90
MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS= 963-A
MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS= 963-A
ED 056 185
AUTHDETITLE
INSTITUTIONREPORT NOPUB DATENOTEAVAILABLE F
EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS
ABSTRACT
DOCUMENT RESUME
VT 014 005
Smith, Gerard C.; Crowley Michael F.Occupational Manpower and Training Needs; Informa
for Planning Training Programs for the 1970's.Bureau of Labor Statistics (DOL), Washington, D.C.
Bull-17017187p.
OM Superintendent of Document-, U.S. GovernmenOffice, Washington, D.C. 20402 ($.75)
Printing
MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29*Educational Needs; Educational Planning;*Educational Supply; *Employment Proj2ctions
*Employment Statistics; Employment Trends; *EanpowerNeeds; Vocational Education
This bulletin summarizes the Bureau of Labor
Statistics.employment projections which are available and discusses
their use in local educational planning. Included are material on
projections of future manpower needs, information on occupational
training programs, and statistics by occupation on manpower needs,
annual openings, training methods and numbers of graduates. (BH)
OccupationalCO Manpower and
TrainingL4-1
NeedsBULLETIN 1701
1=1 U. S. DEPARTMENTOF LABORBUREAU OF
LABOR STATISTICS
-asier
.AsTekt&ig'`
II
OccupationalManpower
andTrainingNeeds
Information forPlanning Training
Programs for the 1970'sBULLETIN 1701
U. S. DEPARTMENTOF LABOR
J. D. Hodgson, Secretary
BUREAU OFLABOR STATISTICS
Geoffrey H. Moore, Comm is&Oflor
1971
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,EDUCATION & WELFAREOFFICE OE EDUCATION
THIS DOCUMENT HAS beeN REPRO-DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIG-INATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN-IONS STATED DO NOT NECFsSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU-CATION POSITION OR POLICY
For s1e by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C., 20402 Price 75 cent
Stock Number 2901-0556
Preface
The Bureau of Labor Statistics has as one of its major tasks the development anddissemination of information on future occupational manpower requirements and supply.The following formats are used to present its projections.
The Occupational Outlook Handbook, first issued in 1949 and published biennially since1957, presents information for vocational counseling of individuals.
Tomorrow's Manpower Necis, a four-volume publication, BLS Bulletin 1606 presents acomprehensive set of national projections to 1975 for use in developing State and areaprojections for policymakers and planners at the local level.
Occupational Employment Patterns for 1960 and 1975 BLS Bulletin 1599 providesnational information on industry occupational patterns for educational and n-r npowerplanning.
"America's Industrial and Occupational Manpower Requirements, 1964-75, TheOutlook for Technological change and Employment, Appendix Volume I, Technologyand the American Economy, The Report of the National Commission on Technology,Automation, and Economic Progress presents data on the impact of tecknoloecal changeon manpower requirements.
Manpower needs for specific occupations have beer projected for organizationsconcerned with policy matters relating to particular occupations. For example,projections for scientists, engineers, and technicians have been prepared at the request ofthe National Science Foundation, and published in Scientists, Engineers, and Technicians
in the 1960's (NSF 63-12), Technician Manpower: Requirements, Resources, andPaining Needs BLS Bulletin 1612, and Technician Manpower, 1966-80 BLS Bulletin1639. A set of projections of health occupations, presented in Health Manpower, 1966-75BLS Report No. 312, was prepared at the request of the Intradepartmental Committeeon Health Manpower.
A systematic set of projections of the economy to 1980 that provide esCrnates ofmanpower requirements by occupation for the 1970's have been published by the Bureauin The U.S. Economy in 1980, BLS Bulletin 1673 and Patterns of U.S. Economic Growth,BLS Bulletin 1672. Ways of using those occupational projections with other manpowerinformation in planning education and training are discussed in ads bulletin.
Chapter 1 illustrates ways to use information on projections of occupationalrequirements and supply, and training in planning education and training programs. Theremainder of the report provides available information.
Chapter II presents material on projections of future occupational requirements.Chapter III presents information on occupational training and the number of persons
completing such programs.Chapter IV summarizes for each occupation the data on manpower requirements,
annual openings, methods of training, and available statistics on training completions.This bulletin was prepared in the Division of Manpower and Occupational Outlook,
Office of Manpower and Employment Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics. The reportwas written by Gerard C. Smith and Michael F. Crowley, under the direction of Neal.H.Rosenthal.
in
Contents
Chapter 1. Occupational Data Needs in Planning Education and TrainingData on projectionsData on training
'age
1
Using occupational projections and train ng information 3
Illustrations of ways information may be used =5
EnOneers 5
Carpenters 5
Waiters and aitresses 6
Chapter II. Occupational Projections 8
Growth of occupations 8
Selected occupations = 11
Professional and technical workers 11
Managers, officials, and proprietors 13
Clerical workers 13
Sales workers 14
Service workers 14
Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred 'vorkers 15
Semiskilled workers 15
Nonfarm laborers 16
Job openirws 16
Chapter III. The Status of Occupational Training 17
Types of occupational training 17
Vocational education 17
Private vocational schools 18
Federal apprenticeship programs 18
Employer training 18
Armed Forces 18
Federal manpower programs 19
Job opportunities in the Business Sector 19
Manpower Development and Training Act 19
Job Corps 19
Neighborhood Youth Corps 20
Work Incentive Progran, 20
Public Service Careers Program =20
Home study courses 20
Junior colleges or community colleges 20Colleges and university training 21
Supply and demand for workers having bachelor's and advanced degrees 21
Chapter IV. Relating Training to Occupational Needs 22
Professional and Related Occupation
Business Administration and related professions 22
Clergymen23
Conservation occupations 24
Coui.7eling occupations24
Engineers25
lv
ContentsContinuedPage
Health service occupations . .................. ..... .... . ... 25
Mathematics and related occupations 29Environmental science occupations 30Life science occupations 31
Physical science occupations 31
Performing a:tists 33
Social scientists 33Political scientists 34
Teachers 34
Technicia 35
Writing occupations 35Other professional and related occunations 36
Managerial Occupations
Bank officers 40
Conductors (railroads) 40
Industrial traffic managers 40
Managers and assistants (hotel) 40
Purchasing agent:. 40
Clerical and Rela ed Occupations
Bank clerks 41
Bank tellers 41
Bookkeeping workers 41
Cashiers 41
Clerks (railroad) 41
Dental assistants 41
Electronic computer operating personnel 41
Front office clerks (hotel) 42
Library technicians 42
Mail carriers 42
Office machine operators 42Postal clerks 42
Receptionists 42
Shipping and receiving clerks 42
Station agents 42Stenographers and secretaries 43
Telegraphers, telephoners, and to r men ailroad) 43
Telephone operators 43
Traffic agents and clerks vil aviation 43
Ty pists 43
Sales Occupations
Insurance agents and brokers 44Manufacturer's salesmen 44
Real estate salesmen and brokers 44Retail trade salesworkers 44
Automobile parts countermen 44Automobile salesmen 44
ContentsContinued Page
Automobile service advisers 45
Securities salesmen 45
Wholesale trade sale 45
Service Oceupatio s
Barbers 45
Bellmen and bell cap hotel) 46
Building custodians 46
Cooks and chefs 46
Cosmetologists 46
FBI special agents 46
Firefighters 46
Licensed practical nurses 47
Hospital attendants 47
Housekeepers and assistants (hot 47
Police officers (municipal) 47
Private household workers 47
State police officers 47
Stewardesses (civil aviation ) : :47
Waiters and waitresses 48
Craftsmen
Construction trades 48
Machining occupations 53
Mechanics and repairmen 54
Printing (graphic arts) occupations 57
Telephone industry occupations 58
Other crafts occupations 58
Operatives
Driving sccupations 60
Other operative occupations 61
Laborers Nonfarm
Tables:
1. Projected annual job openings for construction craftsmen, 1968-80, under illustrative
atternative assumptions2. Employment by major occupational group, 1968 and projected 1980 requirements .
3. Enrollments in federally aided vocational-technical education, by field of education,fiscal year 1969
Charts:
411
18
1. Employment is shifting toward white-collar occupations 9
2. Percent change in major occupational groups, 1968-80 projected .... 10
3. Openings are determined by growth plus replacements 10
Appendixes:
A, Methodology and assumptions of requirements projections 65
B. Detailed occupational projections 67
C. Detailed training statistics 75
vi
OCCUPATIONAL MANPOWER AND TRAINING NEEDS
Chapter I. Occupational Dare Needs in Planning Education and Training
Traditionally, most education and training in theUnited States have been offered in response to the desireof students or trainees. Underlying the development andutilization of trained workers are many decisions madeby individuals to suit thrir own interests, opportunities,and capabilities. For instance, a high school student maybecome a carpenter rather than attend college; a chemistmay leave his job and teach high ,. school; a secretary mayhave a child and remain at home temporarily. Decisionsby government and educational institutions influencechoices of individuals. Examples of such decisions arebuilding a junior college; establishing a training programfor the Cdsadvantaged; revising the draft or tax laws; andchanOng salaries that make one occupation more attrac-tive than another.
In this country, individuals are encouraged to makeeducational choices. The system has worked reasonablywell for most individuals and for the country. Because ofthis succes", the question is asked: Why make projec-tions for ust, in planning education and training pro-grams if the development and use of manpower resultingfrom the many decisions are satisfactory and individualscan adjust to market demands?
The ability of the system to work has depended on theflexibility of employers, workers, and educational andtraining institutions. Employers have adjusted theiroperations to the available labor supply through avariety of methods including restructuring their workwhen slrilled workers were in short supply; upgrading ortraining workers on the job; or substituting machineryfor scarce labor. Workers have adjusted to the needs ofemployers, sometimes in response to relative wage levelsamong occupations, by taking training or moving.Educational and training institutions have responded tochanging manpower needs, both in the initial training ofworkers and in retraining and upgrading programs.
Despite the success of these adjustments, the markethas worked less than perfectly. Health officials have com-plained of shortages of physicians and nurses; consumershave called for more and better trained automobilemechanics and repairmen; industry has needed moreengineers, technicians, and other highly trained workers.
In general, the market adjusts slowly to changes indemand for occupations that require long trainingperiods. One ern.ct is a disproportionate rise in wagelevels which result in costs of some socially essentialservices, such as medical care rising faster than theability of people to pay. Sometimes, the progress ofsocially desirable work, such as education or com-bating environmental pollution is slowed. In the faceof rising demand, shortages of trained workers con-tribute to inflationary pressures. This situation is mademore pointed if occurring at the same time thatless-skilled workerswho have high unemployment rateseven when total umemployment is loware un-
employed.These factors create the need for education planning
and training, especially when the government con-tributes to rapidly rising manpower needs in some fieldsby mounting large programs, such as highway con-struction or space exploration. Such programs createshortages of trained workers that affect industry andflueaten the effectiveness of the government's ownprograms.
In major legislation on training and education, Con-gress has been veiy explicit in indicating that manpowertraining financed by the Government should be based onfuture manpower needs. For example, in the VocationalEducation Amendments of 1968, Congress declared thepurpose of the Act to include assuring that persons whoneeded it will have "ready access to vocational trainingor retraining . which is realistic in the light of actualor anticipated opportunities for gainful employment(Public Law 90-576,90th Congress).
Also, in the Manpower Development and Training Actof 1962, the Congress stated that "improved planningand expanded efforts will be required to assure thatmen, women, and young people will be trained andavailable to meet shifting employment needs; that manypersons now unemployed or underemployed, in order tobecome qualified for reemployment or full employmentmust be assisted in providing themseNres with skillswhich are or will be in demand in the labor market(Public Law 87-415, as amended).
Data on projections
To meet needs of officials concerned with planningeducation and training, this bulletin brings togetherinformation on future manpower requirements on morethan 230 occupations emanating from research of theBureau of Labor Statistics. Together, these occupationsmake up more than 50 percent of all professional andtechnical workers, 99 percent of salesworkers, 81 per-cent of craftsmen, and 65 percent of clerical workers.
Occupational projections also are used for purposesother than planning education and training. For ex-ample, in 1967 a working group of the President'sCommittee on Manpower' prepared a report enumer-ating six specific purposes and uses which manpowerprojections serve:
I. To alert Government (and other interested parties) toemerging manpower problems; commonly, an imbalance be-tween the demand for and supply of workers in the laborforce.
2. To help choose between alternative proposed policies.3. To assist in administering specific Government programs.4. To provide an essential element for developing other
general types of projections by Government d prn ateorganizations.
5. To provide information for vocational guidance ofyoung people interested in choosing a field of work.
6. To encourage an informed and responsible public con-cern for manpower problems; and to help provide theordinary citizen with information which would be of use tohim in his role as a citizen, and apart from that of an eco-nomic producer.
Information in this report serves all of these purposesas well as providing information specifically for planningeducation and training programs. Other Bureau publi-cations, however, foces on some other uses moresharply. For example, the Occupational Outlook Hand-book, as mentioned before, drawing on the same bodyof research findings, focuses on providing informationfor use in vocational guidance.
Data on training
Estimates of future manpower requirements constituteonly part of the data needed to evaluate the adequacy ofeducation and training programs. Information also isneeded on training. By comparing the approximatenumber of newly trained workers needed annually andthe present output of the various training programs,training efforts can be appraised and plans expanded, ifnecessary.
Workers receive training from a wide variety ofsources: Colleges and universities, junior and community
-Manpower Protect. An Appraisal and a Plan of Action(U.S. Department of Labor. Manpower Administration, August1967), pp. 22-25.
colleges, apprenticeship and other formal employertraining programs, correspondence schools, self-study,vocational education programs (secondary and post-secondary), the Armed Forces, and Federal Manpowerpo)grimis for the disadvantaged, underemployed, andunemployed. Many also "pick up" needed skills in-formally on-the-job. Informal training is not limited tolow skilled jobs. One study,' for example, has revealedthat only about 40 percent of all craftsmen had learnedtheir current job througJi formal training.
Many occupations, especially those not requiring acollege degree, have no single, well-identified training.Certain paths may be preferred by employers; othersmay produce a qualified worker in less time. All types oftraining, however, may not be available to an individual.For example, certain schools are not found in alllocalities. Training paths are not mutually exclusive. Aperson may study drafting in a vocational .gh school,work as a clerk to receive further training, and finally besponsored as an apprentice in drafting by the company.
Knowledge of the different ways people can train foroccupations, however, does not provide the informationneeded for supply-demand analysis or for assessment ofthe adequacy of vocational education and trainingprograms. Data are needed on the relative importanceand number of individuals completing each type oftraining, the proportion of those who enter the occupa-tions, and the value employers place on the skill level ofworkers who enter througelt each route. Information alsois needed on the slippage between completion of trainingand employment. Althougeh varying among occupations,such information usually is lacking.
For each of the 230 occupations for which projectionsare presented, an attempt was made to compile statisticson training. During this research, it was found that amajor problem confronting manpower analysts is thepaucity of data on current output of educational andtraining programs. Not only are coverage gaps incollecting data significant, but many problems of com-parability are involved. For example, much data of theFederal Manpower programs pertain to enrollments overa period of years; little information is available oncompletions. Additionally, the level of training ofvarious sources differs. Some may be lengthy andtheoretical, whereas others for the same occupation maybe short and emphasize practical skills. Some trainingprepares students for the most basic of entry levels.Other programs are designe:1 so that a person can enterthe labor force at the professional level.
2Fotmal Occupation Training of Adult Workers (U.S. Depart-ment of Labor, Office of Manpower Automation and Training,Manpower Administration, Manpower/Automation ResearchMonograph No. 2), December 1964.
During its research, the Bureau has found that datagaps in training staii:Ities are the most severe restrictionto occupational analysis. Major problem areas and datagaps can be grouped for aiscussion under training sourceoutput data; occupational training of the current workforce; and entry rates from the various training pro-grams.
Training Sources Output Data. To evaluate whetherthe present level of training should be expanded, totalinputs from all sources must be considered in eachoccupation. Relatively good data are available for collegeand university, junior and community colleges, andvocational education programs, but even these haveproblems. Outputs of community colleges and post-secondary vocational education programs overlap tosonic degree. In addition, data on community collegespertain primarily to programs that train students forimmediate employment after completing the course ofstudy; many students are trained in the transfer pro-D'anis of the community colleges. Because of theirtraining persons dropping out of 4-year college programsenter certain jobs and are not counted. For example,many dropouts from engineering take technician jobs.
