (9%)

Methane production, g/gNDFI

0.069 0.066

(Odongo et al., 2007)

(p


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Low-concentrate diet - ionophore (C); + monensin (M); or + either monensin orlasalocid (M/L) which were rotated every 2 wk in yearling steers.

(Guan et al., 2006)

* = P


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lonophore

group

Days after beginning

on ionophore

2-3 12-13 22-23

CH4 production, l/d

No ionophore 113a 107a 124a

Monensin 96a 123b 124b

Lasalocid 100a 115a 117a

Avg 103a 115b 120b

(Rumpleret al., 1986)

Cation treatment

Control Na K

CH4 production, l/d

107a 109a 124a

123b 100a 110ab

114ab 101a 124b

115ab 103a 119b

Effect of Ionophore and Dietary Cation (2.5%)

55

Steers fed a high grain basal diet

Na addition CH4 prod. in the monensin group by 19%

No significant effect of K addition on CH4 prod.

P< 0.05

13. Propionate enhancers or


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3. rop onate enhancers orAlternative hydrogen acceptors:

Reduces CH4 production

- In vitro (Asanuma et al., 1999; Newbold et al., 2002)-In vivo (Newbold et al., 2002)

- The response was dose dependent.

(Martin and Streeter, 1995)

Dicarboxylic organic acids:

Malate, Fumarate, Citrate, Succinate, Acrylate:

i) Alter rumen fermentation as ionophores. (Martin, 1998)

ii) Precursor of propionate (Ouda et al, 1999)

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Effects of Myristic Acid - Lactating Dairy Cows


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(Odongo et al., 2007)

Effects of Myristic Acid - Lactating Dairy Cows

Response Control (TMR) Myristic acid(5% on DM basis)

DMI, kg/d 15.2 14.2

Milk yield, kg/d 14.9 13.4

Milk fat, % 4.2 4.1

Milk protein, % 3.5 3.6

Methane production, L/d 608.2 390.6 (36%)

Methane production, MJ/d 23.0 14.8 (36%)

57

Eff t f M l t in it


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Parameter Malate (mM)

0

(0 mg/g)

4

(53.6 mg/g)

7

(93.8 mg/g)

10

(134 mg/g)

pH 6.12 6.13 6.16 6.21

CH4 (mM) 1.20 1.11 1.10 1.10

TVFA (mM) 3.72 3.94 4.12 4.06

A:P 1.50 1.43 1.42 1.38

(Carro and Rannilla, 2003)

RL from merino sheep fed lucerne hay + concentrate (300g)

Malate source: Rumelato ( Disodium malate+ calcium malate 16:84)58

Effect of Malate in vitro

Effect of Fumarate in vitro


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Effect of Fumarate in vitro

Fumarate (mM) CH4

( mM/L

culture)

VFA produced (m M) Final

pH

Added Consumed A P B

0 0 15.2 29.3 12.7 6.7 6.3

20 16.0 14.4 33.0 19.8 6.1 6.4

30 27.0 13.5 32.6 20.0 6.6 6.6

(Asanuma et al., 1999)

Substrate: hay powder and concentrate

RL from goat 20h post feeding

Here 20 & 30 mM fumarate 34.8 & 52.2 mg/g substrate59

14 Essential Oils


59/78

Plant extracts

Terpenoids and Phenolic compounds,(e.g monoterpenes,limonene, thymol, carvacrol) have antimicrobial activity.

EuO and black seed extract could be a promising methane

mitigating agent in vitro.

(Sallam et al., 2007)

The specific mode of action poorly characterized or understood.

14. Essential Oils

60

Effect of plant extracts in vitro
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.thevibecenter.com/images/LivingOils2.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.thevibecenter.com/YoungLivingOils.aspx&h=400&w=322&sz=22&hl=en&start=1&um=1&tbnid=oPBoLbw2rSTazM:&tbnh=124&tbnw=100&prev=/images%3Fq%3DEssential%2Boils%26svnum%3D10%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rls%3DRNWE,RNWE:2006-46,RNWE:en%26sa%3DN


60/78

Sallam et al ., 2007

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

Control

T0.5

T1.0

T1.5

F0.5

F1.0

F1.5

G0.5

G1.0

G1.5

BS0.5

BS1.0

BS1.5

Plant extracts

CH4

Thyme

Fennel

Ginger

B.seed

Effect of plant extracts in vitro

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

Contr

ol

T0.5

T1.0

T1.5

F0.5

F1.0

F1.5

G0.5

G1.0

G1.5

BS0

.5

BS1

.0

BS1

.5

Plant Extracts

G

P

Thyme

Fennel Ginger

B.seed

61

Effect of different levels of Eucalyptus Oil - in vitro
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0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Control 25 l 50 l 100 l 150 l

