MEXICO - 1

Bellringer

Identify:• 2 peninsulas• 1 river• 3 major bodies

of water• 2 mountain

ranges

Today we will …

Objectives

• Explore political history of Mexico

• Explore political institutions of Mexico

Agenda

1. Introduction

2. Folders A & B

3. Closure – open note quiz

HW: Watch “Mexico: Motive to Migrate” & questions & FRQ outline

Why study Mexico?• Mexico is the second largest country in Latin America• Largest Spanish speaking country in the world• Mexico is the US’ most important trading partner, after

Canada• History of Revolution (like Iran, China and Russia)• State-led development & one party rule (like China &

Russia)• Slow, gradual process of democratization• Major oil producer & exporter

Geographic Influence• Mountains & Deserts – make communication and

transportation difficult; promotes regionalism; limits areas where productive agriculture is possible

• Varied Climates – cold, dry mountains to tropical rain forests because of Mexico’s varying terrain and long expanse from North to South

• Natural Resources – petroleum, silver, copper, gold, lead, zinc, natural gas, timber

• U.S.-Mexican Border – 2,000 mile long border means relationships are inevitable (migration, dependency, conflict)

FOLDER APolitical History

Colonial Era (colonialism)• Cultural Heterogeneity – Spanish took control over

numerous indigenous populations dominated by the Aztecs once they conquered Tenochtitlan

• Mestizo – ethnic mixture of two peoples (European & indigenous)

• Catholicism – most Spaniards settled in or near Mexico city, but Spanish priests settled throughout Mexico’s hinterland converting the population to Christianity. Priests developed strong relationships with the people of Mexico

• Economic Dependency – all trade done with Spain

• Spanish Hierarchy – elaborate political & social status hierarchy structure

Sovereignty, Authority, & Power

Legitimacy• Viceroy – Governor appointed by Spanish king during colonial period

• Centralized, authoritarian rule with virtually no participation by the indigenous population

“MEXICO”• Instability & Legitimacy Issues – Spanish left and took

hierarchy structure with them, reorganizing government was difficult task, Mexico had 36 presidents from 1833-1855

• Rise of Military – Instability led to military control, ex. Santa Anna

• U.S. Domination – US challenges Mexican land claims, Mexican-American War (1846-1848), Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo (US gets TX, NM, CA, AZ, UT, part of CO)

• Liberals vs. Conservatives – Constitution of 1857 based on democratic principles. Liberal president Benito Juarez “liberalizes” Mexico. Conservatism reflected in joint French, Spanish, and English takeover of Mexico under Maximilian (1864-1867). After Maximilian’s execution Juarez brought back to power but liberal/conservative struggle would continue

“The Porfiriato”Porfirio Diaz

• Military general under Benito Juarez• Staged military coup in 1876• Instituted himself as president of Mexico, promised he would serve no more than one term

• Ruled Mexico for 34 years with an iron hand• Cientificos – young, educated advisors of Diaz that believed in bringing scientific and economic progress to Mexico

Influences of Porfiriato• Stability – Diaz dictatorship ended years of conflict and

chaos• Authoritarianism – no sharing of political power beyond

small, closed elite group• Foreign Investment/Economic Growth – cientificos

encouraged entrepreneurship and foreign investment, primarily from the U.S., resulted in growth of business and industry

• Growing Gap between Rich & Poor – as a result of development and industrialization

20th Century • Porfirio Diaz ousted in coup by other elites dissatisfied

with Diaz’ rule and sensitive to the greed of the Porfirians• Diaz abdicates to General Francisco Madero, a landowner

from Coahuila• Revolution of 1910 begins and warlordism and chaos

would persist in Mexico until 1934

Revolution of 1910-1917• Mexicans have admired revolutionary leaders throughout

their history. • Revolutions in general are seen quite positively, and

charisma is highly valued as a leadership characteristic.• Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) – helped legitimize the

revolution, served as an important source of government legitimacy until the late 20th century

• Constitution of 1917 – created a democratic, three-branch government, but allowed the PRI to stabilize and consolidate power within the hands of its leaders.

Influences of the Mexican Revolution• Patron-Client System

• Constitution of 1917

• Conflict with Catholic Church

• Establishment of the PRI

Patron-Client System• In an effort to unseat Diaz, caudillos rose to challenge

each other for power. • Popular leaders Pancho Villa & Emiliano Zapata emerged

leading peasant armies. • Around each leader a patron-client system emerged that

involved large numbers of citizens• Many caudillos were ultimately assassinated

(including Villa and Zapata)• Large numbers of followers were also killed in the

competing world of the caudillos

Constitution of 1917• Ended the Revolution

• Violence & Political Assassinations continued

• Mexican constitution very long and easily amended

• Set up structure for Democratic Government (Political Institutions resemble those of the U.S.)