No agencypublic or privatecurrently collects dataen enrollments and graduates of private vocationalschools. The contribution of these schools must beassessed before total training needs can be evaluated.Detailed information also is needed on the role of thetnilitary in ttaining. Some systematic follow-up is neededfor individuals separated from the Armed Forces.
Also needed are better data on specific training ofvarious Federal, State, and local manpower programs.For example, data are available on numbers of personsenrolled in MDTA on-the-job and institutional programsfor selected occupations, but data are not available oncompletion. Even less data are available on other Laborprograms. A special survey to determine the occupationsof employed WIN program participants in six Statesshowed that 21.5 percent were employed in clerical andsales occupations, but no more detail was provided. TheJOBS program has no specific occupational informationon the number of persons enrolled; data are availableonly on major occupational categories and selectedoccupational groups. In addition, available data showcumulative totals through June 1969 rather than for theyear. 3
Occupa tional Training of the Current WorkForce. The most effective type of training for a partic-
3 The Manpower Administration already has taken steps toremedy the lack of detailed occupational data for WIN andJOBS.
ular occupation can be learned by evaluating pastmethods. To analyze such data, information about typesof traininn taken by new entrants and persons employedfor several years is necessary. This area needs consider-able research.
Entry Rates from Various Maining Programs. Not allgraduates of training programs actually enter occupa-tions for which they wel trained. For example, elec-tronic technology graduates may become industrialtechnicians or draftsmen. Some graduates continue theireducation to train for higher-level occupations. Othersaccept jobs using only part of their training. Still othersenter the Armed Forces and are temporarily out of thecivilian labor force. Some women who complete trainingbecome housewives and do not enter the labor force.
To develop effective training programs, statistics areneeded on the pr,- portion of those completing a trainingprogram who actually enter the occupation for whichthey weic trained. High attrition rates may suggest aneed for improved programs if employment opportu-nities exist.
Using Occupationai Projections andTraining Information
This bulletin presents four key elements to evaluatetraining needs;
1. Projections of the number o' workers required in eachoccupation.
2. Estimates of needs to replace workers who die, retire,and where data allow, who transfer to another occupation.
3. Data on output from various trainine programs.4. Information on ways workers prepare for oupations.
In this report the Bureau has assembled data, includinggaps and imperfections, to help those responsible makedecisions on education and training programs and toindicate the work that can be done to help Bureauand others who are concerned do a better job ofdeveloping these data.
In addition, projections of manpower needs are builtupon assumptions regarding such factors as the inter-national political situation and the direction of FederalGovernment programs. For example, among the assump-tions underlying the Bureau's 1980 projections are thatthe international climate will improN: , the United Stateswill no longer be fighting a war, but a still guardedrelationship between major powers will permit no majorreduction in armaments; that fiscal and monetarypolicies will achieve a satisfactory balance between lowunemployment and relative price stability without re-ducing-the long-term economic growth rate; and that alllevels of government will join efforts to meet a wide
variety of domestic requirements. (For a more completepresentation of assumptions, see appendix A). Assump-tions, howevei, vary widely over the long run. Shouldcircumstances arise that prove certain assumptions to be
off the mark, users should develop alternate assump-tions. For illustrative purposes examples of alternativeassumptions for construction are presented later in this
chapter.Projections for some types of economic activity and
related manpower needs are heavily dependent on the as-sumptions used. For example, an assumed level of defenseexpenditures has a great impact on scientific and technicalmanpower and the assumed level of housing has a greatimpact on the demand for coliii-action craftsmen.
Meaningful alternative projections, based on differentpatterns of growth, are possible within a framework ofcontinued economic growth and full employment. Esti-mates derived from alternative projections, however,may have substantially the same implications for man-power planning officials. The following alternativemodel for construction craftsmen illustrates this situ-ation. In line with the National Housing Goals embodiedin the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968, theBLS 1980 economic model assumes production of 2.7million new housing units in the target year. This levelmay be high in view of the relative low level of housingstarts in 1970, experienice of the 1960's, and financialproblems that may not allow this number of units to beconstructed. If the assumption were made that resi-dential construction will grow rapidly but to a levelabout 10 percent below the 2.7 million units assumed in
the original model (2.43 million units), growtn require-ments for construction craftsmen would of course belower than the levels initially projected. Among in-
dividual 2rafts, the effect of this alternative projectionwould be cifferent. (See table 1.) For example, carpen-ters and painters, heavily involved in residential con-struetion, would feel the greatest impact, whereas,operating engineers, primarily engaged in road building
and other heavy constuction, would be limited.Approximately the same conclusions for individual
occupations are implied by the alternative assumption asby the oriOnal projection. For example, annual openingsfor carpenters, the occupation most affected by thehousing assumption, was reduced from 39,300 in theprimary model to 35,900 in the alternative. Most
carpenters are trained on the job rather than in formalprogrdms; for example, between 1961-68 apprenticeshipcompletions averaged 3,256 a year, only 36 percent ofestimated entrants during this period. To keep the sameratio of apprenticeship completions to annual openingsin the 1970's as in the 1960's would require a significantincrease in training under both assumptions. The limiteddata on other types of formal training (MDTA andvocational education) indicate similar conclusions. Thus,the analysis presented for carpenters later in the reportwhich indicate the need to expand training based on theprimary projections (page 6), would be virtually identi-cal to that based on the alternative projection. Never-theless, alternatives along with primary projections canindicate a range of annual openings on which plans maybe based.
Table 1. Projected annual job openings for construction craftsmen, 1968-80, under illustrative
alternative assumptions
Craft
All industries Construction "nclus try
PrimaryBLS
projection
Alternativeprojection
Difference Percentchange
PrimaryBLS
projectionAlternativeprojection
DifferencePercentchange
Bricklayers 7.6 7.2 0.4 7-2 6.8 0.4
Carpenters 39.3 35.9 3.4 -8.7 30.0 26.6 3.4 -11.3
Cement and concretefinishers .... 3.6 3.2 0.4 -11.1 3.6 3.1 0.5 -13.9
Electricians 21.3 20.8 0.5 2.3 10,5 10.0 0.5 -4.8
Excavating, grading,and road machineoperators 14.8 14.4 0.4 -2.7 10.0 9.6 0.4 -4.0
Painters andpaperhangers 18.2 17.3 0.9 -4.9 12.3 11.3 1.0
Plasterers 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6
Plumbers andpipefitters 19.5 19.0 0.6 -2.6 10.8 10.4 0.4 -3.7
Roofers and slaters 3.0 2.5 0.5 -16.9 2.5 2.1 0.4 -16.0
Structural metalworkers 3.9 3.0 3.0
Note; Because of rounding, the sum of individual items may not equal total.
iQ
Illustrations of ways informationmay be used
To illustrate the ways basic information can be used,examples of how the data can be evaluated in planningtraining for three occupations have been developed andpresented brlow. The occupations in the examples wereselected ti illustrate: (1) an occupation for which 4years of specialized college is generally required andpreferred, but in which entrants come from a variety ofother sources (engineers); (2) an occupation for whichformal vocational training (apprenticeship) is recom-mended but in which many workers nevertheless enterby casual on-the-job training (OJT) methods (carpenter),and (3) an occupation for which formal occupationaltraining generally is not required (waiter and waitressThese examples, given below, are purely illustrative andin evaluating supply and demand individual factorsshould be considered.
Engineers
1. Job Openings, 1968-80. Annual job openings areprojected to average 73,000 for the 1968-80 period. Thisestimate includes average annual needs of 36,000 forgrowth, 17,000 to replace those who will die and retire,and 20,000 to replace engineers shifting to otheroccupations.
2. Supply and Demand Relationships. New engi-neering graduates are the primary source of supply ofnew engineers. However, in recent years the flow ofgraduates into engineering has not been sufficient tomeet manpower needs. This opened up opportunities forsignificant numbers to enter the field from othersources: workers who shift into the field from otheroccupations (including technicians who are upgraded);persons not in the labor force (including those Ln theArmed Forces); immigants; and college graduates whodid not major in engineering. Of course, some of these"other" entrants are not as well qualified as newengineering graduates.
Nevertheless, large numbers of workers are expected tocontinue to come from these sources, as employers willcontinue to upgrade their highly qualified technicians,engineers will continue to immigrate to the UnitedStates, and some college graduates not majoring inengineertng will continue to become employed as engi-neers either by choice or due to circumstances in the jobmarket.
If the assumption is made that the past patterns ofentry to engineering from these other sources wouldcontinue, about 36,000 engineers would enter the fieldfrom these sources from 1968-80. Under this assump-tion, only 38,000 new engineering graduates would have
to enter the field annually if requirements are to be met.Follow-up studies of college graduates indicate thatabout 85 percent of all new engineering graduates enterthe profession. Therefore, about 45,000 engineeringgyaduates would be needed each year to obtain 38,000entrants. In 1968, about 41,000 bachelor's degrees inengineering were granted. U.S. Office of Educationprojections of engineering degrees based on a continu-ation of patterns of study over the past 10 years indicatethat for the 1968-80 period the number of bachelor'sdegrees in engineering will average slightly above the1969 level, an increase of only 1,000. To meet require-ments, the number of bachelor's degrees granted willhave to increase faster than implied by past trends andaverage 10 percent, or 4,000 above the 1969 level.However, it should be pointed out if graduates wereincreased to levels averaging even higher than 45,000, wewould not only meet requirements but reduce ourdependence on those who are less well trained forengineering jobs than college graduates with an engi-neering degree.
3. Implications for Training. Based on an analysis ofthe foregoing information are a number of implicationsfor training. Many factors should be considered beforeconcluding that more engineering schools should be builtor Qnsting facilities expanded. Engineering schools maynot be filled to capacity and the problem may revolvearound the need to attract students to the field. Theretention rates of students who enroll in engineeringschools may be relatively low and perhaps changes arenecessary in the practices of engineering schools thataffect the retention of students. Decisions could bemade that relate to the adequacy of engineers who enterthe profession from routes other than formal engineeringtraining. For example, studies may be conducted whichindicate that a large portion of new engineers who arenot engineering graduates are not sufficiently trainedand, therefore, the quality of our country's engineers issuffering. Such information could have a major effect onthe decisions as to the extent of increase in training thatis needed.
Carpenters
1. Job Openings, 1968-80. Annual job openings areprojected to average 39,000 for the 1968-80 period. Thisincludes average annual needs of 17,000 for growth and22,000 to replace carpenters who will die and retire.4
2, Training. In 1968, approximately 3,400 carpenterscompleted registered apprenticeship training and became
4See discussion on alternative projections on page 4,
1
journeymen.5 As in other construction crafts manybegan apprenticeship training but dropped out duringthe year, some of whom became employed in theirtrade. In addition, 4,400 persons were enrolled inManpower Development and Training Act (MDTA)on-tlw-job, and institutional training programs in car-pentry. MDTA programs are short-term skill upgradingprograms and if all completed the training presumablythey would be job-ready sometime in 1968. About7,700 persons completed secondary (7,000) and post-secondary (700) vocational education programs incarpentry; there is no information on how many of theseenter the occupation. sum, a maximum potential of15,500 persons could have been specifically prepared toenter carpentry during the year through formal training;the actual number who entered is most likely lower.Preparation in each of these different programs varies,however, and graduates are not equally well qualified. A4-year apprenticeship program is most desirable and isrecommended by training authorities. In addition, manyindividuals pick up their skills on the job and qualify ascarpenters although statistics are not available on thenumber.
3. Inzplication for Training. Between 1968 and 1980an annual average of about 39,000 carpenters, will beneeded to fulfill requirements. (Note discussion ofalternative projections on page 4.) To meet this needthrough formal training, the number trained annually,therefore, would have to be raised by about 25,000 ormore than 150 percent above the number trained in1968. Many carpenters will continue to be trained onthe job or pick up their skills through casual methodsand many job openings will be tilled by trained workersreturning to the occupation who left the trade duringperiods of reduced construction activity. If preparationfor the trade through a training program is better thanthat obtained through casual methods then the dataindicate that an expansion of training is needed toupgrade the carpenter force qualitatively as well asquantitatively. Data for the 1960-68 period whichindicated openings averaged 23,900 and apprenticeshipcompletions averaged 3,250 annually illustrate the point.To keep the same ratio of apprenticeship completions toannual openings in the 1970's as in the 1960's wouldrequire annual average apprenticeship completions toincrease about two-fitirds along with the expectedincrease in annual openings (23,900 to 39,000). Toupgrade the quality of the carpenter work force, an evengreater increase would be needed.
5 U,S. Department or Labor, Manpower Administration,Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, and Cooperative StateApprenticeship Agencies.
6
In planning training of carpenters and other construc-tion crafts, a special problem is encountered because ofthe seasonal and cyclical nature of the industry, as wellas work time lost resulting from the completion of oneproject and the shifting to another. The rate ofunemployment is well above the national average evenwhen construction levels are higji; in 1969, for example,the unemployment rate for construction workers aver-aged 6 percent, compared to a national average of 3.5percent. Since construction craftsmen training is long(most apprenticeship programs last 4 years), generallytrainees must receive some instruction through troughsand peaks of business cycles. Keeping a smooth flow oftrainees to meet long-term manpower needs is difficult.During the troughs of a business cycle employers and or-ganized labor have difficulty being concerned with takingon new trainees when trained workers are unemployed.Since work may not be available during the trough of aseasonal cycle to support the training, taking on largenumbers of new apprentices is difficult to rationalize,even during periods of peak activity.
"Plie problem is further compounded because mostformal apprenticeships for these trades are given inunionized sectors of the industry; very little is given bynonunion employers or firms which employ workers for"force-account" construction or maintenance and repair.
Waiters and waitresses
1. Job Openings, 1968-80. Annual job openings areprojected to average 67,000 for the 1968-80 period. Thisincludes average annual openinzs of 23,000 for growthand 44,000 to replace waiters and waitresses who die
arid retire.
2. Training. Available training data for this occupa-tion indicates that a total of 738 persons completedsecondary and post-secondary vocational education pro-grams for waiters and waitresses in 1968. In addition,1,700 MDTA on-the-job trainees were enrolled in 1968.MDTA programs are short-term programs and if all
completed training in which they were enrolled, it is
reasonable to assume they would have been job readysometime in 1968. In sum, a maximum of 2,438 trainedwaiters and waitresses could have been specificallyprepared to enter this occupation in 1968.
Increasingly, employers prefer that beginners have atleast 2 or 3 years of high school. Most newly hiredwaiters and waitresses, however, learn their skills on thejob.
3. Implications for Training. Only a very smajl por-tion of all waiters and waitresses are formally trained
1
and such training is not needed, although employeeswith some formal training are of course in a betterposition in the job market. One possible implication ofthis information is that this may be a good area toexpand training for disadvantaged persons who need jobsthat can be learned in a short time and have potential forupgrading to better paying jobs. For example, waitersand waitresses can be trained in a short period of timeand after gaining experience move to better paying jobsin larger restaurants; some other career ladder possi-bilities are cashier, headwaiter, hostess, or restaurantmanagement positions. Since workers are primarilytrained on the job, an expansion of training in thisoccupation is not necessary to meet manpower require-ments. Other factors which revolve around the relativeattractiveness (due to salary differentials, working con-ditions, etc.) .of the job would come into play in ashortage situation.
Local Use of Data
Data in this report reflect the national situation.However, most educational and training planning is donelocally. Methods used to convert BLS national man-power projections to local needs are presented inTomorrow's Manpower Needs.' The report indicatedthat training data and its analysis may be more completeat the local level than at the national level because datamay be available locally on the output of privateschools, community colleges, public training programs,and individual firms. Local sources also may supplyinformation on the proportion of trainees who actuallyenter employment in the local labor market.'
6 Bulletin 1606.
7 See Handbook for Projecting Empfoyment by Occupationfor States and Maior Areas (U.S. Department of Labor,Manpower Administration) in process.
7
Chapter II. Occupational Projections
Many factors change the occupational composition ofour nation's labor force, but the principal influence isthe variation in growth among industries requiringdifferent numbers and types of workers. For example,the health service industry can be expected to demandmore licensed practical nurses, hospital attendants, andother woikers while electronics manufacturers will de-mand more engineers, assemblers, and inspectors.
Factors not directly related to industry growth alsoinfluence occupational structure. Technological changesin machines and processes have a major effect. Forexample, the computer has changed the occupationalcomposition in production and office operations inmany industries by creating new occupations andincreasing or decreasing vorker demand. Changes inbusiness organization, such as more chain stores andsupermarkets, also have altered the economy's occupa-tional structure. Union-management agreements are stillanother factor influencing the relative demand fordifferent kinds of workers as in the railroad industry.Changes in government priorities also may requiredifferent types of workers, for example, space researchvs. urban renewal. Even the supply of workers in oneoccupation affects demand for another. Technicianshave been substituted when a shortage of engineersexists.