EuO levels

CH4

Effect of different levels of Eucalyptus Oil in vitro

Sallam et al ., 2007

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Control 25l 50l 100l 150l

EuO levels

GP(ml/gDM)

62

R sult f Di t r M nipul ti n
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.happynaturaltherapies.com/shop/images/uploads/Eucalyptus-Leaves-Print-C12185475v1.jpeg&imgrefurl=http://www.happynaturaltherapies.com/shop/index.php%3Fact%3DviewProd%26productId%3D1&h=350&w=350&sz=29&hl=en&start=72&um=1&tbnid=Btin_RdaXLjpxM:&tbnh=120&tbnw=120&prev=/images%3Fq%3DEucalyptus%26start%3D60%26ndsp%3D20%26svnum%3D10%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rls%3DRNWE,RNWE:2006-46,RNWE:en%26sa%3DNhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.happynaturaltherapies.com/shop/images/uploads/Eucalyptus-Leaves-Print-C12185475v1.jpeg&imgrefurl=http://www.happynaturaltherapies.com/shop/index.php%3Fact%3DviewProd%26productId%3D1&h=350&w=350&sz=29&hl=en&start=72&um=1&tbnid=Btin_RdaXLjpxM:&tbnh=120&tbnw=120&prev=/images%3Fq%3DEucalyptus%26start%3D60%26ndsp%3D20%26svnum%3D10%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rls%3DRNWE,RNWE:2006-46,RNWE:en%26sa%3DNhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.happynaturaltherapies.com/shop/images/uploads/Eucalyptus-Leaves-Print-C12185475v1.jpeg&imgrefurl=http://www.happynaturaltherapies.com/shop/index.php%3Fact%3DviewProd%26productId%3D1&h=350&w=350&sz=29&hl=en&start=72&um=1&tbnid=Btin_RdaXLjpxM:&tbnh=120&tbnw=120&prev=/images%3Fq%3DEucalyptus%26start%3D60%26ndsp%3D20%26svnum%3D10%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rls%3DRNWE,RNWE:2006-46,RNWE:en%26sa%3DNhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://homepages.tesco.net/~chris.jrthomas/ifl_Eucalyptus.jpg&imgrefurl=http://homepages.tesco.net/~chris.jrthomas/ifl_5eucalyptus.html&h=653&w=600&sz=52&hl=en&start=27&um=1&tbnid=E9LiQx_iR82qvM:&tbnh=138&tbnw=127&prev=/images%3Fq%3DEucalyptus%26start%3D20%26ndsp%3D20%26svnum%3D10%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rls%3DRNWE,RNWE:2006-46,RNWE:en%26sa%3DNhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.happynaturaltherapies.com/shop/images/uploads/Eucalyptus-Leaves-Print-C12185475v1.jpeg&imgrefurl=http://www.happynaturaltherapies.com/shop/index.php%3Fact%3DviewProd%26productId%3D1&h=350&w=350&sz=29&hl=en&start=72&um=1&tbnid=Btin_RdaXLjpxM:&tbnh=120&tbnw=120&prev=/images%3Fq%3DEucalyptus%26start%3D60%26ndsp%3D20%26svnum%3D10%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rls%3DRNWE,RNWE:2006-46,RNWE:en%26sa%3DN


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Result of Dietary Manipulation

(Singh and Sikka, 2007)

Method Extent of Reduction(%)

Increase in Concentrate mixture 20 32

Supplementation of Monensin

a) Maintenance diet 14 23

b) Medium production diet 23 32

c) High producing diet 14 25

Supplementation of UMMB 10 11

Supplementation of green fodder 11 27

63


63/78

Rumen Manipulation

15 Stimulation of Acetogens:


64/78

15.Stimulation of Acetogens:

Produce acetic acid by the reduction of CO2 with H2.

As daily feed additive CH4 prod. in vitro.(Lopez et al., 1999)

Do not compete in rumen with methanogens.(10 to 100 times higher affinity for H2)

(Joblin, 1999)

Genetically modified acetogens can compete more effectivelyin the rumen.

65

16 Methane Oxidisers:


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16. Methane Oxidisers:

Oxidation of methane to CO2

Methane oxidising bacteria isolated from the rumen.(Hanson, 1992)

Methane oxidising bacterium from the gut of young pigs whenadded to rumen fluid in vitro CH4accumulation.