• Three branches of Government• Competitive Elections• Most public officials directly elected by the people

Conflict with Church after Revolution• Cristeros Rebellion (1920)

• Hundreds of Thousands Killed (Priests murdered)

• Liberals legally separate Church & State, viewed church as a bastion of conservatism

• Forbid priests from voting• Placed federal restrictions on church-affiliated schools

(parochial schools)• Suspended religious services

• Priests continue to lead rebellions after Liberal changes, contributes to chaos of 20th century

Establishment of PRI• After years of conflict, President Calles brings

caudillos together for agreement in 1929• Attempts to bring all caudillos under one big,

umbrella political party• Bring stability through the idea of “passing around”

power from one leader to the next as presidency changed hands

• Sexenios – president could only serve one 6-year term• Other leaders would be given major positions in

government to establish their influence• PRI- “institutionalized” the revolution by stabilizing

conflict between leaders

Cardenas Upheaval (1934-1940)

• Succeeded Calles’ as president• Stabilized and Radicalized Mexican politics• Gave voice to peasant demands from the Revolution of

1910• Charismatic leader• “the Roosevelt of Mexico” as labeled by American

scholars

Cardenas’ Changes• Redistribution of Land – land taken away from big landlords,

foreigners and redistributed as ejidos – collective land grants – to be worked by peasants

• Nationalization of Industry – foreign business owners kicked out of country, most industry put under control of the state. Ex: PEMEX – giant, government controlled oil company

• Investment in Public Works – government builds roads, provides electricity, creates public services to modernize Mexico

• Encouragement of Peasant & Union Organizations – Cardenas welcomes their input in government, they form their own camarillas with leaders that represent their interests on presidents’ cabinet

• Concentration of Power in Presidency – Cardenas stabilizes presidency, when his sexenio was up he peacefully let go of power

FOLDER BPolitical Institutions

Government Institutions• Mexico is a federal republic, though state and local

governments have little independent power and few resources

• Executive branch has held majority of the power historically

• Legislative & Judicial branch followed the executive’s lead, rubber-stamping most presidential decisions

• Mexico has traditionally been an authoritarian and corporatist regime

Executive Branch• Center of policy-making

• Sexenio: non-renewable six-year term (Under PRI similar to dictator)• Selected successor• Appointed officials to all positions of power in the government• Named PRI candidates for other public offices

• Until mid-1970s Mexican presidents were above criticism and people revered them as symbols of national progress and well-being

• Managed huge patronage system• Control over “rubber-stamp” Congress

• President Ernesto Zedillo (1994-2000) –relinquished number of traditional powers of the president, including naming the PRI candidate for the 2000 election

• President Fox inherited the presidency in a time of transition• President still viewed as all powerful, but blamed for shortcomings• Harder for Fox to accomplish political goals without strong party support in the post-PRI

Congress

Bureaucracy• About 1.5 million people employed by federal government (Most in

Mexico City)

• High & Middle level officials have a good deal of power

• Under PRI corruption and bribes quite common amongst officials in the bureaucracy

• Parastatal Sector – semiautonomous government agencies that often produce goods & services• PEMEX• After 1980’s oil bust reforms cut the number of para-statals, and many are

now privately owned• President Fox tried unsuccessfully to privatize PEMEX

Legislature• Bicameral

• Chamber of Deputies (500-member)• 300 deputies from single-member districts (plurality)• 200 deputies chosen by proportional representation

• Senate (128-member)• 3 senators from each of the 31 states & the federal district(96)• Remaining 32 selected by proportional representation

• All legislators directly elected• Until 1980s legislature remained under strict control of the president• PRI’s lost hold on legislature earlier than it did on the presidency• Lost majority in the Chamber of Deputies in 1997• Women in both houses has risen significantly since 1996 election law

required parties to sponsor female candidates• Parties must run at least 30% female candidates for proportional representation

and single-member district elections• 113 of 500 deputies in Chamber are female• 20 of 128 Senators are also female

Judiciary• Strong judicial branch necessary for a country to operate on the “Rule

of Law”• Mexico does not have an independent judiciary or judicial review

system• Most laws are federal, limiting the authority of state courts

• Supreme Court• On paper has judicial review, but it never overrules important government policy

or actions• Historically has been controlled by the executive branch• Judges appointed for life, but in practice resigned at the beginning of each

sexenio• President Ernesto Zedillo (1994-2000) attempted to strengthen courts by

emphasizing the rule of law, he refused to interfere with court judgments and President Fox continued this policy

• Fox tried to work for an independent judiciary but seems to have come up short on this endeavor

Military• Dominated Mexican political life into the early 20th century

• PRI dramatically cutback the political power of generals (even former military generals who became presidents acted to separate the military from politics)

• Calles and Cardenas de-politicized the military• Continually moved generals to different regions of the country not allowing them to develop

a regional base of power• Presidents traded favors with military officers to allow them economic power, if not political

power

• Government control of the military one of PRI’s most important accomplishments

• Strong ties between military officers and drug barons• Military heavily involved in drug-enforcement• Patron-client system of favors and loyalty has led some military officers to accept money

from drug lords in return for allegiance and security• General Jesus Gutierrez Rebollo (Head of anti-drug task force) arrested in 1997 on

accusations of protecting a drug lord

Political Parties• Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI)

• National Action Party (PAN)

• Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD)

PRI• In power from 1920-2000• Founded by coalition of elites led by President Calles• Originally elites agreed to trade favors and pass around power from

one cacique to another (Sexenio)