This bulletin presents projections based on an ex-tensive interrelated program of studies on economicgrowth, technological change, and Lndustrial and oc-cupational trends conducted in the Bureau of LaborStatistics. More details on economic and industry pro-jections and on the methodology used to develop the1980 projections are presented in The US. Economy in1980, BLS Bulletin 1673, and Proiections of U.S.Economic Growth, BLS Bulletin 1672.
Growth of Occupations
Many other factors also have caused the nation's jobstructure to shift. Since World War II, a basic trend hasbeen toward white-collar jobs. In 1956 for the first timein the Nation's history, white-collarprofessional, mana-gerial, clerical, and salesoutnumbered blue-collarworkerscraftsmen, operators, and laborers. Larger pro-portions of service workers and smaller proportions
8
of farm rs and laborers constitute other significanttrends. (See chart 1.)
Between 1960 and 1968, employment of w lite-collarworkers rose from about 28.5 rnillion to 35.6 million orby 25 percent compared to a growth in total employ-ment of IS percent. White-collar workers as a proportionof total employment increased 43 percent in 1960 toalmost 47 percent in 1968. Employment of serviceworkers rose from about 8.0 million to 9.4 million, anincrease of 17 percent, while employment of blue-collarworkers, rising from 24.1 million to 27.5 millionincreased about 14 percent. The number of farmworkers, falling from 5.2 million in 1960 to 3.5 millionin 1968 actually declined about one-third.
Through the 1970's, the rapid growth in requirementsfor white-collar occupations will continue, faster thanaverage growth among service workers, slower thanaverage growth for blue-collar occupations, and farmworkers will decline even further.s For example, wWte-collar occupations will constitute about 50 percent of allemployed worker; iw 1980. Requirements in theseoccupations will rse frt n 35.6 million in 1968 to 48.3million in 1980. ("' table 2.) By 1980, blue-collaroccupations will make up 32.7 percent of the workforce, a reduction from 36.3 percent in 1968. Employ-ment, however, will rise from 27.5 million in 1968 to31.1 million in 1980. Through the 1970's, needs forworkers in service occupations will continhe to expandand increase nearly 40 percent, more than PA times theexpansion for all occupations combined. Employmentwill rise to 13.1 million in 1980, from 9.4 million in1968. And finally, requirements for farm workers willcontinue to decline as machines and improved farmingtechniques take over many more of the productionprocesses on the farm; employment will shrink from 3.5million in 1968 to 2.6 million in 1980.
The professional and technical occupation group,whose gowth rate has outpaced that of all majoroccupational groups in recent decades, will continue tolead from 1968-80; its estimated rate of increase is 50percent, compared with 25 percent for all oecupations.(See chart 2.) Service workers, who will increase nearly
a The Bureau's projections rely strongly on assumptionspresented in appendix A. along with the methodology used todevelop the projections.
, 4
CHART 1.EMPLOYMENT IS SHIFTING
TOWARD WH1TE-COLLAR OCCUPATIONSPERCENT
100
WHITE COLLARWORKERS
SERVICEWORKERS
FARMWORKERS
1950 1960 1968 1980 *
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics * Projected
CHART 2.PERCENT CHANGE IN MAJOR OCCUPATIONAL GROUP
1968-80 PROJECTEDPERCENT -25 -20 -15 -10 - 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
ALL WORKERS
PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL
SERVICE WORKERS
CLERICAL WORKERS
SALES WORKERS
MANAGERS, OFFICIALS AND PROPRIETORS
CRAFTSMEN AND FOREMEN
OPERATIVES
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics
NONFARM LABORERS
FATinn WORKERS
CHART 3.OPENINGS ARE DETERMINED BY GROWTH PLUS REPLACEMENTS
(WORKERS NEEDED, 1968-1980, IN MILLIONS)-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
A4F.IFCLERICAL WORKERS
PROFESSIONAL ANDTECHNICAL
SERVICE WORKERS
OPERATIVES
CRAFTSMEN
MANAGERS, OFFICIALSAND PROPRIETORS
, SALES WORKERS
7 8
REMACEME
10 11
I
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics
NONFARM LABORERS
IFARM WORKERS
I I
A
=f.'
40 percent, will be the second fastest growing group.Clerical workers, whose projected growth rate is 35percent, will be the third fastest growing occupation.They will be followed by sales workers. Managers,officials, and proprietors (22 percent); and operatives(10 percent) are projected to grow less rapidly :aan totalemployment; the employment level of nonfarm laborersis expected to be about the same in 1980 as in 1968.Further declines are expected in the number of farmworkers.
Selected Occupations
Appendix B presents detailed projections, includingestimates of annual average job openings for 232occupations. These estimates result from growth andreplacement of workers who die or withdraw from thelabor force, but not from openings resulting fromworkers who transfer occupations. Such data are avail-able only for a small group of occupations requiringcollege training and are included in the text of thisreport and in Appendix B only where specifically stated.
The following discussions highlight projections formany of the major occupations:
Professional and technical workers, Employment re-quirements for professional and technical workers in1980 are projected at 15.5 million, 50 percent morethan the 10.3 million employed in 1980. This raterepresents a slower growth than the annual averagebetween 1958 and 1968. As in the earlier period,
demand for goods and services icsulting from populationgrowth and rising incomes will be a major factorunderlying increasing requirements for these highly
cialized workers. Concentration of the population inmetropolitan areas also will create new demands forprofessional and technical workers in fields such asenvironmental protection, urban renewal, and masstransportation systems. In addition, efforts to developfurther the nation's resources and industry and the questfor knowledge-in scientific, technical, and many otherfields-will require more professional workers.
Manpower needs will increase in almost every profes-sional and technical occupation, but rates of increasewill differ arnung occupations.
Teaching, the largest profession, is expected to require2.7 million workers in 1980, compared with 2.5 millionemployed in 1968. Rates of increase among the threemai r levels of teaching-elementary, secondary, and
ege-will vary widely. The smallest growth, about 3crcent, is expected for elementary school teachers.Although more teachers will be required because of thedemand to reduce the average class size, decliningenrollments in elementary schools between 1968 and1980 will limit employment growth. The 14-percentincrease in requirements for secondary school teachers isprimarily attributable to higher enrollments in secondaryschools in 1980 than in 1968. Demand for college anduniversity teachers is expected to grow almost 40percent as the number of 18-21 year olds rises nearly 2.7nilllion between 1968 and 1980. At the same time risingfamily income, programs of student financial assistance,
Table 2. Employment by major occupational group, 1968 and projected 1980 requirements[In thousands]
Occupational Group 1966Projected 1980requirements Change 1968-80
Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent
Total 75,920 100.0 95,100 100.0 19,180 25.3
White-collar workers 35,551 46.8 48,300 50.8 12,749 35.9Professionel and technical 10,325 13.6 15,500 15.3 5,175 50.1Managers, officials, and
proprietors 7,775 10.2 9,500 10.0 1,724 22.2Clerical workers 12,803 16.9 17,300 18.2 4,497 35.1Sales workers 4,647 6.1 6,000 6.3 1,353 29.1
Blue-collar workers 27,525 36.3 31,100 32.7 3,575 13.0Craftsmen and foremen 10,015 13.2 12,200 12.8 2,185 21.8Operatives 13,955 18.4 15,400 16.2 1,445 10.4Nonfarm laborers 3,555 4.7 3,500 3.7 -55 -1.5
Service workers 9,381 12.4 13,100 13.8 3,719 39.6
Farm workers 3,464 4.6 2,600 2.7 -864 -33.2
Note: Because of rounding, sums of individual items may not equal totals.Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics.
11
and the increasing availability of community collegeswill enable larger proportions of youth to attend college.
Requirements in Engineering, the second largest pro-fession and the largest profession for men, is expected toincrease from nearly 1.1 million to about 1.5 millionworkers, or 40 percent between 1968 and 1980. Newengineers will be needed to meet the demands of agrowing population for additional goods and services,and for expanded research and development programs.Particularly rapid growth is expected in industrial,electrical, and civil engineering. Industrial growth, ex-pansion of automated processes, and increasmg emphasison scientific management will result in increased demandfor industrial engineers Mass transit, highway transpor-tation systems, and expanded environmental programsare expected to require more civil engineers. Derciand iorelectrical engineers is tied closely to the growth ofautomatically controlled production processes and risingconsumer requests for electrical and electronic goods.
Physical scientists in many fields will experiencerapidly gowing demand for their services from 1968 to1980. Requirements for physicists in 1980 are projectedat 75,000, or 64 percent more than the 45,000employed in 1968. Chemist requirements are expectedto grow from 130,000 to 200,000 or 56 percent.Requirements for scientists in each of these fields areheavily predicated on increasing expenditures for re-search and development although the rate is expected tobe slower than that experienced from the late 1950'sthrough the late 1960's. In addition, the demand forchemists will continue to reflect the growing market forplastics, manmade fibers, drugs, nuclear fuels, and otherindustrial products having a chemical origin.
Employment requirements for life scientists, includingbotanists, zoologists, and microbiologists, are projectedto increase to 240,000 in 1980, or about 41 percent overthe 170,000 employed in 1968. Growth is related toexpanded research in health and environmental qualitycontrol. Needs for biochemists are expected to growrapidly, orimarily as the result of expanded medicalresearch on cancer, heart disease, mental illness, andother health problems.
Oceanographer requirements are projected at 9,700 in1980, compared with 5,200 in 1968. This 85-percentincrease is more rapid than that projected for any othernatural science occupation. Growth is linked to ex-panded research to the potential development of theocean's resources for food, fresh water, and energy; andlong-range weather forecasting.
Engineering and science technicians are expected togrow from 620,000 to 890,000 or more than 40 percentbetween 1968 and 1980. Their gowth needs will bestimulated by the same factors that will increase demand
12r
for the engineers and scientists with whom they work. Inaddition, technicians will be used in increasing numbersto relieve professional engineers and scientists whoseduties do not require full professional preparation.
Draftsmen are projected to increase from 295,000 to435,000 or 48 percent, largely as a result of theincreasingly complex design of modern products andprocesses.
Requirements in health service occupations also areexpected to increase substantially. Population growth,rising incomes, prepayment arrangements, and govern-ment programs such as Medicare and Medicaid, areprincipal factors underlying projected requirements.Other factors are the rising standards of health care,prowing interest in preventive medicine, and the expan-sion of medical research.
Employment requirements for physicians are expectedto increase to 469,000 in 1980, a 53-percent increaseover 1968 employment of 307,000. To some extent, therise in the demand for physicians' services is expected tobe offset by developments that will enable physicians tocare for more patients. For example, new drugs willcontinue to shorten illnesses and fewer housecalls will bemade because of the growing practice of treatingpatients in hospitals and physicians' offices.
Dentist requirements are projected at 130,000 in1980, a 32-percent increase over the 100,000 employedin 1968. Requirements for dentists would be higherexcept for the increasing use of auxiliary workersincluding dental assistants and dental hygienists. De-mand for dental assistants alone is projected to grow 50percent during the period 1968-80, or from 100,000 to150,000. This level assumes that dentists will employ onthe average 1.2 dental assistants in 1980 compared with1.0 in 1968. Dental hygienists are expected to increasefrom 16,000 in 1968 to 33,500 in 1980 or 109 percent.
Registered nurses, who constitute the largest occupa-tion group in the professional health field, will be inincreasing demand. Requirements for restered nursesare projected to grow from 660,000 to 1 million, or 52percent between 1968 and 1980.
Medical laboratory worker requirements are expectedto expand as physicians increasingly depend uponlaboratory tests in routine physical checkups as well asin the diagnosis anJ treatment of disease. Growth ofthese workersincluding medical technologists, medicallaboratory technicians, and medical laboratory assist-ants--is projected to increase 90 percent, from 100,000in 1968 to 190,000 in 1980.
Need for accountants, one of the largest occupationsfor men, are expected to increase 43 percent, from500,000 employed in 1968 to 720,000 in 1980i Greateruse of accounting inforAnation in business maragement,
increasingly complex and changing tax systems, growthin the size and number of business corporations requiredto provide financial reports to stockholders, and theincreasing use of accounting serv;-es by small films arethe primary factors underlying this projected growth.
Systems analyst and programmer requirements areexpected to increase steeply in response to the rapidgrowth in the number of electronic data processingsystems used by business, government, universities, andother organizations. Programmer requirements are pro-jected at 400,000 in 1980, a 129-percent increase overthe 175,000 employed in ;968. An even more rapidgrowth rateI83 percentis expected for systemanalysts, with requirements increasing to 425,000 in1980 from an employment of 150,000 in 1968. Thefaster growth of the more highly trained systemsanalysts compared with programmers is related to theincreasing capabilities of computers for solving complexscientific, engineering, and business problems; extensionof systems analysis to new problems; and the growth ofcomputer centers to serve small clients.
Managers, officials, and proprietors. Employment re-quirements for managers, officials, and proprietors areprojected to rise to 9.5 million in 1980, compared withthe 7.8 million employed in 1968. This 22-percentincrease represents a slightly higher average annual rateof growth than during the 1960-68 period. As in theearlier period, the growth in requirements will be relatedto the increasing size of firms and the growing com-plexity of their operations. However, this gross rateconceals sharp differences in the growth of the individualoccupations that make up this broad category.
Salaried managers and officials, who make up morethan 70 percent of all managerial workers, are expectedto grow very rapidly as business and government dependincreasingly on trained management specialists. Techno-logical development will contribute further to em-ployment growth of these occupations. For example, anincreasing number of technical managers are needed toplan msearch and development programs and makedecisions on the installation and use of automatedmachinery and data processing systems.
Proprietors are expected to continue to decline as largefirms restrict the growth of the total number of firms.Expansion of self-service groceries, laundries, and dry-cleaning shops, and hamburger and frozen custarddrive-ins, however, will restrain the rate of decline.
Clerical workers. By 1980, the clerical group isexpected to grow rapidly to 17.3 million, a 35-percentincrease over the 12.8 million employed in 1968 butconsiderably slower than in the 1960-68 period. In-
creased size and complexity in mail, telephone, andtelegraphic communication and in recordkeeping offirms, government, and other institutions will contributeto the growing demand for clerical workers.
TechnoloOcal developments will limit growth forcertain types of clerical workers. To illustrate, electroniccomputers and bookkeeping inaclUnes are expected toreduce the number of clerks in jobs such as filing,payroll, inventory control, and customer billing. On theother hand, growing requirements for clerical personnelto prepare col- ler inputs will offset somewhat labor-saving innovat, _is.
Requirements for stenographers and secretaries, whomade up the largest of the clerical occupational groups,are expected to reach 3.7 million in 1980, an increase of37 percent over the 2.7 million employed in 1968.Rapid growth particularly in finance, insurance, and realestate, which employ large clerical staffs, is a majorfactor in the projected demand. Furthermore, as bothprivate industry and government continue to grow insize and complexity, paperwork will expand. Techno-logical innovations in offices are not expected to limitdemand for stenographers and secretaries. Typist de-mand, on the other hand, which is projected to increaseto 930,000 in 1980, up 37 percent from the 700,000employed in 1968, would be even higher except forduplicating equipment.
Bookkeeping worker needs are expected to increase 19percent to 1.5 million in 1980 from the 1.2 millionemployed in 1968 as a result of economic expansion andthe increasing complexity of business. Laborsaving in-novations, such as automatic data processing and book-keeping machines, will limit more routine bookkeepingtasks. However, many companies lack the volume ofwork or capital to automate; others will continue tocombine electronic data processing and conventionalequipment.
C'ashier demand is projected to increase to 1.1 millionin 1980, or 51 percent over 1968, when employmentstood at 730,000. Growth is related to business expan-sion plus the increasing adoption of self-service merchan-dising.
Office machine operator requirements are expected toincrease to 460,000 in 1980, or 39 percent over the325,000 emp1oyed in 1968. Growth is based on thetremendous increase in paperwork as the economy growseid firms increase in size and complexity. Automatedrecordkeeping may displace some tabulating and billingmachine operators. In addition, keypunch operatordemand may be affected adversely by automatic readingdevices in computer systems. On the other hand,demands for some office machine operators, includingcalculating machine ovrators, are expected to grow
19 "
partly as a result of the need to prepare data forcomputer processing. The need for electronic computeroperating personnel, including console and auxiliaryequipment operators, is expected to reach 400,000 in1980, a 129-percent increase over the 1968 employmentof 175,000.