(Valdes et al., 1997)

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17 Defaunation:


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17. Defaunation: Removal of protozoa from rumen.

Reduces CH4 production by 20 - 50 % & Improves the feed utilizationefficiency. (Pal et al., 1994)

Defaunating agents:

Plant secondary metabolites (Saponin)- without inhibiting bacterial

activity. (Kamra, 2005; Thalib et al, 1995)

Fat(USFA)

(Mudgal et al., 2003)

USFA inhibit methanogenesis even in the absence of rumen protozoa.

Toxicity of long chain FA to methanogen.

(Dohme et al, 1999)

Pelleted concentrates fed. (Kreuzer and Kirchgessner, 1987)

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18 Probiotics


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18. Probiotics

Aspergillus oryzae(AO) - 50% CH4 prod. directlyreducing protozoal population (45%).(Frumholtz et al., 1989)

Saccharomyces cerevisiae(SC) -

CH4 by 10% (in vitro).(Mutsvangwa et al., 1992)

Mode of action of probiotics:

Reduce H2 availability to methanogens.

Increased butyrate or propionate (Martin et al., 1989)

Reduced protozoal numbers (Newbold et al., 1998)

Promotion of acetogenesis as a sink for hydrogen.

(Chaucheyras et al., 1995)

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19 Immunisation


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19. Immunisation

Immunise ruminants against their own methanogens.

(Baker,1995)

Developed vaccine containing Ag derived from rumenmethanogenic microorganisms.

(Baker, 1998)

Vaccine: cost-effective and long-acting to reduce CH4 emissionand enhance animal production under grazing.

Natural development of Ab by lambs against mixed methanogens.(Holloway and Baker, 2000)

In small ruminants (sheep) reduces CH4 emission by 7%.(Baker,1995)

Development of a vaccination strategy is in progress.

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20 Bacteriocins


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20. Bacteriocins

Antibiotics- protein or peptide in nature, produced by bacteria.

Many lactic-acid bacteria produce bacteriocins- effect onmethanogens rather than a direct pH effect.

(Russell, 1998)

Some strains ofButyrivibrioproduced inhibitory activity.(Kalmakoffet al., 1996)

Lactococcus lactis (Nisin) - stimulate propionate production& 36% CH

4

(in vitro).

(Callaway et al., 1997)

Further research required to establish their adaptability & longterm effectiveness as a feed additive for methane supressor.

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Evaluation of Mitigation Strategies in Indian


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Context

Applicable to all types of dairy and non-dairy animals who are on poordiet.

Cost of the technology for indigenous cows and buffaloes.

I. Strategic Supplementation Using M olasses-Urea Products (MUP)

Assumptions:(a)Adult animal 400 g/day & heifers 300 g/day.

(b) CH4 reduction 11% /animal.

(c) Milk yield increased by 10%.

Existing avg lactation yield:

local cows 1.8 litres/day (270 d lactation length)buffaloes 4.0 litres/day (280 d).

(d) The cost of MUP 0.089/ kg.

(e) Selling price of cow milk - 0.14/litre

buffalo milk - 0.16/litre.

(Sirohi et al., 2007)

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Economics of MUP supplementation


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Ec n m c f MU upp m ntat n

Type of

animals

Annual

cost of

supplem

entation(C)

Annual

CH4emission

Annual

CH4

reduction

(RE)@11%

Gross cost

of

reduction

Gross

cost of

reduction

Increased

return from

milk

production(RM)@10%

Net cost of

reduction

Net cost

of

reduction

Units Kg/head Kg/head /kgCH4 /t CO2 /kgCH4 /t CO2

Dairy Animals

Adult

animal:

Local Cow 13.0 36 3.96 3.3 156.3 6.9 1.5 72.7

Buffalo 13.0 77 8.47 1.5 73.1 18.0 -0.6 -28.1

Heifer:

Local cow 9.7 22 2.42 4 191.8 - -

Buffalo 9.7 37 4.07 2.4 114.0 - -

Non-Dairy Animals

Adult male:

Cattle 13.0 34 3.74 3.5 165.4 - -

Buffalo 13.0 55 6.05 2.1 102.3 - - 72

II. Economics of Increased Concentrate Feeding


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Type of animals Annual

cost of

addi.

Conc.