• Corporatist structure – interest groups woven into the structure of the party. Party has ultimate authority, but other voices heard by bringing interest groups under the umbrella of the party. Structure is not democratic, but allows for more input into government than other types of authoritarianism. Particularly since Cardenas peasant and labor organizations have been represented in the party and hold positions of responsibility

• Patron-client system – party traditionally gets its support from rural areas where patron-client system is still in control. Patron-client system allowed the PRI to remain in control of Mexicans as long as majority of population was rural-based, this began to change in the late 1980s

PAN (Right of Center)• Founded in 1939• Represents business interests opposed to centralization

and anti-clericalism• PAN support strongest in the north• PAN generally considered PRI’s opposition to the Right• PAN candidate Vicente Fox won 2000 presidential

election, Felipe Calderon won 2006 election• Platform

• Regional autonomy• Less government intervention in the economy• Clean & fair elections• Good rapport with Catholic Church• Support for private and religious education

PRD (Left of Center)• PRD considered PRI’s opposition to the Left

• Presidential candidate in 1988 & 1994 was Cuahtemoc Cardenas (son of Lazaro Cardenas)

• He was ejected from the PRI for demanding reform that emphasized social justice and populism

• In 1988 Cardenas won 31.1% of the official vote, and PRD captured 139 seats in the Chamber of Deputies (500 total)

• Many believe had it been an honest election Cardenas would have won

• PRD has been plagued by poor organization, lack of charismatic leadership, and most importantly the lack of an economic alternative to the market-oriented policies of the PRI & PAN

• Andres Lopez Obrador, former mayor of Mexico City, was the PRD candidate for president in the 2006 election. He lost by a slim margin to Calderon (PAN)

Voter Profiles• PRI – small town or rural, less educated, older, poorer

• PAN – from the north, middle-class professional or business, urban, better educated (at least high school, some college) religious (or those less strict regarding separation of church & state)

• PRD – younger, politically active, from the central states, some education, small town or urban

MEXICO - 2

Bellringer

What is a synonym or description of:

1. “porfiriato”

2. “caudillos”

3. PRI

4. PRD

5. PAN

When you are done, please turn in your Mexico vocab & “Motive to Migrate”/Migration FRQ HW.

Today we will …

Objectives

• Explore citizens and political economy of Mexico

• Explore key issues and public policy for Mexico

Agenda

1. Review Folders C & D

2. Closure – FRQ practice

HW: Nigeria organizer & vocab and Democratization reading / venn diagram

FOLDER CCitizens, Society and the State & Political Economy

Citizens, Society, & the State• Traditionally Mexican citizens have interacted with government

through patron-client system

• Because camarillas so interwoven in Mexican politics, most people have had some contact with government during their lives

• Clientelism has generally meant that the government had the upper hand through its ability to determine which interests to respond to and which to ignore

• Role of citizens in Mexico is changing as political parties have become competitive and democracy becomes more firmly entrenched

Cleavages• Urban vs. Rural – Mexico’s political structure put into place in

early 20th century when most of population was rural. PRI and patron-client system were intended to control large numbers of illiterate peasants in exchange for small favors from politicos. Today Mexico is 75% urban, with a literacy rate of about 90%. Urban voters less likely to support PRI, more receptive to political and economic reform

• Mestizo vs. Amerindian – only about 10% of Mexicans speak indigenous languages, but about 30% consider themselves Amerindians. Amerindians marginalized, predominantly rural, and poor. This cleavage tends to define social class, with most of Mexico’s wealth in the hands of the mestizo population.

• North vs. South – north almost like a different country then the area south of Mexico City. Majority of educated citizens and Mexico’s wealth lies in the north. Southern Mexico primarily populated by Amerindians, characterized and led by Zapatista Movement in Chiapas.

Political Participation• Historically characterized by revolution & protest

• Mexican citizens have generally been subjects under authoritarian rule of the political elite

• Citizens sometimes benefited from patronage, but legitimate channels to policy-makers were few

• Today citizens participate through increasingly legitimate and regular elections

Patron-Client System –Mexico • Roots in warlordism and loyalty to caudillos during 19th century• Each caudillo had supporters – in return for their loyalty – he granted favors

to them• Establishment of Camarillas that still exist today• Mexican citizens participate in government through formal & informal

mechanisms• Emphasizes compromise among contending elites• “Behind the Scenes” conflict resolution• Distribution of political rewards to those willing to play by formal/informal

“rules of the game”• Keeps control in the hands of the elite• Elite has upper hand in deciding who gets favors and who doesn’t• Patron-client system still very important in determining the nature of political

participation• Modernization and legitimate democracy tend to break up the patron-client

system as networks get blurred in large population centers, and more formal forms of participation are instituted

Camarillas• Hierarchical network

• Exchange of offices and other benefits

• Within the PRI, up until the election of 2000, most positions within the president’s cabinet were filled by supporters or heads of camarillas that the president wanted to appease

• Peasants in camarillas received jobs, financial assistance, family advice, and even food & shelter in return for votes for the PRI in the past

Media• Part of the patron-client system under the PRI, with

rewards and favors doled out in return for political support

• Have become more independent as PRI-political structure has been reorganized

• Many Mexicans have access to international newspapers, magazines, CNN and the BBC