Sales workers. Employment requirements for salesworkers are projected to increase 29 percent from 1968
to 1980, or from 4.6 million to 6.0 million workers,considerably more rapid than during the 1960-68 period.As in the past, increased sales attributable to populationgrowth, rising income levels, new product development,and business expansion, will be major factors in in-creased employment of salesworkcrs.
The need for retail salesworkers, by far the largest sales
group, is expected to increase to 3.5 million in 1980, 24percent more than the 2.8 million employed in 1968.Longer hours in metropolitan and suburban areas will
exert some influence on the demand for retail sales-workers; on the other hand, vending machines, self-
service, and checkout counters will tend to dampen
requirements.Wholesale salesmen requirements are projected to
increase to nearly 700,000, a 30-percent increase overthe 530,000 employed in 1968. Growth factors will
include the trend for special services to customers andemphasis on sales as centralized purchasing increases the
size of accounts.Manufacturers salesmen are projected to reach
735,000 in 1980, a 47-percent increase over the 500,000employed in 1968. This rapid growth reflects in part the
continued development of new products and servicesand heightened competition among manufacturers for
sales.Insurance agents and brokers needs are expected to
increase to 480,000, a level of 17 percent above the410,000 employed in 1968. Population growth, increasesin major consumer purchases such as homes and auto-mobiles, and expansion in industrial plant and equip-
ment are major factors in the expected growth.
Service workers. Employment requirements for ser-vice workers are projected at 13.1 million in 1980, a40-percent increase over the 9.4 million in 1 "i8. Thisgrowth represents a considerable increase over theannual average growth between 1960 and 1968. As inthat period, however, the major factors underlying rising
requirements will be a growing population, expandingbusiness, increasing leisule, and more disposable personalincome. Rates of growth will fluctuate among service
occupations.Employment requir ments for private household
workers, the largest of the service occupations, areexpected to reach about 2.0 million in 1980, a l 5-per-cent increase over the 1.7 million employed in 1968_Demand will grow in response to increasing population,rising family incomes, and the growing proportion ofhousewives employed outside the home.
Building custodian demand is expected to increase to1.5 million in 1980, a 33-percent increase over the 11employed in 1968. Employment is expected to grow asincreases in population and high levels of economicactivity spur construction of new apartments, officebuildings, hotels, and hospitals. However, new cleaners,solvents, and laborsaving cleaning equipment will tend torestrict growth of tins occupation.
The need for cooks and chefs is projected at 900,000in 1980, a 33-percent increase over 1968, when 670,000were employed, while waiters and waitresses will in-
crease to 1_2 million, a 28-percent increase over the1968 employment of 960,000_ The rapid increase in thepopulation of groups that customarily patronize restau-rantsworkers, students, and traveler and increasingnumbers of patients and hospital personnelare factorsin the growing requirements. Prepared foods and labor-saving devices as well as vending maclUnes will limitrequirements for waiters and cooks.
Licensed practical nurse requirements are expected toincrease from 320,000 to 600,000 -r 88 percent, andhospital attendants to 1.5 million in 1980, 88 percentmore than the 800,000 employed in 1968. Require-ments for these workers, as for the professional healthworkers discussed earlier, are linked to the rising demand
for medical care.Cosmetologist requirements are expected to increase
to 685,000 in 1980, up 43 percent over the 475,000employed in 1968, while barber demand is projected at260,000, or 24 percent over the 210,000 employed in1968_ Growth in these occupations is linked to in-creasing population, rising incomes, and, for cosmetolo-Osts, growing proportions of women who work outside
the home.Municipal police officer employment requirements are
projected at 360,000 in 1980, up 28 percent over the285,000 employed in 1968. Primary growth factors will
be population and economic growth, which create aneed for more officers to protect life and property, and
to regulate traffic. The growth concentration of thepopulation in urban areas and rising crime rates in manycities will further increase demands.
The need for firefighters is projected to grow to245,000, an increase of 34 percent over the 180,000employed in 1968. Requirements for firefighters willincrease to meet the needs for flre protection in growing
urban communities_
craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers (skilledworkers). Requirements for craftsmen and foremen areexpected to reach 12.2 million in 1980, a 22-percentincrease over the level of employment in these occupa-tions in 1968. The rate of growth projected is the sameas in the 1958-68 period. As in the earlier period, thedemand for skilled workers will continue to be spurredby population increase, the rapid formation of newfamilies, the anticipated increase in such industries asconstruction and manufacturing, and the increasingownership of consumer durables. Rates of employmentgrowth will continue to differ among skilled occupa-tions. C'arpenters, the largest occupation in the buildingtrades, are expected to increase to almost 1.1 million in1980, up 24 percent over the 869,000 employed in1968.9 Demand would exceed the projected level cxceptfor the growing use of prefabricated building com-ponents, power tools, and improved materials such asstronger adhesives and nails having improved holdingproper ties.
Plumber and pipefitter requirements are expected toincrease to 475,000 in 1980, a 44-percent increase overthe 330,000 employed in 1968.10 The trend towardmore bathrooms per dwelling unit is likely to continue.1mA-easing sales of appliances, such as washing machinzsfor clothes or dishes, and waste di-posal units, as well asautomatic heating and cooling systems will requireadditional plumbers for installat'on and servicing. Inaddition, pipework is growing in importance in industry,especially in the chemicals industry and in otherindustries that are automating more of their production.Increasing industrial activities related to atomic energyand greater use of refrigeration and air-conditioningequipment also will result in more work for plumberswfd pipefitters. On the other hand, technological de-velopments such as prefabricated plumbing assembliesare expected to linvit the growth of jobs for plumbersand pipefltters.
Needs for construction machinery operatorscrane-men, bulldozer operators, derrick operators, and othersare expected to increase to 410,000 in 1980, up abouttwo-fifths over the 285,000 employed in 1968.11 Thisgjowth rate is higher than for any of the other largeconstruction occupations. The growing volume of high-way construction, resulting from the Federal Govern-ment's long-range, multi-billion dollar hig,hway develop-ment program, is particularly important in increasingdemand for these workers.
9 See discussion of alternative projections for constructioncraftsmen on page 4.
1°Ibid.1 'Ibid.
Motor vehicle mechanics, the largest of the mechanicand repairmen occupations, are expected to reach 1
million in 1980, a 21-percent increase over 1968employment of 825,000. Growth of requirements isrelated primarily to the increasing number of auto-mobiles, trucks, and buses, and the growing proportionthat will be equipped with air-conditioning, powerbrakes, and devices that reduce exhaust fumesall ofwhich increase maintenance. Growth will be partiallyoffset by the greater use of test equipment, such asdynamometers and engine analyzers, and the growth ofdiagnostic centers.
Aircraft mechanic requirements are expected to in-crease to 230,000 in 1980, a 70-percent increase overthe 135,000 employed in 1968. The anticipated increasein the number of aircraft is a major growth factor.
Business machine servicemen will experience a veryrapid growth in demand as requirements rise to 200,000,about three-fourths more than the 115,000 employed in1968. The expected increase in the use of many types ofoffice machines, more complex equipment requiringincreased maintenance, such as electric typewriters andthe rapid expansion of data processing are major factorsbehind the rising demand for business machine service-men. The fastest growing occupations in this group areexpected to be typewriter servicemen, data-processingequipment servicemen, and duplicating and copyingmachine servicemen.
Semiskilled workers (operatives). Semiskilled workeremployment requirements are projected at 15.4 millionin 1980, a 10-percent increase over the almost 14.0million employed in 1968. This rate appears to be muchlower than that experienced from 1960-68 according toemployment levels at the beginning and end of thatperiod. However, employment of operatives, after fluc-tuating between 11.8 million and 12.8 million in the 12years following the end of the War, dropped to 12.0naion in 1960 then increased significantly beginning in1961 primarily because of the increase in manufacturing.
Three of every 5 semiskilled workers in 1968 wereemployed as factory operatives in manufacturing in-dustries. Large numbers were assemblers or inspectorsand many worked as operators of material movingequipment such as powered forklift trucks. Among thenonfactory operatives, drivers of trucks, buses, andtaxicabs made up by far the largest group.
Employment trends among the individual semiskilledoccupations since World War II have reflected thedifferent rates of growth of the industries in which theworkers were employed as well as the differiniimpact oftechnological innovations on occupations. For example,the rapid decline in employment of spinners and weavers
15
iefIcL-ted not only the relatively small increase in the
demand for textile mill products, but also the increased
mechanization of spinning and weaving processes. In-
creases in production and growing motor truck trans-portation of freight will be major factors in expandingdemands fol operatives in the 1968-80 period.
Local truck drivers, the largest of the operativeoccupations, are expected to increase to 1.5 ration.Growth is linked to the anticipated increase in local
freight volume, and the wider area served as suburbs
expand. However, the use of radio telephones toinstruct drivers enroute will reduce the time needed for
making deliveries.The need for over-the-road truck drivers is expected to
increase to 800,000 in 1980, up 25 percent liom the
640,000 employed in 1968. Growth in demand is relatedto increased commercial and industrial activity and thecontinued decentralization of industry. Increased de-
mand also is expected to result from improvements in
trailer design that make it possible to ship frozen goodsand livestock over long distances, as well as new truckingmethods that reduce handling, such as the use of twotrailers hitched in tandem. Other recent freight trans-portation innovations, however, will limit somewhat the
demand that otherwise might be anticipated.Requests for assemblers, who put together parts or
finished products in manufacturing plants, are expectedto grow to 850,000 in 1980, an increase of 8 percentover the 785,000 employed in 1968. Demand for theseworkers will be restricted by further increases in the useof automatic assembly processes, the increasing use ofprinted circuits in the manufacture of radio and tele-
vision sets, and the increasing adoption of other tech-
nological changes.Inspectors (manufacturing) are expected to increase to
635,000, a 9-percent growth over the 585,000 in thisoccupation in 1968. Industry growth, the increasingcomplexity of manufactured products, and rising qualitystandards will create additional demand for theseworkers, although the increasing use of mechanized andautomatic inspection equipment will partially offsetgrowth factors.
Welders and oxygen and arc cutters, one of the largestoccupations in the operative group, are expected toincrease more rapidly than most others in tins majorgroup. Employment requirements are projected at
675,000 in 1980, up 41 percent over the 480,000employed in 1968. Growth is related to the generallyfavorable longrun outlook for metalworking industriesand the wider use of the welding process.
Gasoline service station attendant requirements areprojected at 475,000 in 1980, up 16 percent from the400,000 employed in 1968. Growth is related to theexpected increase of motor vehicles as the population of
16
driving age grows, incomes rise, multiple-car ownersinpexpands, and the move to suburbs continues.
Nonfarm laborers. Employment of laborers, reaching
a low of 3.3 million in 1961 and a Ingh of 3.7 million in1965, fluctuated around 3.5 nnllion between 1960 and1968. Between 1968 and 1980, employment require-
ments ale expected to change little despite the rapid rise
anticipated in manufacturing and construction, theprimary employers of laborers.
Increases in demand arc expected to be offset by rising
output per worker resulting from the continuing substi-tution of mechanical equipment for manual labor. Forexample, power-driven equipment such as forklifts der-ricks, cranes, hoists, and conveyor belts, will take overmore and more materials handling in factories, at freight
terminals, and in warehouses. Other power-driven
machines will do excavating, ditch digging, and similarwork. In addition, integrated systems of processing and
materials handling equipment will be installed in dil
increasing number of plants in the years ahead.
Job Openings
Up to tins point this chapter has discussed the relative
growth in requirements for occupations from 1968-80.Although gowth is a key indicator of employmentoutlook, more openings will result over the 1968-80period from deaths, retirements, and other labor force
separations than from employment growth. Replace-ment needs will be particularly significant in occupationshaving large proportions of older workers or women,since many women leave the labor force each yearbecause of family responsibilities. Furthermore, large
occupations that have no or little growth may have moreopenings than faster growing small occupations. Among
the major occupational groups, for example, openingsfor operatives resulting from growth and replacementcombined will be greater than foi craftsmen, althoughthe rate of growth of craftsmen will be more than twice
as rapid as for operatives. (See chart 3.)Many job openings also are created because of occupa-
tional shifts. For example, when a technician is upgradedto an engineer, a technician job opening is created. Ofcourse, this shift also adds to the supply of engineers.Data for estimating transfer losses and gains generally arenot available. Estimates of job openings in tins bulletin(appendix B), therefore, do not include transfers exceptfor some professions for which data are available, asindicated in a footnote.
Rather than show data for the entire .1968-80 period,appendix B presents annual openings which can be easily
compared with annual training output as presemed inappendix C. Annual data present openings for the entire1968-80 period dividedby 12.
22
Chapter II I. The Status of Occupational Training
Each year occupational training is needed by millionsof young people who must bridge the gap betweenschool and work, persons whose skills have becomeobsolete as a result of technology, and the disadvantagedwho need to qualify for entry level jobs and progress upthe occupational skill ladder.
As was shown in the preceding chapter. the Nationincreasingly is shifting from producing goods toproducing services, and hence, from blue-collar towhite-collar johsjobs that require higher levels ofeducation and skill acquired through formal training.Furthermore, an increasingly larger proportion ofblue-collar workers will become craftsmen who requiremore training than other blue-collar workers. Additionalfactors that will influence training needs includetechnological developments that create new jobsrequiring much training and that eliminate jobs requiringlittle training. The need for specialized training willcover more jobs than ever before. In addition, the goalsof occupational training are being broadened to includemore than specific preparation for a job or career, suchas training given that facilitates a worker's adaptation toconstantly changing demands of his job or the labormarket.
Tfds chapter discusses available training foroccupations. Chapter IV discusses kinds of trainingneeded to enter each of the 232 occupations for whichestimates of manpower requirements are presented.Appendix C presents statistics on training completionsfor the most recent year data are available on eachoccupation for which the Bureau has projected man-power requirements.
Types of Occupational Training
Vocational education. Vocational education in
public school provides training opportunities "so thatpersons of all ages in all communities of the
State will have ready access to vocational trainingwhich is of high quality, which is realistic in the light ofactual or anticipated opportunities for gainfulknitployment and which is suited to their needs, interestsand ability to benefit from such truining.-12 The 1968:Imendments to the Vocational Education Act
emphasized vocational training related to current jobmarker,. The amended act emphasized national, state,and local planning for the expansion of instructionalprograms. Future vocational education must considermarket needs and employment opportunities so thatgreater cooperation will result among schools, businessand industrial organizations, and the public employmentservice.
In 1969, approximately 8 million persons wereenrolled in federally aided voca ional-technicaleducation programs.
During fiscal year (FY) 1969, enrollments in
post-secondary vocational and technical programsnumbered 960,000, and secondary programs 4.6 million.Except for agriculture and distributive fields,enrollments increased from FY 1968 in all fields ofeducation; the greatest increase was in the health andoffice fields.
Graduates of secondary and post-secondary programshave good job placement records. About 75 percent ofall graduates who sought jobs in 1968 obtainedemployment in the field for which they were trained orin a related field.' 3 Many others found work not relatedto their training. Placement rates for studentscompleting post-secondary programs were 87 percentcompared with 72 percent for secondary school
gr aduates.Of the 885,000 persons who had completed
vocational education programs in 1968. approximately480,000 were available for placement-365,000 at thesecondary level and 116,000 at the post-secondary level.Of the 304,500 not available for placement, about210,000 or 69 percent continued school full time and53,000 or 17.4 percent entered the Armed Forces.' 4
Although vocational education programs generallyprepare students in a specific occupation, e.g., dentalassistant programs train dental assistants, many programs
1 2 Vocational Education Amendments of 1968 Public Law90-576.
1 3 S01.1f CC. Manpower Report of the President. 1970, p. 68.1 4 Based on data rroin Manpmver Ruport of the President,
1970 (U.S. Department or Health, Education. and Welfare,Office of Ed-cation). p. 69.
2
Table 3. Enrolimeuts in federally aided vocational-tech-nical education, by field of education, fiscal year 1969
[Number in thousands]
Field of education NumberPercent
distribution
Total 7,981 100.0
Agriculture . . ...... . . . . 851 10.7
Distributive 566 7.1
Health . . ....... . . 176 2.2
Home Economics .. . . . . . 2,449 30.7
Office 1,837 23.0Technical 315 3.9
Trades and Industry 1,723 21 6
Other 64 .8
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Health, EducaOffice of Education.
ion and Welfare.
prepare students for employment in several relatedoccupations, e.g., machine shop and blue-print reading.
