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Mgt2700: Theory continuedMgt2700: Theory continued
Science,Science,
Scientific Method,Scientific Method,
and Truthand Truth
Nature of truthNature of truth
knowledge is socially constructedknowledge is socially constructed
Sources of KnowledgeSources of Knowledge
ExperienceExperience– but may not be systematicbut may not be systematic– may not be universalmay not be universal
AuthorityAuthority– customcustom– traditiontradition– but how does authority but how does authority
know?know?
Sources of KnowledgeSources of Knowledge
Deductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning– from general to the specificfrom general to the specific
Advantages of Deductive Advantages of Deductive ReasoningReasoning
can organize what is already knowncan organize what is already known– means of linking theory & observationmeans of linking theory & observation
deductions from theory can provide deductions from theory can provide hypothesis to determine what hypothesis to determine what phenomenon to observephenomenon to observe
Problems with Deductive Problems with Deductive ReasoningReasoning
must begin with true premises to arrive at must begin with true premises to arrive at true conclusionstrue conclusions
– premises need not relate to real worldpremises need not relate to real world (e.g., (e.g., mathematical models)mathematical models)
– can argue reasonably how many angels can stand on can argue reasonably how many angels can stand on head of a pinhead of a pin
Problems with Deductive Problems with Deductive ReasoningReasoning
it is hard to establish universal truth of it is hard to establish universal truth of many statements dealing with scientific many statements dealing with scientific phenomenonphenomenon
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGESOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
ExperienceExperience
AuthorityAuthority
Deductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning– from general to the specificfrom general to the specific
Inductive ReasoningInductive Reasoning– from specific to generalfrom specific to general– need to observe phenomenon directlyneed to observe phenomenon directly
Francis BaconFrancis Bacon
In the year of our Lord, 1432, there arose a grievous quarrel among the brethren over the number of teeth in the mouth of a horse. For thirteen days the disputation raged without ceasing. All the ancient books and chronicles were fetched out, and wonderful and ponderous erudition was made manifest. At the beginning of the fourteenth day a youthful friar of goodly bearing asked his learned superiors for permission to add a word, and straightway, to the wonder of the disputants, whose deep wisdom he sorely vexed, he beseeched them in a manner coarse and unheard of, to look in the mouth of a horse and find answers to their questionnings. At this, their dignity being grievously hurt, they waxed exceedingly wroth; and joining in a mighty uproar they flew upon him and smote him hip and thigh and cast him out forthwith. For, said they, "Surely Satan hath tempted this bold neophyte to declare unholy and unheard-of-ways of finding truth, contrary to all the teachings of the fathers." After many days of grievous strife the dove of peace sat on the assembly, and they, as one man, declaring the problem to be an everlasting mystery because of the dearth of historical and theological evidence thereof, so ordered the same writ down. —Attributed to Bacon, cited in Best and Kahn, Research in Education, 8th edition, pp.4-5.
Inductive ReasoningInductive Reasoning
perfect inductionperfect induction– when dealing with small enough sample, can when dealing with small enough sample, can
observe every case, so infallible conclusionsobserve every case, so infallible conclusions
imperfect inductionimperfect induction– when dealing with larger groups, extrapolate when dealing with larger groups, extrapolate
from sample, so may be open to errorfrom sample, so may be open to error
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGESOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
ExperienceExperience
AuthorityAuthority
Deductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning
Inductive ReasoningInductive Reasoning
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGESOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
ExperienceExperience
AuthorityAuthority
Deductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning
Inductive ReasoningInductive Reasoning
Scientific MethodScientific Method– inductive - deductiveinductive - deductive
THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
OBSERVATIONS Inductively HYPOTHESES Deductively
If compatible with theorganized body of acceptedknowledge, thesehypotheses will be testedby the gathering of empirical data
LOGICAL IMPLICATIONSOF THE
HYPOTHESES
THEORYTHEORY
is a system for explaining a set of is a system for explaining a set of phenomena by specifying constructs and phenomena by specifying constructs and the laws that relate these constructs to the laws that relate these constructs to each othereach other..
The ultimate goal of science is The ultimate goal of science is theory formationtheory formation
Theories knit together the results of Theories knit together the results of observations, enabling scientists to make observations, enabling scientists to make general statements about variables and general statements about variables and the relationships among variablesthe relationships among variables
Purpose of TheoriesPurpose of Theories
to summarize and organize existing to summarize and organize existing knowledgeknowledge
Purpose of TheoriesPurpose of Theories
to explain observed events and to explain observed events and relationshipsrelationships
Purpose of TheoriesPurpose of Theories
to predict the occurrence of unobserved to predict the occurrence of unobserved events and relationshipsevents and relationships
Purpose of TheoriesPurpose of Theories
to stimulate further inquiry to stimulate further inquiry – identifying areasidentifying areas– providing leadsproviding leads
Factors to consider whenFactors to consider when
Evaluating Evaluating ResearchResearch
Is the research hypothesis...Is the research hypothesis...
sufficiently specific?sufficiently specific?
clearly stated?clearly stated?
Inspect for deliberate bias / distortion whenInspect for deliberate bias / distortion when
investigator has vested interest in results supporting a investigator has vested interest in results supporting a particular viewpointparticular viewpoint
highly emotional issues are involvedhighly emotional issues are involved
states "this study was conducted to prove”states "this study was conducted to prove”
number of cases upon which percentages are based is number of cases upon which percentages are based is either not indicated or is loweither not indicated or is low
Inspect for deliberate bias / distortion whenInspect for deliberate bias / distortion when
figures are calculated to several decimal placesfigures are calculated to several decimal places
surprising or newsworthy findings reward the surprising or newsworthy findings reward the researcher with career-making publicityresearcher with career-making publicity
objective findings are distorted by mass media to objective findings are distorted by mass media to make them "more newsworthy"make them "more newsworthy"
only a few key studies are citedonly a few key studies are cited
Inspect for non-deliberate biasInspect for non-deliberate bias
Inspect for sampling bias whenInspect for sampling bias when
the research is based on volunteersthe research is based on volunteers
there is high subject mortalitythere is high subject mortality
group selection criteria may be inappropriategroup selection criteria may be inappropriate
Inspect for sampling biasInspect for sampling bias
in causal-comparative studiesin causal-comparative studies
experimental vs. control groupexperimental vs. control group
when subjects may not be representative of the when subjects may not be representative of the populationpopulation
Check for omission ofCheck for omission of
important variablesimportant variables
Undertake critical evaluation of Undertake critical evaluation of measurement techniquesmeasurement techniques
reliabilityreliability
validityvalidity
appropriateness of the test normsappropriateness of the test norms
Inspect for observer biasInspect for observer bias
Developing the Research ProposalDeveloping the Research Proposal
Introduction & research problem statementIntroduction & research problem statement– Literature reviewLiterature review– Identify problemsIdentify problems– State significance of problemsState significance of problems– Research ideasResearch ideas– Contribution to knowledge and practiceContribution to knowledge and practice
Formulating hypothesisFormulating hypothesisSelecting possible measuresSelecting possible measuresSelecting research sourcesSelecting research sourcesSpecifying research designSpecifying research designSelecting analysis proceduresSelecting analysis proceduresSpecifying research activitiesSpecifying research activities