• “Toallagate” Scandal – overpriced towels at President Fox’s mansion

• “Comes y te vas” – Fidel Castro-U.N. meeting incident

Cardenas and ISI• Cardenas’ strategy of state-led development known as

Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)• ISI

• Employs high tariffs to protect locally produced goods from foreign competition

• Government ownership of key industries• Government subsidies to domestic industries• Government takes lead in promoting

industrialization (very little capital in private hands during this era)

Economy• “Mexican Miracle”

• 1940-1960 economy grew more than 6% per year• Industrial production up nearly 9% per year during 1960s• Agricultural share of production down: 25% to 11%• Manufacturing share of production up: 25% to 34%

• Problems• Growing gap between rich & poor• Rapid/Unplanned Urbanization

Debt Crisis• Mexican government borrowed heavily in order to industrialize

• Most of the economic growth based on oil economy

• Oil plummet in 1982, caused Mexican economy to plummet as well

• 1987, Mexico over $107 billion in debt, debt represented 70% of GNP

Economic Reform• Begun by President Miguel de la Madrid in 1982, continued by

presidents Salinas & Zedillo (the tecnicos)• Sharp cuts in Government Spending – according to agreements

with the IMF, World Bank, and the U.S. Mexico greatly reduced government spending by eliminating public enterprises, cutting government subsidies, and cutting hundreds of thousands of public jobs

• Debt Reduction – with assistance from U.S. the Mexican government reached agreement to reduce interest rates on loans and allow for more lenient repayment plans. Mexico still pays on average about $10 billion a year on loan interests

• Privatization – many government industries were privatized, in 1990 President Salinas returned the banks to the private sector. Special laws like duty-free importing of components and cheap labor led foreign companies to invest in Mexican manufacturing plants

• Between 2001 and 2003 Mexico economy suffered from the post-September 11 U.S. recession. In 2004, the economy grew by 4.1% but an estimated 40% of the Mexican population still lived below the poverty line

Foreign Policy

• GATT/WTO – in 1986 Mexico joined the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the precursor to the World Trade Organization

• NAFTA – economics still dominates even in terms of foreign policy

• Immigration & Drug Trafficking – America still the key focus for Mexican foreign policy

FOLDER DPreface, Sountry Overview & Issues and Public Policy

Political Institutions: Mexico in Transition• Mexico characterized by economic and political transition

• Authoritarianism under the PRI has been replaced by competitive elections, although political hostilities still exist

• Economic dependency and underdevelopment slowly being transformed as public policies have been supportive of a free market economy, yet a backlash against neoliberalism has continued

• “Developed”, “Developing”, or “Less Developed”, how do we classify Mexico?

• Regime type: from corporatist structure to transitional democracy

How Development is Measured• GNP per capita – estimate of a country’s total economic output divided by its total

population, converting to a single currency, usually the U.S. dollar. Does not take into account what goods & services can actually be purchased with local currency.

• PPP – Purchasing Power Parity – takes into account cost of living in a particular country figuring out what it costs to buy the same goods in different countries (Mexico is $9800 per year)

• HDI – Human Development Index – longevity, knowledge, income (Mexico’s literacy rate is 94% for men & 90.5% for women, life expectancy is 72.4 years for men and 78 years for women

• Economic Dependency – a less developed country is often dependent on developed countries for economic support and trade. Balanced trade is generally the key, a country is said to be “developing” when it begins relying less on the stronger country to keep it afloat financially

• Mexico is in the middle in terms of its development, it is generally considered to be a “developing” country that has shown gradual improvement in all of its indices

Transitional Democracy• Political Accountability

• Political Competition

• Political Freedom

• Political Equality

• Mexico has developed some democratic characteristics in recent years, but still has many distinctions present from its authoritarian history. Longevity of democratic practices is another way of determining whether a country is a stable democracy, usually 40 years or more. Mexico does not yet fit this description.

Elections• Citizens in Mexico directly elect the president, Chamber of Deputy Representatives,

and Senators as well as most local & state officials

• Elections are generally competitive, specifically in urban areas

• Members of congress elected through dual system of “first-past-the-post” and proportional representation

• Proportional representation was increased in a major reform law in 1986, a change that gave power to political parties that challenged PRI control

• Each of Mexico’s 31 states elects three senators, 2 are determined by majority vote, the other is determined by whichever party receives the second highest number of votes

• 32 senate seats are determined nationally through a system of proportional representation that divides the seats according to the number of votes cast for each party (128 Senate seats in total)

• In the Chamber of Deputies, 300 seats are determined by plurality within single-member districts, and 200 are chosen by proportional representation

Issues of Democracy• Election Reform

• CFE (Federal Election Reform) – created as an independent regulatory body to safeguard honest and accurate election results

• Campaign Finance Restriction – laws that limit campaign contributions

• International Watch Teams – so Mexico could convince other countries that elections are fair and competitive

• Election monitoring – done by opposition party members

Fox’s Legacy• Pluralism

• Decentralization

• Electoral Reform

• Rule of Law

• Anti-Narcotics Policy

“Ya Basta” Zapatista Movement Lives On (EZLN)• EZLN – began in 1994 in Chiapas in protest of the signing of the NAFTA

treaty

• Viewed agreement as a continued exploitation of landowners and PRI bosses

• EZLN captured four towns demanding jobs, land, housing, food, health, education, independence, freedom, democracy, justice and peace

• Rebellion originally based on ethnicity – Amerindian – but spread to other factions of society

• Zapatista supporters were black ski masks to hide their identity from the government

• Although a moderate truce was announced with the government, the Fox administration was unable to negotiate a settlement to the dispute with the Zapatistas despite numerous efforts to do so

• Zapatistas represent the stance against all that is still wrong with Mexican politics

NIGERIA - 1

Bellringer

Name the 3 largest ethnic groups in Nigeria.