Private vocational schools. Private vocational schoolsprepare students for employment in many areas, but thethree main types of schools are business, trade andtechnical, and cosmetology and barber schools. In 1966,
about 3,000 trade and technical schools enrolled over800,000 students; 1,300 business schools enrolled morethan 400,000 students; and nearly 2,800 barber andcosmetology schools enrolled nearly 300,000
students.' 5Such schools vary in size from 10 to over 1,200
students; the length of courses and types of programsoffered also vary. Some schools have many coursesleading to certificates in several different occupations.Some business schools, for example, offer refreshercourses in shorthand, a full program in beginningsecretarial work; and the fundamentals Of accounting.About 230 different courses were taught in 544 tradeand technical schools." The six categories offering thewidest range were: automobile maintenance and relatedservices; data processing; drafting; electronics, medical
services; and radio-television. Business schools teach all
types of clerical worktyping, shorthand, filingas wellas accounting, data processing, and related fields. Themi tither of graduates of private vocational schools is not
Federal apprenticeship programs. Apprenticeshiptraining combines theory and on-the-job instruction toprepare journeymen in skilled crafts. The Department ofLabor registers but does not finance such programs. It
15 Behtsky, A. Harvey,Students (Schenkman PuMass.), 1969.
16 Belitsky, op. eh.
ivate Vocational Schools and Theirshing Company, Inc., Cambridge,
provides technic:11 assistance to employers and unions in
esta blishing programs. Of the almost 240.000
apprentices in 1969, over 55 percent were in
construction, 24 percent in metalworking. and 5.4percent in ?rutting.
In addition to federally registered programs, manyprogyams are provided whose sponsors have chosen not
to register. Many of these are of high quality. No
information is available, however, on the number of suchprograms or of apprentices involved.
Employer training. Employer training may be formalor informal. Generally, workers receive on-the-jobformal training in conjunction with classroom work.17A 1963 Department of Labor study showed that only asmall proportion of workers had learned their skills in
such programs.' 8 The likelihood of a firm having formaltraining varies directly with the size of the firm; largerfirms can better afford monetary and manpower costsinvolved in training.' 9
In most instances, training is informal and takes place
mainly in the work environment. Most workers, ac-cording to the 1963 study, had "just picked up" theircurrent skills informally on the job.
Current statistics on completion Of employer training
programs are not available. Furthermore, the feasibilityof collecting such data raises some question. The Bureauof Labor Statistics, with the support of the ManpowerAdministration, currently is embarking upon a study todetermine the feasibility of collecting statistics onoccupational training in private industry.
Armed Forces. The Armed Forces offers training in
electronics, aircraft maintenance, metalworking, andother skills to help young men Obtain civilian jobs upon'separation. Military personnel also may enroll in volun-tary off-duty academic and technical programs. Approxi-
mately 200 such correspondence courses range fromelementary school through the second year of college.
Project Transition, an Armed Forces-wide trainingprogram, prepares men who have between 1 and 6months left in service for employment in civilian life. In
operation for 2 years, Project Transition is a joint effort
I 7Apprenticeship programs fall into this category but wthediscussed in the preceding sections.
18Formal Occupational Training of Adult WorkersIts Ex-tent, Nature, and Use (Washington: U.S. Department of Labor,December, 1964, Manpower/Automation Research MonographNo. 2).
19 Mauling of Workers in American Industry (Washington:
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Apprenticeship andTraining, 1962).
24
of private industry and the governmeni.. tt providestraining in many skills, including Post Office positions.Participants volunteer and may take only courses offeredat the bases where they are stationed. When openings arelimited, preference is given to those who have combatdisabilities and then to those who have no civilian skills.Although sonie statistics are available, data on thenumber trained and entering civilian jobs are notavailable.
Federal manpower programs2°
Job Opportunities in the Business Sector (JOBS). ,rl'heJOBS program was begun in 1968. Initial commitmentwas by the business community in about 50 metro-politan areas to hire and give on-the-job training andother services, such as counseling and health care, tothousands of disadvantaged persons. The Departrnent ofLabor recruits job applicants, provides technical support,and meets extra costs of employing persons who havespecial problems and needs; the National Alliance ofBusinessmen (NAB) enlists the support of the privatebusiness sector and secures job pledges. The program isbuilt on the premise that immediate placement in _;obs atregular wages, followed by training and supportiveservices, provides superior motivation for disadvantagedpersons. Through January 1970, only 80,000 personshad been hired under JOBS contracts with the Depart-ment of Labor. Independent companies had taken on300,000 without Federal financial assistance. Of the380,000 hired, 200,000 were still on the job in January1970. About 20 percent of those in JOBS programs werein clerical and sales occupations; another 15 percentworked in macMning occupations; and nearly 20 percentwere engaged in structural work.
Manpower Development and Training Act (MDTA).This act was passed primarily to retrain workerswhose skills were obsolete; however, that portion of theprogram initially devoted to youth has been expanded,and major emphasis has been placed on training thedisadvantaged.
Two basic types of training are authorized under theMDTA; institutional instruction (classroom), and on-the-job training (OJT). Most training, conducted pri-marily in public vocational schools, has been institu-tional. MDTA programs are sponsored jointly by theDepartment of Health, Education, and Welfare and the
2 0 information on Department of Labor sponsored Federalmanpower programs are based on information appearing in theManpower Report of the President, 1970, and on unpublishedLabor Department records. Most of the specific occupationalstatistics shown for Labor Department programs are based onunpublished records.
Dcpi.rtmont of Labor. Under OJT, training is provided atthe jobsite by an employer under contract with theDepartment of Labor. Private businesses, trade associ-ations, labor unions, and public agencies sponsor suchprograms.
OJT programs are designed to equip workers withentrance level skills; to provide remedial training for theunderemployed and those subject to job displacement;and to provide training for workers from minoritygroups, the disadvantaged, and other hard-to-train per-sons. In addition, training programs are offe ecl inoccupations in short supply which are deemed critical tothe economy and to national defense.
OjT is sometimes coupled with classroom training;such instruction usually covers directly related technicalsubjects, but may include academic education essentialto effective job perforrance. In 1969, approximately135,000 persons were unrolled in MDTA institutionaltraining programs. The largest number, over 33,000, werebeing trained for clerical occupations, mostly in steno-graphic and typing fields. More than 30,000 recievedtraining in the machine trades as machinists, machinetool operators, and business machine repairmen. An-other 6,400 received training in benehwork occupationssuch as TV assembly and repair, and upholstering. (Seetable 5 for statistics on enrollments by occupation.)Over 23,000 were enrolled in structural occupationssuch as transportation equipment assemblers, bodymen,arc welders, and combination welders. Over 18,000received professional and managerial training includingrefresher courses for professional nurses.
Approximately 85,000 persons were enrolled inMDTA on-the-job training programs in 1969. Trainingwas provided for many occupations including motorvehicle mechanics, machinists, waiters and waitresses,bodymen, carpenters, and salesmen.
Job Corps. The Job Corps trains high school dropouts16 through 21 years of age who have records of loweducational achievement, have been out of work for atleast 3 months, or need full-time employment. Theprogram provides financial assistance while youth arebeing introduced to work requirements and basic man-power skills. In fiscal 1967, universities or nonprofitorganizations ran seven of the urban centers and privatefirms ran the remaining 21. Job Corps centers generally
are located in former hotels, hospitals, military bases, orsirMlar facilities. Besides living space, including dormi-tory facilities and a cafeteria, centers have classrooms,vocational shops, a clinic, a library, and recreationalfacilities.
The Job Corps emphasizes programs coupling theunique residential services of Job Corps centers with
other programs. For example the Job Corps may referex-corpsmen to MDTA skEls training, as well as to JOBSprograms. Approximately 53,000 first-time enrolleeswere served in fiscal 1969. Job Corpsmen are trained fora variety of occupations, including air conditioningmechanic, cook, heavy equipment operator, and meatcutter.
Little data are available on training by occupation.Furthermore, because Job Corps training is remedialrather than strictly occupational, information cannot bepresented in the format used in appendix C of thisreport.
Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC). This programprovides work experience and, in some cases, relatedtraining to help young persons from low income familiesstay in school, return to school, or increase employmentpossibilities of those out of school who do not plan toreturn. Training and work experience help enrolleesacquire habits and attitudes necessary to hold a job. Theout-of-school program is currently being restructured todeal with problems that confront unskilled 16- and17-year old dropouts attempting to enter the laborforce. For example, in fiscal 1969, about 120,000 youngadults 18 years and over were enrolled in out-of-schoolprojects. The restructured program will channel out-of-school youths 18 years old and over to other programsand provide extensive academic and occupational pre-vocational training for 16- and 17-year olds. To date,reliable data on job placements are not available.
Work Zizceiztire Program (WIN). This program stresseseconomic independence for all employable persons ages16 and over in families now receiving Aid to Familieswith Dependent Children. By the end of 1969, about62,000 persons were enrolled in WIN projects. De-pending on their degree of job readiness, clients arereferred by local welfare agencies to employment serviceoffices for interviewing, testing, counseling, and place-ment in jobs, training, or special work experience.Clients are helped to obtain meaningful jobs as rapidly aspossible at not less than the minimum wage. Somepotential participants have been denied enrollmentbecause child care, though provided, is not available.Limited data indicate that WIN participants have foundemployment primarily in clerical, service, and structuraloccupations.
Public Service Careers Program. Formally known asthe New Careers Program, this operation is designed todevelop entry-level jobs in government service agenciesfor disadvantaged workers, and also, to help upgradeemployees who are in dead-end, low-paid positions.
20
Approximately 3,800 persons were first-time eniollees in1969. Examples of occupations for which disadvantagedpersons have been readily trained are mail clerk, guard,switchboard operator, messenger, and payroll clerk. Ingeneral, under this program a government agency hiresand trains persons on the job. Public Service Careersfunds pay the extra cost of training and supportiveservices such as child care and transportation for
disadvantaged workers. Other Federal Programs. Anumber of other federally funded programs, including"Operation Mainstream" and the "Special Impact Pro-gram," are designed to provide work experience andrelated services to the disadvantaged. For example, infiscal 1969, about 11,000 persons were first-time en-rollees in Operation Mainstream programs. No informa-tion is presented on specific occupational training in these
programs, which are quite small.
Home s udy courses
Nearly 5 mdlion persons were enrolled in home studyor correspondence courses in 1969. Offered in manydifferent types of institutions, the courses range fromkindergarten tlu-ough post-college refresher. Thesecourses may not be occupationally related and are set upby trade associations as well as high schools. In 196)about 1.8 million students were enrolled by privateschools; nearly 2.5 million through the Federal Govern-ment, mostly persons in the Armed Forces; 300,000 bycolleges and universities; over 100,000 by religiousschools; and 40,000 were taking home-study coursesrelated to business and industrial training." Not allstudents complete the courses and much of the trainingis part of an employer training program. Thus, even ifstatistics on completion were available, data would notrepresent new entrants to an occupation. Nevertheless,in evaluating occupational training, home study pro-grams cannot be discounted.
Junior colleges or community colleges
Originally called junior colleges and now more com-monly called community colleges, these institutionsserve a variety of educational needs. For some studentsthey provide the first 2 years of acaderync trainingleacling to a bachelor's degree, so that students may taketheir first 2-college years at, or closer to home, andthereby reduce the costs of a college education; suchstudents transfer to a 4-year college for the last 2 yearsof undergraduate work. A second need met by com-munity colleges is for adult educat, in, not necessarily
211nformation based on data supplied by the National HomeStudy Council, Washington, D.C.
26
oriented to completion of a formal college education oito vocational preparation. A tinrd educational need theyserve is for -.terminal occupational education,- programsdesigned to prepare students for entry into specificoccupations immediately upon graduation.
Junion colleges have a large number of programs toprepare students for specific occupations immediatelyafter graduation. These courses vary from 6 months to 3
years, but most are 2-academic years. Types of careereducation are: science and engineering technologies;public services that emphasizes transportation planningand social service-aide occupations; business and com-mercial fields where food service and distribution arereceiving increasing attention; allied health and medicalfields, and many other types of training including data
processing and graphic arts.JUnior colleges increased rapidly during the 1960's.
Between 1961 and 1968, about 50 new institutionsopened each year, and enrollments increased 200 per-cent between 1958 and 1968. Nearly 40 percent of themore than 6 million students in junior colleges in 1968majored in career-education programs and were em-ployed immediately after graduation.
College and university training
College training differs from vocational training in
several ways. For example, the market for college
graduates is nationwide whereas vocational schoolgraduates generally begin work in the geographic area oftheir training. Furthermore, college stuucnts receive amore general education than those enrolled in vocationaltraining.
More data are available for workers who attend collegethan for workers trained in other methods. As a result,development of detailed supply-demand analysis is pos-sible for noncollege graduates but not for other workers.This section of the report presents an overview of
prospective supply-demand conditions for collegegraduates for the 1970's rather than data on trainingoutput. Persons interested in greater detail should seeCollege Educated Workers, 1968-80. 22
Supply and demand for workers havingbacheIor's and advanced degrees
The number of bachelor's degrees awarded between1968 and 1980, will increase 48 percent; the number of
master's degrees, 95 percent; and the number ofdoctorate degrees, 117 percent. In numerical terms,
22Col1ege Educated Workers, 1968-80 (BLS Bulletin 1676.1970).
about 13.3 million degrees are expected to be awaidedbetween 1968 and 1980: 10.2 million bachelor's de-grees, 2.7 million master's degrees, and 400,000doctorates.23
Not all degree recipients enter the labor market whenthey receive their degrees. Over the 1968-80 period,about 9.3 million of the 13.3 million new degreerecipients will enter the civilian labor force upongraduation. Bachelor's degree recipients will constitute8.4 million; master's degree holders, 900,000; and thoseholding doctorates, 18,000.
The supply of new college graduates will be augmentedby persons who received degrees before 1968, but werenot in the labor force at that time and can be expectedto enter or reenter the labor force between 1968 amd1980. Immigrants are another source of supply. Re-entrants, delayed entrants, and immigrants are expectedto provide about 1.2 million additions to the supply ofcivilian workers having 4 years of more of collegetraining. This number added to that available from newdegree recipients brings total expected additions to thecollege educated work force during the 1968-80 periodto 10.5 million.
The need for workers with college degrees over the1968-80 period will stem from two sources: growth indemand and the need to replace workers who die, retire,or leave the labor force for other reasons. Another factorthat must be considered in estimating the demand forcollege trained workers is the increasing entry require-ments for occupations that make a college degreenecessary for jobs once performed by workers with lesseducation.
An assessment of these three factorsgrowth, replace-ment, and rising entry requirementsindicates a need forabout 10.4 million college graduates over the 1968-80period, 6.1 million to meet growth needs and 4.3 millionfor replacements.
The statistical analysis of supply and demand thusindicates the likelihood of a rough balance between theoverall supply of and demand for college educatedpersonnel for the 1970's as a whole (10.4 million v. 10.5million). However, this overall picture does not implythat imbalances between supply and demand in individ-ual occupations will not exist; prospective imbalancesare in the offing in several occupations unless correctivemeasures are takcn. When possible, discussions of occu-
pations presented in chapter IV include a supply-demandanalysis. Additional information is presented in CollegeEducated Workers, 1968-80.24
23Proj-iectionsof degrees n this report are based on those
prepared by the U.S. Office of Education and appear inProtections of Educational Statistics.
24 Op. Cit.
21
Chapter IV. Relating Training to Occupational Needs
This chapter presents information on ways workersqualify for jobs in each of the 232 occupations forwhich the Bureau of Labor Statistics has presentedprojections in appendix B. Each discussion of occupa-tional training requirements is followed by statistics on1968 employment, projected 1980 requirements, per-cent growth 1968-80, annual openings for growth andreplacement (as presented in appendix 9), and knowndata on the number of persons completing training (aspresented in appendix C). In addition, data are presentedon annual openings and apprenticeship completions forthe 1960-68 period for occupations whose data areconsidered valuable to officials concerned with appren-ticeship training and upgrading skilled occupations. (Seediscussion on carpenters on p. 6) for illustrative uses ofhistorical data.) Whenever possible, a brief supply-demand analysis is presented for occupations requiringat least a bachelor's degree. For other occupations adiscussion is presented if data are complete or such a
Professional and
Although most jobs in professional and related fieldsrequire a bachelor's degree, some demand one or moreadvanced degrees; others require only 2 years of trainingin a junior college, technical institute, or specializedschool. Still other professional jobs emphasize skill orcreative talent rather than academie training. For oc-cupations of this type, on-the-job training ranging fromseveral months to a few years is sufficient. When aprofessional or related job requires a license or certifi-cate, the candidate generally must complete a recognizedtraining program and pass an examination bY a Stateexamination board.Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
10,325,000. 15,500,000
50.1777,000431,000346,000
Business administration and related professions
Accountants. Although junior college, businessschool, or correspondence course training is acceptablefor some accounting jobs, many positions require thebachelor's degree with a major in accounting, and
22
discussion is meaningful, as in scientific, technical, andhealth occupations. However, anthropology graduatesenter other occupations because openings in that fieldare few, and a discussion of training needs would havelittle relevance to educational planning. Discussionsgenerally are not presented for occupations, such asbusdriver, when training is given on the job and allpersons physically normal can enter; in developingspecial programs which require little formal training,statistics on annual openings of such occupations shouldbe valuable.