(C)

Annual

CH4emission

Annual

CH4

reduction

(RE)

@11%

Gross cost

of

reduction

Gross

cost of

reduction

Increased

return from

milk

production

(RM)@10%

Net cost

of

reduction

Net cost

of

reduction

Units Kg/h Kg/head /kg CH4 /t CO2 /kgCH4 /t CO2

Dairy Animals

Local cow 40.2 36 5.4 7.4 354.1 6.9 6.1 292.8Buffalo 80.3 77 11.6 6.9 329.6 72.0 0.7 34.1

Crossbred cows 100.4 39 5.9 17.0 810.1 141.6 -7.0 -322.8

Non-Dairy

Animals

80.3 35 5.3 15.2 721.5 - - -

m f g

Assumptions:

Less than 500 g conc. /animal/ day. or7.5% conc. (not sufficient)

Recommended nutritional requirement for the Indian cattle:

Concentrate: Roughage = 40 : 60 (DM basis).

C :R = 50:50 (for high milk producing dairy animals)

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III.Feed Additive Ionophore


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p(Monensin Sodium Salt)

Assumptions:

(a)100 mg of monensin/ animal/d.

(b) CH4 reduction potential:

maintenance ration : 20%, (Indigenous animals)medium production ration: 30%, (buffaloes)

high production ration : 22%, (crossbred)

(c) Increase in milk yield is 5%.

(d) Rumensin ( 200g monensin -Na salt/ kg) costs 7.4/ kg.

Pure monensin sodium salt costs about 35,714/kg.

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Cost through Ionophore Feed Additive


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Type of animals Annual

cost of

ionopho

re (C)

Annual

CH4emission

Annual

CH4

reduction

(RE)@11%

Gross

cost of

reduction

Gross

cost of

reduction

Increased

return from

milk

production

(RM)@10%

Net cost

of

reduction

Net cost

of

reduction

Units Kg/head Kg/head /kgCH4

/t CO2 /kg

CH4

/t CO2

Monensin premix (Rumensin)

Local Cow 0.27 36 7.2 0.04 1.8 3.5 0.4 21.2

Buffalo 0.27 77 23.1 0.01 0.6 9.0 0.4 -18.0

Crossbred

cows

0.27 39 8.6 0.03 1.5 14.2 1.6 76.9

Other animals 0.27 35 7.0 0.04 1.8

Pure Monensin sodium salt

Local Cow 651.78 36 7.2 90.5 4310.7 3.5 90.0 4287.8

Buffalo 651.78 77 23.1 28.2 1343.6 9.0 27.8 1325.0

Crossbred

cows

651.78 39 8.6 75.8 3609.0 14.2 74.1 3530.6

Other animals 651.78 35 7.0 93.1 4433.9 75

Conclusions


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Conclusions

1. Many recommended on-farm practices will reduce

enteric CH4 and total GHG emissions by reducing feed costsassociated with animal maintenance:

Increasing productivity per cow to reduce methane emissions

per kg of milk.

When total output levels (e.g. total milk or beef produced)

remain constant and livestock numbers are reduced.

A lower culling age

Best management practices and pasture management.

Selection of Low RFI animals that achieve similar growth rate

and body weight.

2. By dietary manipulation through:


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Increasing proportion of concentrate rich in starch,

High quality leguminous forage,

Grinding and pelleting of forages, Inclusion fats and oils,

TMR and UMMB,

Organic acids (fumarate, malate)

Tannin and saponin rich plants, Ionophores, like monensin, lasalocid, silnomycin

Direct inhibition of methanogensis by using halogenated

methane analogues (BES, AQ) is not found suitable.

3. Through Indirect ways of altering rumen ecology :- Immunisation,

- Elimination of ciliate protozoa,

- Enhanced bacteriocin production,

- Enhanced acetogenesis

- Probiotics or Yeast cultures

4 Biotechnology can play an important role by manipulating the


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5. Indian senario:

Under Indian field conditions 25% CH4 reduction can be achieved.

Due to poor genetic potential and low lactation yield, the net cost

of CH4 reduction is very high in local cows. The gross cost will range from Rs. 39.2 -100.8/kg CH4.

CH4 mitigation in local cows and buffaloes through increasingconcentrates in the diet is a more expensive option.

Use of monensin premix is encouraging and the most costeffective technology.

Strategic supplementation (energy, nitrogen and minerals) usingUMP is the second less expensive and feasible abatement option.

4. Biotechnology can play an important role by manipulating therumen bugs to enhance the digestibility of poor quality feed stuffand lower or halt the production of methane.


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Methane Mitigation Strategies From Livestock by Sk Asraf Hossain

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