Name 2 countries that border Nigeria.

Name 1 European country that colonized Nigeria.

Today we will …

Objectives

• Explore political history and political institutions of Nigeria.

Agenda

1. Introduction

2. Folders E & F

3. Closure – open note quiz

HW: Nigerian National Anthem & questions

Why study Nigeria?• “National Question”: differing opinions about how political power should be distributed and how the government should be constructed.

• In Nigeria differences are more distinct and run deeper than other countries

• Since independence in 1960, neither its leaders nor its citizens agree on the basics of who should rule and how

• Questions about whether Nigeria should remain one nation

• Regional disagreements & hostilities• Problems traditionally solved by military force and

authoritarianism

Geographic Influences• Northwest – dominated by two groups that combined as the Hausa-Fulani people,

area is predominantly Muslim.

• Northeast – area is home to many smaller groups, such as the Kunari, also predominantly Muslim.

• Middle Belt – many smaller ethnic groups, mix of Muslims and Christians.

• Southwest – Yoruba dominate the area. They are about 40% Muslim, 40% Christian, and 20% native religions.

• Southeast – area dominated by the Igbo, predominantly Roman Catholic with some Protestant Christians as well

• Southern Zone – area along Niger River Delta, people are from various small minority groups.

Why Study Nigeria? And Country Overview

FOLDER E

Constitutionalism• First constitution written in 1914• Eight constitutions between 1914 and 1995• Current constitution written in 1995 has been heavily

amended since its inception• Acceptance of “constitutionalism” as a guiding set of

principles has eluded Nigeria

• Military and civilian leaders have felt free to disobey and suspend constitutional principles or change constitutions not to their liking

• Without constitutionalism the “National Question” has been much harder to answer

Legitimacy• Nigeria is a relatively young country, achieving independence in

1960, this makes establishing legitimate government more difficult• Fragmentation – tendency to fall apart along ethnic, regional, and/or

religious lines.

• Contradictory Influence of the Past – British colonial “rule of law” vs. Military rule/Personalized authority

• Corruption – both military and civilian rule tainted with corruption. Citizens question the payment of taxes that get deposited in personal bank accounts

• General Ibrahim Babangida (1985-1993)• General Sani Abacha (1993-1998)

Prebendalism• Personalized system of rule• Personal offices treated like “fiefdoms”• Large patronage networks based on personal loyalty• Local government officials gain support of villagers by

dispensing favors, in turn they receive favors for supporting their patron bosses

• Most favors exchanged by political elites• Corruption and informal influence rampant• Does however represent established form of political

participation

Societal Characteristics & Concerns

• Poverty – 60% of all Nigerians live below poverty line, with many living in absolute poverty.

• Gap between Rich & Poor – similar to Mexico, however in Nigeria now growth is being made to alleviate this gap.

• Health Issues – high rates of HIV/AIDS, one in every eleven HIV/AIDS sufferers live in Nigeria.

• Literacy – for males is 75.7% and for females 60.6% (World averages are 83% men, 71% for women)

Political Cleavages• Ethnicity – Nigeria has between 250-400 ethnic groups, Huasa-Fulani, Igbo, and

Yoruba dominant. Three groups have very little in common and speak different languages

• Religion – Islam, Christianity, and native religions.

• Region – follow along ethnic and religious lines

• Urban vs. Rural Differences – most political organizing, interest groups, and political protest takes place in cities

• Social Class – deep divisions among social classes. Wealth of elites stems from access to Nigeria’s resources. Maintained their power by appealing to religious and ethnic identities. Wealthy elite find it difficult to give up wealth associated with access to state treasury, educated elite would like to see adoption of democratic principles.

Historical Overview

FOLDER F

Precolonial Era (800-1600) “Political Traditions”

• Trade Connections – Sahara Desert “Golden Trade of the Moors”; Niger River & Ocean Access

• Influence of Islam – Trade with North Africa put Hausa & other groups in contact with Arab education and Islam, sharia emerges as dominant political principle

• Kinship-based Politics – village key political entity

• Complex Political Identities – contrast between centralized state and local governance. (Oyo & Ife centralized states in south vs. small trading-states in north)

• Democratic Impulses – accountability, representative government, and democracy practiced by many villages, including Yoruba and Igbo.

Colonial Era (1860-1960) “Political Traditions”

• Authoritarian Rule – in order to achieve goals of economic domination British strengthened the authority of traditional chiefs, making them accountable only to British. This resulted in a loosening of rulers’ responsibility to the people

• Interventionist State – colonialist trained chiefs to operate government to achieve economic goals. Checks on authority that existed in Britain did not have roots in Nigeria. This set in place expectations that citizens should passively accept actions of rulers.