Training completion data are those available when thereport was prepared. Data for each type of trainingreflects the following time period:
Junior college graduatesacademic year 1968-69MDTA enrollmentsfiscal year 1969Vocational education completions-1969 fiscal yearApprenticeship completionscalendar 1969College gradua Lesacademic 1968-69
Related Occupations
sometimes a master's degree. Ali States require -certifiedpublic accountants" to be certified by the State board ofaccountancy. In nearly all States at least 2 years ofpublic accounting experience is necessary before CPAcertification can be issued. About half of the States donot roquire the CPA candidates to be college graduates.
Employment 1968 500,000Projected 1980 requirements 720,000Percent growth, 1968-80 43.4Annual openings, 1968-80 total 33,000
Growth 19,000Replacernants 14,000
Available training data :Junior college graduates , 4,741Bachelor's degrees , . . . . . ...... . . . . 20,032Master's degrees 1,333Doctorate degrees 40
Advertising workers. In hiring advertising trainees,most employers seek college graduates who have liberalarts, marketing, journalism, or business administrationtraining. Majors in other college fields also can enteradvertising. Many successful advertising workers do nothave a college degree. ;,*
Employment 1968 140,000Projected 1980 requirements 155,000Percent growth, 1968-80 8.1Annual openings, 1968-80 total 5,700
Growth 950Replacements 4,750
Available training data
Marketing research workers. Marketing researchtrainees usually need a bachelor's degree; master'sdegree is helpful for advancement. Marketing, statistics,psychology, speech, EnOish composition, and economicsare helpful. Sometimes specialized training is needed,such as sales experience or a background in engineeringor data processing techniques.
Employ men t 1968 20,000Projected 1980 requirements 42,000Percent growth, 1968-80 105.8Annual openings, 1968-80 to ta. 2,700
Growth 1,800Replacements 900
Available traiMng data:'Bachelor's degrees 868Master's degrees 62Doctorate degrees
'Marketing degrees only.
Personnel workers. Although many employers prefercollege gaduates who have majored in personnel admini.stration, general business, or liberal arts, many collegemajors are adaptable to personnel work. Specializedknowledge or graduate training may be needed for somejobs involving employee counseling, testing safety stan-dards, or labor-nit 7aagement relations.
Employment 1968 110,000Projected 1980 requirements ... . . . . . . . 155,000Percent growth, 1968-80 42.9Annual openings, 1968-80 total 6,900
Growth 3,900Replacements 3,000
Available training data
Public relations workers. A college education is thebest preparation for a career in public relations. Al-
though employers differ about the field of study,courses in journalism, social sciences, business admini-qration, psychology, and public speaking are recom-mended. Secretarial skills also are useful, especially insmall firms.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPetcent growth, 1968-80Annuaropedings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data . .
100,000165,000
64.08,8003,3003,500
Clergymen. Because the data on immbers beingtrained are not available separately by religion, therequirements and training statistics for clergymen arepresented after the discussions of training.
Protestant clergymen. Educational requirements forthe ministry have a broad range. Some religious groupshave no formal educational requirements; others requiretraining in a college, Bible Institute, or theologicalseminaries. Some clergymen complete a 3-year course intheological seminaries after college graduation. Institu-tions accredited by the American Association ofTheological schools admit only candidates having abachelor's degree or its equivalent. Preseminary studiesin liberal arts, natural and social sciences, religion,philosophy, English, and history are recommended.
Rabbis. Entrance requirements for adm ssion to aprogram of Rabbinic studies vary, but almost allseminaries require completion of a 4-year college courseplus prior preparation in Jewish studies. The Rabbiniccourse in a Jewish theological seminary generally is
completed in 3 to 6 years. Some seminaries grantadvanced academic degrees in fields such as Biblical orTalmudic studies.
Roman catholic priests. Roman Catholic priests study8 years or mote beyond high school. Study for thepriesthood may begin in the first year of high school, atthe college level, or in theological seminaries aftercollege graduation. The seminary college program
stresses behavioral sciences, history, philosophy and"gion, natural science, and mathematics. Seminary
which provide the remaining 4 years of prepara-tion, include sacred scripture, theology, church Instory,liturgy, and canon laws.
Reqr:iretnerus and training dat
Tot
Employment 1968 . 312,000Projected 1980
requiremehts 377,100Percent growth,
for all clergymenProtes-
tanty Ra bb i sclerg-
men244,000 6,000
295,000 7,100
Cadr-olic
priests
62,000
75,000
1968-80 20.1 20.1 20.1 20.1Annual openings,
1968-80 total 14,100 11,000 300 2,800Growth .. 5,200 4,100 100 1,000Replacements 8,900 6,900 200 1,800
Available training diaa:'Bachelor's degrees 5,276First professional
degrees 4,338Master's degrees . . 2,884Doctoral degrees . . 346
Includes all degrees granted in religion. Data on those traini:dfor specific denomination are not available.
23
213
Conservation Occupations
Foresters. A bachelor's degree with a major in forestryis the minimum preparation for a professional career as aforester. Teaching and research geneially require ad-
vanced degrees. College curriculums in forestry includecourses in methods of growing and improving crops;forest protection and management; and forest economicsand utilization, Most colleges require that students spenda summer in a field camp operated by tile college.
Employment 1968 25,000Projected 1980 requirements 32,000Percent growth, 1968-80 28.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1,000
Grow th 600Replacements 400
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees 1,921Master's degrees 563Doctoral degrees 124
Forestry aids. Young persons qualify for beginningpositions as forestry aids through work experience or bya 1- or 2-year post-high school curriculum. Specializedcourses include forest protection, wood utilization,surveying, and mathematics. In addition, timr; is spent in
a forest or camp operated by the school.
Employment 1968 13,000Projected 1980 requirements =
20,000Percent gowth, 1968-80 57.3Annual openings, 1968-80 total 900
Growth 600Replacements 300
Available training data:Junior college graduates 596
Range managers. A bachelor's degree with a major inrange management, range conservation, or a closelyrelated field usually is required for employment as arange manager. Graduate degrees generally are neededfor teaching and research. A curriculum in rangemanagement usually includes botany, animal husbandry,soils, mathematics, and other specialized areas. Manycolleges students obtain important experience throughsummer jobs with sueh Federal Government agencies asthe Forest Service or Bureau of Land Management.Employment 1968 4,000Projected 1980 requirements 5,200Percent growth, 1968-80 30.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 200
Growth 100
Replacements 100
Available training data
Counseling occupations
Employment counselors. A bachelor's degree plus 15semester hours in counseling and related courses is the
24
accepted mininuim requirement for a position as anemployment counselor. For higher level jobs employersrequire an advanced degree in vocational counseling or arelated field, such as psychology, personnel admini-stration, or education. All States require counselors intheir public employment offices to meet State civilservice requirements that include certain minimumeducational and experience standards and written or oralexaminations, or both.
Rehabilitation counselors. The minimum educationalrequirement for entry into this occupation is a
bachelor's degree with courses in counseling, psy-
chology, and related fields. Most employers prefer amaster's degree in vocational or rehabilitation counselingor a related discipline, such as psychology; some seekcandidates having a doctorate in counseling psychology.In the majority of State Rehabilitation Agencies, appli-
cants must comply with State civil service regulationsthat require a written competitive examination.
School counselors. Most S ates require counselors tohave both a counseling and a teaching certificate. An
applicant generally must complete graduate work andhave :rom 1 to 5 year's teaching experience to be issueda counseling certificate; specific requirements for certifi-cation vary considerably among the States.
Supply-demand analysis. In addition to new collegegraduates, the supply of counselors will be augmentedby counselors who have been out of the labor force. !t"past trends of entry from master's degree programscontinue and if reentry patterns follow the reentrypattern of women in teaching, about 12,000 graduateswith master's degrees in counseling and guidance, andrelated fields would be needed annually to meet pro-jected annual requirements of 5,550. Thus, over the1968-80 period the average annual output from theseprograms will have to increase at least 15 percent above1969 levels to meet manpower needs.
Total
Employment 1968 71,300Projected 1980
requirements . .106,800Percent growth,
1968-80 49.8Annual openings,
1968-80 totidGrowth -
Replacements
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees .
Master's degrees . . .
Doctoral degrees . . . .
5,5003,0502,500
129,474442
Employ-ment
Reha-bill- School
tation5,300 12,000 54,000
10,800 21,000 75,000
102.3 72.6 41.8
700 1,050 3,800450 700 1,900250 350 1,900
Engineers. A bachelor's d gree generally s requiredfor entry positions as an engineer. However, somepersons become engineers after long experience in a
related occupation, such as draftsman or engineeringtechnician, plus some college level training. Graduatedegrees are necessary for beginning positions in teachingand research; and in some engineering specialties, such asnuclear engineering training is generally available only atthe graduate level. All 50 States and the District ofColumbia require licenses as registration for engineerswhose work may affect life, health, or property, or thosewho offer their services to the public.
New graduates are the primary source of new engineersbut for many years graduates have not fully met theneed. Significant numbers come from other sources:workers who shift occupations (including technicianswho are upgraded); persons not in the labor force(including those in the Armed Forces); immigrants; andcollege graduates who did not major in engineering.Limited data on past patterns of entry25 indicate thatlarge numbers of workers have entered from sourcesother than new engineering graduates. Although patternsof entry from these other sources are affected by theavailability of engineering graduates, large numbers ofworkers are expected to continue as employers upgradehighly qualified technicians, engineers immigrate to theUnited States, and college graduates who are non-engineer majors enter engineering either by choice orcircumstances resulting from economic conditions. Ifpast patterns continue, about 36,000 engineers wouldenter the field from these sources from 1968-80. Underthis assumption, only 38,000 new engineering graduateswould have to enter the field annually to meet require-men ts.
Followup studies of new college graduates indicatethat about 85 percent of all new engineering graduatesenter the profession. Therefore, about 45,000 engi-neering graduates would be needed annually to obtain38,000 entrants.
In 1969, about 41,000 bachelor's degrees were grantedin engineering. U.S. Office of Education projections ofengineering degrees based on patterns of study over thepast 10 years indicate that for the 1968-80 period thenumber of bachelor's degrees in engineering will average
2 5 Data on past patterns of entry are available from 2 YearsAfter the college DegreeWork and Further Study Patterns(NSF 63-26, 1963) and the Postcensal Survey of Professional andTechnical Personnela followup study of persons who were re-ported in professional and technical occupations in the 1960Census. Selected data from the study are presented in BLS Bulle-tin 1512, 1966. Data on scientists and engineers from abroadhas bccn published by the National Science Foundation based oaspecial tabulations prepared by tlie Immigration and Naturaliza-tion Service of the Department of Justice. Also sce: "Projectionsof Manpower Supply in a Specific Occupation" by Neal Rosen-thal, Monthly Labor Review, November 1966.
slightly, an increase of only 1,000, above the 1969 level.To meet requirements, the number of bachelor's degreesgranted will have to increase 10 percent or 4,000 abovethe 1969 level. However, if graduates increase to levelsaveraging above 45,000, not only would requirements bemet but less dependence would be placed on those whoare less well trained for engineering jobs than graduateengineers.Employment 1968 1 100,000Projected 1980 requirements 1,500,000Percent growth, 1963-80 40.2Annual openings, 1968-80 total 73,400
Growth 36,000Replacements 37,400
Avlable training data:Bachelor s degrees 41,248Master's degrees 15,240Doctoral degrees 3,377
Health Service Occupations
Physicians. A license to practice medicine is requiredin all States and the District of Columbia. To quality fora license, the physician must graduate from an approvedmedical school; pass a licensing examination; and, insome States, serve a 1-year hospital internship. Moststudents who enter medical school have earned thebachelor's degree; most medical schools require appli-cants to complete at least 3 years of college. In-creasingly, physicians acquire training beyond a 1-yearinternship. To specialize, physicians must pass specialtyboard examinations. To be elig:ble for these examina-tions, a candidate needs 2 to 4 years in advancedhospital residency, followed by 2 years or more ofpractice in his specialty.
If over the 1968-80 period the annual numberimmigrant physicians does not change significantly fromthe level of recent years (about 2,000), each yearmedical schools would have to graduate on the averagemore than twice as many physicians as in 1969 to meetannual manpower needs of 20,000Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
295,000450,000
53.1/0,00013,0007,000
Available training data:M.D. degrees 8,025
Osteopathic physicians. All States require osteopathicphysicians to be licensed. A candidate must graduatefrom an approved school of osteopathy and pass a Stateboard examination to qualify for a license; inallyStatesrequire a 12-n.anth internship at an osteopathic hospital.A minimum of 3 years' preosteopathic college work is
25
needed for entrance to a school of osteopathy; however,most entrants have earned the bachelor's degree. Osteo-pathic physicians who specialize must complete 2 to 5
years' of training after internship, followed by 2 years ofsupervised practice in their specialty.
Employment 1968 12,000Projected 1980 requirements 18,500Percent growth, 1968-80 54-2
Annual openings, 1968-80 total 800
Growth 500
Replacements 300
Available training data:D.O. degrees 427
Dentists. All States and the District of Columbiarequire a license for the practice of dentistry. Acandidate must graduate from an approved dental schooland pass a State board examination to qualify for alicense. In 10 States, dentists cannot be licensed asspecialists without 2 or 3 years of graduate education;several years of specialized experience; and passing aspecial State examination_ The minimum educationalrequirement for graduation from an approved dentalschool is 2 years' predental college work, followed by 4years' professional dental school training.
To meet projected needs between 1968 and 1980, anaverage of about 5,000 new dentists would have tograduate each year over the 12-year period. Thus, tomeet requiremcnts the average annual number of dentalschool gaduates will have to increase about 17 percentabove 1969 levels.Employment 1968 100,000Projected 1980 requirements 130,000Percent growth, 1968-80 31.7Annual openings, 1968-80 total 4,900
Growth 2,600Replacements 2,300
Available training data:PDS. or D.M.D. degrees 3,408
Dental hygienists. Dental hygien sts must pass a licens-ing examination in the State where they plan to practice.In all States except Alabama and Georgia, only graduatesof accredited dental hygiene schools are eligible forlicensing. Most schools of dental hygiene accredited by
the Council of Dental Education of the American DentalAssociation provide 2-year certificate or associate degreeprograms. Some offer 4-year programs leading to thebachelor's degree; others offer both. For dental hygien-ists interested in practicing in private dental offices the2-year program usually is sufficient; for work in re-search, teaching, and public or school health programs,completion of a 4-year program is required.
Employment 1968 16,000Projected 1980 requirements 33,500Percent growth, 1968-80 . . . . ..... . . 109:4
26
Annual openings, 1968-80 total .. 2,400Growth 1,500Replacements 900
Available training data:Junior College graduates 1,456Vocational Education:
Completions:Post Secondary 929
Dental laboratory technicians. No minimum formal
educational requirements are required to enter theoccupation, but a high school diploma is recommended.Most technicians learn the craft through on-the-jobtraining which may take 3 to 4 years' time. Sometechnicians take courses in dental laboratory work atpublic vocational high schools and junior colleges; or atschools offering 1 to 2-year programs in dental tech-nology. Regardless of educational background, actualwork experience i, ,fecessary to qualify as a technician.
Employment 1968 27,000Projected 1980 requirements 37,500Percent growth, 1968-80 18_9
Annual openings, 1968-80 total 2,100Growth 900Replacements 1,200
Available training data:Junior College graduates 364Vocational Education:
Completions:Secondary 96Post Secondary 246
Registered nurses. A licel,Re is required to practiceprofessional nursing in all States and in the District ofColumbia. Graduation from a school approved by aState board of nursing and successful completion of aState board examination are necessary for licensing. All
schools of nursing require a high school diploma foradmission. Nursing education programs vary in lengthfrom 2 to 5 years. Nurses who complete 2-year coursesearn associate degrees; those in 3-year programs adiploma; and students in 4- or 5-year courses areawarded the bachelor's degree.