• Individualism – in Nigeria led to a tendency of chiefs to think about personal benefits of governance, rather than good of the community

Colonial Era continued

• Christianity – British introduction of Christianity created a split between Christian and Muslim dominated areas. Islam dominant in the north, Christianity in the south.

• Intensification of Ethnic Politics – emergence of three dominant groups: Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba.

• British pitted groups against each other by promising rewards to some groups but not others.

• Anti-colonialism movement emerged during 20th century appealed to ethnic identities to gain followers and supporters of decolonization

Independence Era (1960-Present) “Political Traditions”• Parliamentary vs. Presidential System – Nigeria operated under

parliamentary system from 1960-1979. Ethnic divisions made parliamentary system difficult, switched to presidential system with separate legislature and independent judiciary, but neither has been able to check power of the president

• Intensification of Ethnic Conflict – After independence Hausa-Fulani dominated parliament because of large population. They formed a coalition with Igbo of the southeast to ensure their dominance, this created added tension and conflict with Yoruba of the west. In 1966 a group of Igbo military officers seized power.

Independence Era continued• Military Rule – first military ruler, Agiyi Ironsi, justified his authority by

announcing his intention to end violence and political corruption. He was assassinated, sparking the Igbo secession that led to the Biafran War (1967-1970)

• Personalized Rule/Corruption

• Federalism – in attempt to mollify ethnic tension and remain one country, Nigerian leaders set up federalist system, with powers being delegated to state and local governments. Under military executives however it did not work. Military presidents did not allow states to have legitimate sovereignty.

• Economic dependence on Oil

Political Culture• Patron-Clientelism (PREBENDELISM)

• Clientelism – exchanging political and economic favors among patrons and clients, corruption becomes problematic• EX: In Nigeria, in exchange for support a president may grant his clients a portion

of the oil revenues.

• State Control/Underdeveloped Society• Civil society refers to sectors of country that lie outside government control.

• In Nigeria state controls all aspects of life (economics, political participation, religious activity, etc.) this reinforces clientelism and limits democracy

• Modernity vs. Tradition• Pre-Colonial Era vs. Colonial Era

• Religious Conflict• Geographic Influence

NIGERIA - 2

Bellringer

1. What is the “national question” of Nigeria? How does the history and political culture of Nigeria complicate this issue?

2. What is prebendalism? How is this similar to Mexico?

Today we will …

Objectives

• Explore the political institutions of Nigeria

• Explore citizens and political economy of Nigeria

Agenda

1. Folders G & H

2. Closure – FRQ practice

HW: Study for Exam next block

FOLDER GPolitical Institutions

Institutions of National Government• Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory)

• Three branches of government (Legislative, Executive, Judicial)• Executive has been most dominant traditionally

• Each of the 36 states and 774 local governments has an executive, legislative, and judicial branch

• 2nd, 3rd, & 4th Republics (all since 1979) had presidential system, with a strong executive theoretically checked by bicameral legislature and independent judiciary

• Currently neither federalism or checks & balances operate, and state & local governments are completely dependent on the central government

“Federal Character”• Federalism seen as a positive characteristic for Nigerian political structure• Federalism promises power-sharing• Allows citizens more contact points with government• “Federal Character”

• Recognition of all ethnic, religious, & regional groups• Nigerian Constitutional Provisions

• Senators represent diverse states• Representatives elected from diverse districts• President must receive 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the districts

• Negatives of Federalism• Federalism bloats bureaucracy• Promotes corruption within bureaucracy

• Jobs created to satisfy demands of various ethnic groups• Legislative branch suffers from gridlock

• Competition over government resources

Federalism• Southerners argue that federalism will only exist when central

government devolves some authority to the state & local governments

• Nigerians of the Niger Delta believe they should control their own resources

• Redistribution of the region’s oil wealth should be prohibited• Southerners suggest that police duties should also be the responsibility of

local and state governments

• This “True Federalism Movement” not supported by Northerners• North has few resources and very little revenue to share• Northerners benefit more from redistribution of wealth programs

Executive Branch

• 1979, 2nd Republic, presidential system replaced parliamentary system based on British model

• Multiple ethnic groups fragmented the multi-party system and the legislature and prevented a prime minister from gaining the necessary authority to rule

• Belief was that a president could symbolize national unity and rise above weak party system

• U.S. presidential model with two-term limits

• 1983, Major-General Muhammadu Buhari initiated palace coup, set precedent for military coups and military rule

• Buhari ousted by Gen. Babangida in 1985• Gen. Abacha replaces Babangida in 1993• Civilian rule returned in 1999, President Obasanjo

Executive

• Military Rule• 7 military rulers have all ruled differently• All promised transition to democracy

• Only Obasanjo in 1979 and General Abubakar in 1999 delivered democratic transition

• Generals Buhari (1983-85), Babangida (1985-93), and Abacha (1993-98) used repression and violence

• All military & civilian regimes concentrated power in hands of the executive

• Patrimonialism• Generals/Presidents head of patron-client system• Dispense government jobs and resources as rewards to political

supporters• Cabinet positions & bureaucratic chiefs part of president’s patronage

system• Patrimonialism in Nigeria is unstable which has led to recurring coups

Bureaucracy• British installed elaborate civil service system during colonial

period

• Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs within bureaucracy

• Civil service sector continued to grow after independence

• Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and inefficient. Bribery is common.

• Jobs in civil service are often awarded through the patron-client system, Prebendalism.

Bureaucracy• Parastatals

• Most government agencies are parastatals, or corporations owned by the state. (Similar to Mexico)

• Provide commercial and social welfare services

• Board members are appointed by government ministers, and corporate executives are part of the president’s patronage system

• Parastatals provide public utilities such as water, electricity, public transportation, and agricultural subsidies

• Control major industries such as steel, defense industry, and petroleum

• State Corporatism• Corporatism – authoritarian

political system that allows for political input from selected interest groups outside the government structure

• In Nigeria, this input is provided by parastatals, because they are controlled by the government it is referred to as State Corporatism

• Parastatals insure that the state controls private interest as well as fulfills social & economic functions

• Parastatals serve as contact point between government & business interests, but state ultimately controls these interactions (Corrupt & inept)

Legislature

• A parliamentary system until 1979• Replaced by a bicameral legislature• Nigerian legislature under military governments have had

no power, under civilian government they have been unable to check power of the president

• Corruption scandals – in 1999 president of the Senate and speaker of the lower house were removed for perjury and forgery. In 2000 the Senate president was removed for accepting kickbacks for a government contract

Legislature

• Senate• 109 Senators• 3 from each of the 36 states• 1 from Abuja district• Directly elected by popular vote• Senators are ethnically and religiously diverse• Only 4 of 109 Senators were women as of 2003 elections

• National Assembly• Formerly called House of Representatives• 360 member representatives• Single-member districts, elected by plurality vote• Only 23 of the 360 representatives are women (2003)

Judiciary• Early years of after independence judiciary had great deal of autonomy• Autonomy stripped by military decrees that nullified court decisions and setup

quasi-judicial tribunals outside regular system• Judicial review was suspended• Presidential cronies appointed as justices• Today judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws in accordance with the

Constitution, so judicial review exist in theory• Court structure at state & federal level, highest court is the Supreme Court• Shari’a courts exist in parallel existence with courts developed on British

model• In 1993, Mshood Abiolao, winner of annulled 1993 election was detained

and died in custody. Presiding judges changed often and critics attacked the military cronyism of the judicial system

• In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, and 8 other activists were detained and executed under court orders arranged by the military and presided over by military officers

Military• Strong, policy-making force in Nigeria

• “Military in Government” – those that initiate coups and take over the responsibility of the executive branch

• “Military in Barracks” – fulfills traditional duties of military, its leaders have been critical of military control of political power.

• Military has been subject to internal discord, military presidents often have to keep a close eye on other military leaders.

• Babangida protected his authority by constantly moving military personnel around and appointed senior officers through his patronage system

• Military is one of the few institutions that is truly national in character.

• Military has restored and maintained order during ethnic strife and conflict

Political Parties• Factionalism led to creation of many political parties

• Failure to create coherent party system

• Parties formed and faded around personalities

• Multi-party system reinforced and strengthened ethnic and religious cleavages

• Independent National Election Committee (INEC) – registered a number of parties following the death of Abacha in 1998

• In order to run candidates for the legislative and presidential elections of 1999, a party had to qualify by receiving at least 5% of the votes in two-thirds of the states in the 1998 election

• This cut the number of parties significantly, only 5 parties were eligible to run candidates in the 2003 election

Political Parties• People’s Democratic Party (PDP)

• Well-established Party• Began running candidates in 1998• Party of President Olesugun Obesanjo (Igbo, Christian from the North)• Obesanjo received 62% of vote in 2003 election• PDP gained majority in National Assembly and most of the governors

throughout the country• Do to voter fraud, difficult to determine accurate level of support for the PDP

• All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP)• General Muhammadu Buhari, Muslim from the North, ran against Obesanjo• Received about 32% of the vote• His running mate and potential future candidate was Chuba Okadigbo, an

Igbo from the Southeast

• Other parties that ran presidential candidates include All Progressive Grand Alliance (APGA), The Movement for Democracy and Justice (MDJ), and the Justice Party

• Alliance for Democracy (AD) did not have a presidential candidate in 2003, but did receive 9% of the votes for the legislative elections

Elections & Electoral Procedures• Citizens vote for candidates on 3 levels: local, state, and national.• National level citizens vote for the president, representatives to the National

Assembly, and senators from their states.

National Elections

• Presidential Elections• After annulled election of 1993, first election took place in 1999, with another

in 2003.• If presidential candidate does not receive outright majority, a second ballot

election takes place.• President must receive at least 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the states

• A purely regional candidate can not win• Requirement reflects difficulty experienced in attempt to unify Nigeria

National Elections continued• Legislative Elections

• Senate has 109 senators, 3 from each of the 36 states, and one from federal capital territory of Abuja

• Elected by direct popular vote

• 360 representatives of National Assembly (formerly the House of Representatives)

• Elected from single member districts by plurality vote

• Regional representation dominates in both houses.• Wide-array of ethnic coalitions in legislature• Legislative authority is weak in Nigeria