Employment 1968 660,000Projected 1980 requirements 1,000,000Percent growth, 1968-80 51.5Annual openings, 1968-80 total . . 65,000
Growth 28,000Replacements 37,000
Available training data:Diplomas 28,197Associate degrees 6,213Bachelor's degrees 9,186Master's degrees 1,249Doctoral degrees 4
Licenied practical nurses. Licenses usually are issuedonly to candidates ,who have completed a State board
32
approved course in practical nursing and passed alicensing examination. To enroll in a State-approvedtraining program, young people generally must be atleast 17 years old and have completed at least 2 years ofhigh school or its equivalent. Some States acceptcandidates who have completed only eighth or ninthgrade; others require high school graduation. An ap-proved program in practical nursing generally is 1 year inlength; junior colleges, local hospitals and healthagencies; and public schools offer this training.Empleynwnt 1968Projected 1980 requfrementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data:Junior College Graduates . ... . . . ..Vocational Education:
Completions:SecondaryPost-Secondary
320,000600,000
87.548,00023,00025,000
5,564
2,19219,586
Optometrists. A license is required to practice optom-etry in all States and the District of Columbia. Appli-cants for licenses must graduate from an accreditedschool of optometry and pass a State board examina-tion. Students should choose a school approved by theBoard of Optometry in the State where they expect topractice. At least 6 years of college are needed tobecome an optornetrist-2 years of preoptometry educa-tion in an approved college, followed by 4 years oftraining in optometry school leading to the degree ofDoctor of Optometry. A master's or Ph. D. degree inphysiological optics or a related field usually is requiredfor teaching or research.
Approximately 17,000 optometrists were employed inthe United States in 1968. Employment requirementsare expected to increase by nearly one-fourth to 21,000over the 1968-80 period. In addition to these growthneeds of almost 4,000, 5,800 optometrists will beneeded to replace those who die or retire.
To meet projected needs for 9,600 optometristsbetween 1968 and 1980, each year schools would haveto provide about 800 graduates over the period. Thus,the annual number of graduates must average about 350above 1969 levels, an increase of more than 70 percentover 1969 levels. Thus, training in optometry must beincreased much faster than current trends if require-ments for optometrists are to be met.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openMgs, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
17,00021,000
23.5800300500
Available training data:.D. d egrees 463
Pharmacists. A bachelor's degree in pharmacy is theminimum educational requirement for most positions inthis profession. In addition to the necessary education, alicense is required to practice pharmacy. To obtain alicense, one must graduate from an accredited pharmacycollege, pass a State board examination, and, in mostStates, also have I year of practical experience orinternship. The master's or doctor's degree in pharmacyor a related field usually is required for research orcollege teaching, and is desirable for work in hospitals.
To meet the projected needs over the 1968-80 periodwould require an annual average of 4,400 graduates fromcolleges of pharmacy. Therefore, the annual number ofgaduates must increase 10 percent above the 1969 level.U.S. Office of Education projections show the annualnumber of bachelor's degrees in pharmacy increasingeven faster and averaging about one-fourth above the1969 level. Thus, expansion of training in pharmacycould be curtailed somewhat and manpower needs forpharmacists could probably still be met.
Employment 1968 121,000Projected 1980 requirements 130,000Percent growth, 1968-80 7.0Annual openings, 1968- 80 total 4,400
Grow th 700Replacements 3,700
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees 4,073Master's degrees 232Doctoral degrees 74
Podiatrists. A license is required for the practice ofpodiatry. An applicant must graduate from an accredited4-year program in a college of podiatry and must pass aState board examination. Michigan. New Jersey, andRhode Island require applicants to serve a 1-yearinternship in addition to obtaining a license. Oklahomarequires 1 year of practice under direct superv sion.
Employment 1968 8,500Projected 1980 requirements 9,500Percent growth, 1968-80 11.8Mutual openings, 1968-80 total 200
Growth . . . . . . ...... . . . . . 100Replacements 100
Available training data:D.P.M. or D.P. degrees' 204
I 1967 data.
chiropractors. Most States and the District of Colum-bia regulate the practice of chiropractic by grantinglicenses to applicants who meet certain educationalrequirements and pass a State board examination. The
33
27
educational requirements differ between States but mostrequire completion of a 4-year chiropractic course.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual Of ings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data:D.C. degrees'
' 1967 data.
16,00019,000
18.8900250
589
Occupational therapists. A degree or certificate inoccupational therapy is the minimum requirement for
entry into the profession. After graduation and com-
pletion of clinical practices, therapists may register withthe American Occupational Therapy Association andbecome Occupational Therapist Registered (0.T.R.). Agraduate degee is often required for teaching, research,
or administratieEmployment 1968 7,000
Piojected 1980 requir ments 19,000Percent growth, 1968- 80 171.4
Annual openings, 1968-60 total 1,500
Growth 1,000
Replacements 500
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees 566
Master's degrees 43
Physical therapists. All States and the District ofColumbia require an applicant to have a degree orcertificate from a school of physical therapy. In ad-dition, all but two States require applicants to pass aState board examination. A graduate degree, combinedwith clinical experience, increases advancement oppor-tunities, especially in teaching, research, and admini-
stration.
Employment 1968 14,000Projected 1980 requirements 36,000Percent growth, 1968-80 157.1
Annual openings. 1968-80 total . 2,800Growth 1,800
Replacements ......... 1,000
v:Iilable training data:Bachelor's degrees 1,071
Master's degrees 41
Speech pathologists and audiologists. Most States re-quire a master's degree in speech pathology or audiologyor its equivalent for beginning jobs. Other States require
the bachelor's degree for entry positions. Persons whowish to work in public schools should complete theeducational and other requirements for a teacher's
certificate. Persons intending to work with handicappedchildren must fulfill special requirements in some States.
Employment 1968 18,000
Projected 1980 requirements 33.000
28
Percent growth. 1968-80 83.3Annual openings. 1968-80 total 2,300
G rowth 1,300
Replacements 1,000
Available trainilig data:Bachelor's degrees 3.879
Master's degreesDoctoral degrees 1'270850
Medical laboratory workers. For medical technolo-
sts, the usual minimum beginning requirement is 3years of college plus completion of a specialized training
program in medical technology, which usually requires
12 months of study and laboratory work. Some States
require licensing examinations. Medical laboratorytechnicians generally require I or inure years of post-secondary training in a junior college or vocationalschool. Medical laboratory assistants may take post-secondary training of 1 year or more; many are alsotrained on the job.Employment 1968 . _ . ..... . . . . , 100,000
Projected 1980 requirements 190,000
Percent growth 1968-80 . ...... . . . . 90.0
Annual oLmings, 1968-80 total . . . . . 12,800
Grow th 57..530000
Replacements
ilable training dab:Junior college graduates 772
Vocational education:Completions:
Secondary 600
Post secondary 1.058
Radiologic technologists. Training programs con-
ducted by hospitals or medical schools, and juniorcolleges for radiologic technicians usually take 24months to complete. A few schools offer 3- or 4-yearprograms. Some master's degree programs also are
available.
Employment 1968 75,000Projected 1980 requirements . ....... 120,000
Percent growth, 1968- 80 60.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 7,300
Growth 3,800
Replacements 3,500
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees ..... , . .. . 16
Master s degrees . ... ..... 10
Junior College graduates 570
Vocational education:Completions:
Secondary 93
Post Secondary .... . . 442
Medical record librarians. Medical record librariansneed about I year of specialized academic training. Theprerequisites for specialized training vary from 2 to 4years of college level work.
Employment 1968 12.000
Projected 1980 requirements . 20.000Percent change, 1968- 80 66.7
Annual openings. 1968-80 total . .. 1,400
Growth 700Replacements 700
Available training data:Total number trained in AM A-
approved programs' 118
' 1968 data.
Dietitians. The minimum educational requirement fordietitians is a bachelor's de3ree with a major in foodsand nutrition or institution management. To qualify forprofessional recognition, the American Dietetic Associ-ation recommends completion of internship programslasting 12 or 18 months or 3 years of preplannedexperience.
Employment 1968 30,000Projected 1980 requirements 42.100Percent change. 1968-80 40.3Annual openings, 1968-80 to 2,700
Growth 1,000Replacements 1,700
Available trainthg, data:Bachelor's degrees 1,206Master's degrees 224Doctoral degrees . . . . . . . . . 28
Hospital administrators. Edi cational requiremen s forhospital administrators vary among institutions. Mostemployers prefer individuals having at least a master'sdegree in hospital administration. Other employers lookfor formal training in social or behavorial sciences,industrial engineering, or business administration plusextensive experience in the health field. A few institu-tions require their administrators to be physicians or reg-ister professional nurses. The Ph.D. degree in hospital ad-ministration is especially helpful for those interested inteaching and research.Employment 1968 15,000Projected 1980 requirements 22,000Percent change, 1968= 80 46.7Annual openings. 1968-80 total 900
Growth . . . . . . . . . . 600Replacements 300
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees 37Master's degrees 403Doctoral degrees 2
Sanitarians. Although a bachelor's degree in a basicscience generally is acceptable, a bachelor's degree inenvironmental health is preferred for a beginning job as aprofessional sanitarian. A graduate degree in some aspectof public health usually is required for higji level
positions. in some cases, sanitarian technicians having 2years of college and work experience can advance toprofessional sanitarian positions.
Employment 1968 10.000Projected 1980 requirements 14,000Perceni change, 1968 80 . . . . 41.0
Annual openings. 1968- 80 total 600Growth 300Replacements 300
Available trainin,4 data
Veterinarians. A license is required to practice veteri-nary medicine. To obtain a license, an applicant musthave the degree of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine(D.V.M.), pass a State board examination, and in someStates have some practical experience under supervision.In addition, research and teaching positions require themaster's or Ph. D. degree in a Held such as pathology.physiology, or bacteTiology. The minimum requirementsfoi the D.V.M. degree are 2 years of preveterinarycollege work followed by 4 years of professional studyin a college of veterinary medicine.
Employment 1968 24,000Projected 1980 require!. ents 34,000Percent change, 1968- 80 41.7Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1.400
Growth SOO
Replacements 600
A,7dlahle tra: neD.V.M. degrees 1 146
Mathematics and related occupations
Matiwmatic ans. ITic minimum educational require-ment for most beginning positions is the bachelor'sdegree with a major in mathematics, or with a major inan applied field and a minor in mathematics. Advanceddegrees are required for research and in many areas ofapplied mathematics. The Ph. D. is necessary for fullfacully status at most colleges and universities.
About 70,000 persons were employed as mathe-maticians in 1968. Employment requirements are ex-pected to increase by 60 percent to 110,000 in 1980. Inaddition to these manpower needs of almost 42,000resulting from growth, nearly 60,000 mathematicianswill be needed to replace those who die, retire, ortransfer to other fields of work. Over the 1968-80period, openings are, therefore, expected to total morethan 100,000, an average of about 8,400 a year.
Annual requirements for mathematicians may be Inetby persons who shift to occupations in mathematicsfrom other occupations; from persons not in the laborforce; from immigrants; from new college graduates whodid not major in mathematics; as well as from the majorsource, new college graduates receiving degrees in mathe-matics.
Limited data on patterns of entry26 indicate that inthe past a significant number of workers have enteredmathematics from sources other' than new collegegaduates majoring in the field. Although a variety of
2 6
29
factors affect the number of these "other entrants,"including the availability of mathematics graduates,significant numbers probably will continue to enter. Ifpast pa tlei ns of entry from other sources and of newmathcrratics graduates continue, an average of about
22,000 bachelor's degree graduates in mathematicswould be needed annualiy to meet projected require-
ments. Therefore, to meet requirements the number ofdegrees ganted annually in mathematics could decline
below 1969 levels. Projections of the U.S. Office ofEducation based on past trends of study patterns of
college studies show the average annual number ofbachelor's degrees in mathematics increasing about 40
percent above 1969 levels during the 1968-80 period.
Thus, the -.,ty rapid growth of training in mathematics
could be curtailed and manpower requirements could
still be met.
Employment 1968 65,000Projected 1980 requirements 110,000Percent change, 1968-80 . ..... . , 60.4
Annual openings, 1968-80 total .... . . . 8.400
Growth 3,500
Replacements' 4,900
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees 26,905
Master's degrees 5,217
Doctoral degrees . . ..... . 956
' Includes an estimated 3,800 replacements fortransfer to oilier occupations.
iose who
Statisticians. A bachelor's degree with a major instatistics or mathematics is required for many entrypositions. For other beginning positions, a major in
economics or other subject matter fields and a minor in
statistics is preferred. A graduate degree in mathematics
or statistics is essential for faculty positions at colleges
and universities.
Employment 1968 23,000
Projected 1980 requirements , ...... . . 33,000
Percent change, 1968-80 . ... . ..... . . 45.9
Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1,6 00
Growth 900
Replacements . . . ........ 700
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees . . ...... . . . . 304
Master's degrees 496
Doctoral degrees 141
Actuaries. A bachelor's degree with a thorou foun-
dation in calculus, probability, and statistics is required.
Persons with majors in mathematics, statistics, eco-nomics, or business administration can usually qualify
for beginning positions. After entering a beginning
actuarial position, 5 to 10 years are required to complete
the entire series of examinations required for full
professional status.
30 .5 015
0'4I
Employment 1968 4,000
Projected 1980 requirements 6.700Percent growth, 1968-80 59,5
Annual openings, 1968-80 total .. . . 300
G row th 200
Replacements 100
Available training data combinedwithstatisticians
Environmental science occupations
Geologists and geophysicists. A bachelor's degree ingeology is adequate for only a few entry jobs :n geology.
A master's degree is required for beginning positions in
research, teaching, and sometimes exploration. A Ph. ais usually required for high-level research and admini-
strative posts.A bachelor's degree with a major in geophysics or
geophysical specialties is required for many beginningjobs as geophysicists. A bachelor's degree in a related
science or in engineering is adequate for some entry jobs.Graduate education in geophysics or in a related physical
science is requited for responsible positions in explora-
tion and some other specialties. Teaching and research ingeophysical work generally require a Ph. D. in geo-
physics or related science.Although new earth sciences college majors are the
major source of supply of new earth scientists, new
college graduates who did not major in geology andgeophysicists, immigrants, persons not in the labor force,
and persons employed in other occupations may enter
the field. Limited data on patterns of entry27 indicate
that in the past a significant number of workers have
entered geology and geophysics from sources other than
new college graduates majoring in these fields. Although
a variety of factors affect the number of these "otherentrants" including the relative availability of geology
and geophysics graduates, signiti;:ant numbers probably
will continue to enter. If past patterns of entry fromother sources and of new geology and geophysics college
graduates continue, an average of about 2,100 bachelor's
degree graduates in geology and geophysics would be
needed annually to meet projected requirements.
In 1969, about 2,10028 bachelor's degrees were
granted in earth sciences. To meet requirements, the
average number would have to remain at 1969 levels.Projections of the U.S. Office of Education, based on
past trends, show the average number of bachelor'sdegrees in sciences declining slightly from 1969 levels
2
28Represents degrees in earth sciences which includes somefields in addition to geology and geophysics.
34
over the I 970's. Therefore, to meet requirements actionmust be taken so that the number of geologist andgeophysicist graduates will not decrease.
ocolo-Total psts
Geo-l'hyskists
Employment 1968 29,600 22,800 6.800Projected 1980 requirements 35,700 27,100 8,600Percent growth , 1968- 80 . . . 22.7 18.9 26 5Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1 100 800 300
Growth 550 400 150
Replacements 550 400 150
Available training data:Bachelor s degrees 2,013 1.973 40Master s degrees . . . . . 675 620 55
Doctoral degrees 314 288 26
Meteorologists. A bachelor's degree with a major inmeteorology is the usual minimum requirement, how-ever, a bachelor's degree in a related science or inengineering is acceptable for many positions if theapplicant has credit for courEes in meteorology. Anadvanced degree is essential for research and teaching,and many top-level positions in meteorology.
Employment 1968 4 000Projected 1980 requirements 5,500Percent growth 1968- 80 34.1
Annual openings, 1968-80 total 200Grow th 100.....Replacements 100
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees . . . . ..... . , 228
Master's degrees 140
Doctoral degrees 46
Oceanographers. The minimum educational require-ment for beginning professional positions is the bache-lor's degree with a major in oceanography, biology,mathematics, engineering, geo-science, or one of theother basic sciences. Graduates training in ocear ographyor one of the basic sciences is usually required forresearch, teaching, and advancement to high-level
positions.