Election Fraud• Currently 3 consecutive elections have been held without annulment or

delay• Public protest and several deaths have accompanied the last few

elections, but none were as bad as many predicted they would be• Several politicians were assassinated, including Marshall Harry, a leader

of the ANPP

• Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC)• Attempted to cleanse electoral process, declared six million names to be

fraudulent during 2003 elections• International teams concluded elections were corrupt• Voting boxes were stolen, vandalized, and stuffed with fraudulent votes• Voting patterns in the south in particular were suspicious

FOLDER HCitizens, Society and the State & Political Economy

Political Institutions• Multiple regimes throughout its history• North & West – well-developed large states and

hereditary monarchies• Hausa in west organized into powerful trading city-

states• South – small, communal kinship-based rule• British colonialism led to indirect rule, with chiefs leading

on behalf of British government. (Authoritarian rule under British direction)

• Post-independence = Military Authoritarianism• Government structure formally federalist &

democratic, but does not generally operate as such• British controlled economy led to current state

controlled economy• Nigeria has currently turned to supranationals (IMF

& World Bank) to save economy

Protests & Social Movements• Environmentalists (Ken Saro-Wiwa)

• Targeted the international oil companies, especially in the Niger River Delta

• In 2002 group of Ijaw women occupied ChevronTexaco’s Nigerian headquarters for 10 days

• Ethnic groups• Women’s Movement

• President Obasanjo made it part of his 2003 campaign to include more women in cabinet and bureaucratic offices

• Nigerian legislature has very low female representation

•6.4% in House of Representatives•3.7% in Senate

Interest Groups• Have actually played an important role in Nigerian politics• A large number of civil society organizations often

cooperate with political parties• Religious interest groups important in Nigeria

• Christian Association of Nigeria protested when General Babangida changed Nigeria’s status in the Organization of Islamic Conference from observer to member

• Muslim civil society organizations in the north work to support the shari’a court system

• Citizens have worked around military authoritarianism to have an impact on political life through labor unions, student groups, and populist groups.

Interest Groups• Labor Unions

• Independent and politically influential prior to 1980s• Through the introduction of corporatism the Babangida regime limited the

influence of labor unions• A central labor organization supplanted the older unions, and only candidates

approved by Babangida could be chosen as labor leaders• In July 2003 labor unions widely and openly protested the government’s attempt

to raise oil prices for Nigerian consumers

• Business Interests• Business interests have tended to work in collaboration with the military regimes,

in return for the spoils related to the corruption of the elite class• Associations for manufacturers, butchers, and car rental firms have operated

outside the realm of government and helped promote economic reforms of the 1990s

• Human Rights Groups• Promote democratic reforms• Include university students, teachers, civil liberties organizations, and

professional groups (doctors, lawyers)• These groups protested against the abuses of Babangida and Abacha

Mass Media• Nigeria has well-developed, independent press

• General Abacha attempted to curb criticism of his regime by closing several newspapers and magazines in Nigeria in 1994

• Press reflects ethnic divisions in the country

• Outspoken and critical newspapers mainly in the south

• Radio is the main source of information for most Nigerians• All 36 states have their own radio stations

Public Policy• Top-down policy-making process.

• Power concentrated in hands of the president & cabinet ministers through channels established by patron clientelism

• Loyalty Pyramid – senior officials supported by broader base of loyal junior officials

• State control of resources means that those in the pyramid get the spoils, they alone have access to wealth and influence. Loyal clients of patronage structured pyramids includes:

• “Kaduna Mafia”, “Babangida’s Boys”, and “Abacha’s Boys”

• Military controls pyramids, pyramids supported by “guns” (Force); therefore, protesting system can be dangerous

• Top-down, self-interested rule established by British during colonial era when the British relied on native chiefs to ensure Nigerian trade and resources benefited Great Britain

Economic Issues• Loyalty pyramids and corruption have led to a squandering of Nigeria’s

wealth

• Nigeria is currently in debt and majority of the population lives in poverty

• Large oil revenues have been pocketed by government officials

• Economic situation complicated by ethnic & regional conflict

• In February 2001, federal government asked the Supreme Court to all the government to collect oil revenue and put it in a “federal account” (Revenue Sharing)

• Areas in the south along Niger River Delta protested this idea, they believed the policy was a way for northerners to take profits and revenue away from the south

Economic Issues• Oil

• Oil wealth during the 1970s gave Nigeria international leverage

• OPEC member

• Conflicts in Middle East have made Nigeria more important as a trade partner for other countries since 1970s

• Lack of economic diversification hurts Nigeria when oil prices drop

• DEBT – as a result of drop in oil prices and lack of revenue surplus

• Structural Adjustment• 1980s, Nigeria seeks assistance from international organizations to deal

with debt crisis

• World Bank & IMF involvement• Restructure & diversification of Nigerian economy• Privatize parastatals• Cut government spending

• “Shock Treatment” not very successful• Parastatals still under government control• Debt repayment had to be restructured

ReformsEconomic Reforms of the late 1990s

• Further privatization of state-owned industry• Limitations on economic controls of the central

government•Money taken by General Abacha returned by foreign banks and placed in the state treasury

• Scheme for alleviating poverty in Nigeria• Increase in public wages

•Hope of decreasing instances of corruption• Increase in financial reserves as a result of stabilized

oil prices