Employment 1968 5,200Projected 1980 requirements 9,700Percent growth, 1968-80 85.4Annual openings, 1968-80 total .. 500
Growth 400Replacements 100
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees 113
Master's degrees 123
Doctoral degrees 43
Life Science Occupations
Life scientists. A bachelor s degree with a major inone of the sciences is adequate for many beginning jobs,but promotion for those without graduate training may
be limited to intermediate level o_ -limns. A master'sdegree is required for most entr positions in appliedresearch and for some types of positions in collegeteaching and basic research. A Ph. D. generally is
required for higher level college teaching positions,independent research, and the administration of researchprograms.
Although ncw graduates who majored in life sciencesare the major source of supply of new life scientists,workers also enter the field from other sources; immi-grants, persons not in the labor force; graduates withmajors other than in life science; and workers who shiftinto the field from other occupations. Limited data onentry29 indicate that a significant number of workershave entered the life sciences from these "other"sources. Although a variety of factors affect the numberof these "other entrants" including the relative avail-ability of life scienv: graduates, significant numbersprobably will continue to enter. If past patterns of entryto the life sciences from other sources and of newgraduates continue, an average of about 15,000 bache-lor's degree graduates in the life sciences would beneeded annually to meet projected requirements.
In 1969, about 45,00030 bachelor's degrees weregranted in the life sciences. Therefore, to meet require-
ments, the number of bachelor's degrees granted
annually m the life sciences could be as much astwo-thirds below 1968 levels. U.S. Office of Educationprojections show the average annual number of degrees
granted increasing by about one-third above the 1969levels over the 1968-80 p,riod. Thus, the rapid expan-sion of training in the life sciences could be curtailed andmanpower requirements still could be met.
Employment 1968 170,000Projected 1980 requirements . . ...... . 240,000Percent gowth, 1968-80 41.1
Annual or . flings, 196G-80 tota .... . 15,200
Growth 5,800
Replacements 9,400
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees 35,308Master's degrees 5,743
Doctoral degrees 3,051
Physical science occupations
Chemists. A bachelor's degree with a major in chemis-
try is usually the minimum requirement for entrypositions. New graduates having this degree usually
qualify for positions in analysis and testing, qualitycontrol, technical service and sales, or assist senior
29See footnote 2$.
30Includes some degees awarded in general science programsnot specifically identified as life science degrees.
3731
chemists in research and development. Graduate trainingis essential for many positions, particularly in researchand college teaching, and is helpful for advancement inall types of work. Chemists having the master's degreeoften qualify for applied research positions in govern-ment or private industry. A Ph. D. generally is requiredin a college OT university, and advancement to top-levelpositions in administration.
Although the major source of supply of chemists isfrom new graduates majoring in chemistry, reqi irementsmay also be met from other sources: persons not in thelabor force; immigrants; and graduates who did notmajor in chemistry. Limited data on entry" indicatethat a significant number of workers have enteredchemistry from these other sources. Although a varietyof factors affect the number of "other entrants"including the relative availability of chemistry graduates,significant numbers probably will continue to enter. Ifpast patterns of entry from other sources and of newchemistry graduates continue, an average of about17,000 bachelor's degree graduates in cherrustry wouldbe needed annually to meet projected requirements.
In 1968, about 10,800 bachelor's degrees were granted
in chemistry. To meet requirements, therefore, this
number would have to average almost 65 percent above
1968 levels. U.S. Office of Education projections indi-
cate that the number of bachelor's degrees awarded inchemistry annually would average about 5 percent above
1968 levels for the 1968-80 period. Therefore, to meet
requirements for chemists we will have to take actic i to
increase the number of graduates even faster than past
trends.Employment 1968 130,000Projected 1980 requirements . . ... . .. . . 200,000Percent growth, 1968-80 55.7Annual openings, 1968-80 total ... . .. . . 12,800
Growth 6,000Replacements' 6,800
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees 11,702Master's degrees 2,023Doctoral degrees 1,895
' Includes an estimated 3.700 replacements for thovz whotransfer to other occupations.
Biochemists. The minimum educational requirementfor entry positions is the bachelor's degree with a majorin biochetnistry or chemistry, or a major in biology and
a minor in chemistry. For most entry positions inresearch and teaching, graduate training in biochemistryis required. Graduate work is needed for advancement to
most high-level positions.
32
Employment 1968 11.000Projected 1980 requirements 17,000Percent growt0, 1968= 80 55.5Annual openings 1968-80 total . 700
Growth 500Replacements 200
Available training data:'Bachelor's degrees 347
Master's degrees 269Doctoral degrees 471
Degrees in biochemistry only.
Physicists. A bachelor's degree in physics qualifies anapplicant for jobs in applied research and developmentin private industry or the Federal Government. Amaster's degree qualifies applicants for many research
jobs and instructor's jobs in colleges and universities. A
doctor's degree usually is rzquired for full faculty statusat college and universities and for most positionsinvolving research and development.
Although new physics graduates are the major sourceof supply of new physicists, entrants also come fromother sources: immigrants; college graduates with majorsother than physics; persons reentering the labor force;
persons in other occupations. If past patterns of entrantsfrom these sources continue, only about 3,600 physicsgraduates would have to enter each year. Fewer thanhalf of those who receive bachelor's degrees in physicsactually enter the field. Therefore, if past trendscontinue, 8,000 physics graduates would be neededannually to meet projected requirements.
In 1969, about 5,500 bachelor's degrees were grantedin physics. To meet requirements, the average annualnumber of degrees would have to increase 45 percent.Projections of the U.S. Office of Education based onpatterns of study over the past 10 years indicate that theaverage annual number of bachelor's degrees in physics is
likely to remain roughly at 1969 levels during the
1968-80 period. Therefore, to meet requirements forphysicists the number of gjaduates in tkis field will haveto increase much faster than current trends indicate.
Employment 1963 . . . . . ......... . . . .
Projected 1980 requirements745:00000
Percent growth, 1968-80 63.9Annual openings, 1968-80 total 4,600
Growth 2,400Replacements' 2,200
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees 5,518Master's degrees 2,252Doctoral degrees 1,296
Includes an estimated 1,400 replacements for those whotransfer to other occupations.
Astronomers. A bachelor's degree in astronomy,physics, or mathematics with a physics minor is the
3g
minimum educational requirement. The Ph. D. usually isrequired for high-level positions in teaching and researchtLid is important for other types of work. An advanceddegjee should be obtained for professional careers.
Employment 1968 1,400Projected 1980 requirements 1,900Percent growth, 1968-80 35.7Annual openings, 1968-80 total 100
Growth 50Replacements 50
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees 115Master's degrees 80Doctoral degrees 87
Performing artists
Actors and actresses. Formal training in acting is
increasingly necessary. Youitg people should get as muchacting experience as possible in school plays or workingwith little theater or other acting groups.
Employment 1968 14,000Projected 1980 requirements 18,500Percent growth, 1968-80 32.4Annual openings, 1968-80 total 900
Growth 400Replacements 500
Available training data
Dancers. Serious training traditionally begins by age12 or earlier. Girls wishing to become ballet dancersshould begin lessons at the age of 7 or 8. Professionaltraining typically takes from 10 to 12 lessons a week fol11 or 12 months and many additional hours of practice.
Employment 1968 23,000Projee62d 1980 requirements 27,500Percent growth, 1968-80 18.3Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1,400
Growth 400Replacements . . . . . . 1,000
Available training data
Musicians and inusw teachers. Music related positionsrequire intensive training either through private studywith an accomplished musician, in a college or universitywhich has a strong music program, or in a conservatoryof music. An audition frequently is required to qualifyfor advanced study in a music conservatory or in acollege or university school of music. A bachelor'sdegree and State certification are required for ele-mentary and secondary school music teaching. Advanceddegrees usually are required for college teaching.
Employment 1968 166,000Projected 1980 requirements 190,000Percent growth, 1968-80 13 8
Annual openings, 196 0 total 8.600Growth 1,900Replacements 6,700
Available training data
Singers and singing teachers. Singers who plan toteach music in public elementary or secondary schoolsneed at least a bachelor's degree with a major in musiceducation and must meet thc State certification require-ments for teachers. Young people can prepare for careersas singers by enrolling in a music conservatory, a schoolor department of music conducted with a college oruniversity, or by taking private voice lessons.Employment 1968 60,000Projected 1980 requirements 70,000Percent growth, 1968-80 14.2Annual openings, 1968-80 total 3,100
Growth 700Replacements 2,400
Available training data
Social scientists
Anthropologists. College graduates with bachelor'sdegrees can obtain temporary positions and assist-antships in graduate schools when they arc working foradvanced degrees. A master's degree, plus field ex-perience , is sufficient for many beginning professionalpositions, but promotion to top positions is generallyreserved for individuals holding a Ph. D. Many collegesand most universities require a Ph. D. for permanentteactang positions.Employment 1968 3,000Projected 1980 requirements 4,100Percent growth, 1968-80 36.4Annual openings, 1968-80 total 200
Growth 100Replacements 100
Available training data:Bahelor's degrees 2,990Master's degrees .507
Doctoral degrees 180
Economists. The bachelor's degree with a major ineconomics is sufficient for many beginning research jobs.A master's degree generally is required for appointmentas a college instructor. A Ph. D. is required for aprofessorship in a higji-ranking college or university andis an asset in competing for other responsible positions.
Employment 1968 ......... . . . . . . . . 31,000Projected 1980 requirements 48,000Percent change, 1968-80 . . . . . . . . 54.6Annual openings, 1968-80 total 2,200
Growth 1,400Replacements 800
Available training data:B tcliclor's degreesMaster's degreesDoctoral degrees
39
16,8672,108
634
33
Geographers. The minimum educational requirementusually is a bachelor's degree with a major in geography.Most positions in research and teaching and advance-ment in many other types of work require graduatetraining.
Employment 1968 3.900Projected 1980 requirements 5200,
Percent change, 1968-80 32.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 200
Growth 1002placements no
Available training data:Bachelor's degreesMaster's degreesDoctoral degrees
3,338563124
Historians. A bachelor's degree with a major in historyis sufficient for some beginning jobs, although persons insuch positions may not be iilarded as professionalhistorians. A master's degree in history is the minimumrequirement for a college instructor. A Ph. D. is essentialfor high-level college teaching, research, and admini-Stration.Employment 1968 14,000Projected 1980 requirements . . 19,000Percent growth, 1968-80 35.7Annual openings, 1968-80 total 800
Growth 400Replacements . 400
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees 40,939Master's degrees 5,271Doctoral degrees 826
Political scientists
Although the bachelor's degree qualifies young peopleas trainees in public relations or research wor k, graduatetraining generally is required for employment as apolitical scientist. The master's degree is required foradministration and research. The Ph. D. generally isrequired for advancement to college professor.
Teachers
College and university teachers. At least a master'sdegree is required for most beginning positions, althougha Ph. D. is generally preferred. For many positions allrequirements for the doctorate except the dissertationmust have been completed. A number of States requireState certification to teach in public 2-year colleges.Specialization in some subject field is necessary to entercollege teaching.
Manpower needs for full-time college teachers ofdegree credit courses between 1968 and 1980 areexpected to average about 17,000 annually. To meet the
34
deinand f;om Ph. D. recipients only, colleges and uni-versities would have to grant an average 34,000 doctoraldegrees each year for the 1968-80 period to obtain17,000 if, as in the past, about one-half of all Ph. D.recipients enter college teaching. The U.S. Office ofEducation projects that the number of doctorate degreeswill average about 43,000 annually over this period.Thus, the current level of Ph. D.'s will more than providethe needs for college teaching.
Employment 1968'Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total . .....
GReroplvatch
286,000395,000
37.8179 000:00
8,000
Available training data
' Full time for resident degree-credit course
Elementary and secondary school teachers. All Statesrequir,- public elementary school teachers to have acenificate. Several States require a certificate for
teachers in parochial and other private elementaryschools. Most States issue a certificate only to personshaving at least 4 years of approved college preparation,including a number of professional education courses.Many States also require work toward a fifth year ormaster's degree within a certain number of years.Emergency or temporary certificates may be issued topartially prepared teachers. However, these certificatesmust be renewed annually until all requirements forregular certification have been met. Student or practiceteaching are included in the 4-year teacher preparationcurriculum.
A certificate is required for public secondary schoolteaching in every State. To qualify for this certificate,the teacher must have at least 4 years of approvedcollege preparation, including one-half year of educationcourses, practice teaching, and professional courses in
one subject or more taught in secondary schools. SomeStates require a fifth year of study or qualification for amaster's degree within a specified period following theteacher's beginning employment. Temporary certificatesare issued to teachers who are preparing to meet allrequirements for full certification.
To meet the projected need of about 2.4 millionelementary and secondary teachers (200,000 for growth,2.1 million for replacement, 90,000 not meeting certi-fication requirements) between 1968 and 1980, anannual average of 200,000 persons must enter theprofession over the 12-year period.
New degree recipients, reentrants, and delayed en-trants' are primary sources of teacher supply. Almost
3 2 College graduates not entering the field in the year theygraduate from college.
40
11 million bachelor's degrees are expected to be awardedbetween 1968 and 1980. In the recent past, more thanone-fifth of all recipients of bachelor's degrees have methigh school teachers' certificate requirements, and nearly15 percent have met certificate requirements for ele-mentary school teaching. However, for many reasonsincluding higher salaries, better working conditions, andpreferred locations, not all who have certificates becometeachers. For the past several years, about 4 out of every5 who met elementary school requirements taught inelementary school; two-thirds of those who met highschool requirements taught in higji school.33 If thesetrends continue, 2.7 million new graduates could enterteaching between 1968 and 1980.
About two-fifths of all entrants in the past few yearshave come from other soure,.!s. If the re-entries each yearthrough 1980 should be governed by the number ofteachers who separated 8 years previously since theaverage separation is 8 years, about 1.4 million re-entering teachers would be added to the supply over the1968-80 period. Altogether, elementary and secondaryschool teachers could number about 4.1 million, morethan three-fourths above the 2.4 million needed.
The above analysis indicates that teacher trainingcould be curtailed sharply and manpower requirementsstill met. Because of the very large number of individualsinvolved in this "potential surplus," education planningfor elementary and secondary school teachers may wellbe the most pressing problem for educational planners inthe 1970's.
Elementary SecondaryEmployment 1968 1,230,000 940,000Projected 1980 requnements 1,270,000 1,065,000Percent growth, 1968-80 3.3 13.6Annual openings, 1968-80 t . . 99,000 101,000
Grow th 3,300 11,000Replacements 95,700 2 90,000
Available training data3 77,000 101,500
' In addition to 53,000 deaths and retirements each year, theestimates include 38,000 'o replace those who leave theprofession annually, and 4,700 annually to replace sub-standardteachers.
'In addition to deaths and retirements of 29,000 per year, theestimates include replacements for almost 58,000 who leave theprofession annually, and 2,800 annually to replace sub-standardteachers.
3 Represents the number of bachelor's degree recipients whoare prepared to teach and actually entered the profession.
Technicians
Engineering and science technicians. At least somepost-14h school technical training is required for mostenneering and science technician jobs. This training
3 3Source: National Education Association.
may consist of 1 to 4 years of full-time study. Mosttraining programs continue 2 years and lead to either anassociate of arts or science degree. Training is alsoavailable on the job and in the Armed Forces. Trainingfor such occupations as tool designer and electronicstechnician may be obtained through a formal appren-ticeship.
Employment 1968 .... . . . . . 620,000Projected 1980 requirements 850,000Percent growth, 1968-80 43.2Annual openings, 1968-80 total 31,000
Growth 22,000Replacements 9,000
Available training data:Junior college graduates ... . .... . . 30,018Vocational education completions:
Secondary . . . . . . . . .... . . . , . 12,332Post-secondary 30,149
Draftsmen. Post-high school technical training is
generally required. Necessary skills may also be obtainedon-the-job combined with part-time schooling or
through 3- or 4-year apprenticeship programs.
Employment 1968 295,000Projected 1980 requirements 435,000Percent growth, 1968780 48.1Annual openings, 1968-80 total 15,300
Growth 11,800Replacements 3,500
Available training data:Vocational education comp! tions:
Secondary 12,853Post-SecondaFy 3,099
Writing occupations
Newspaper reporters. Although some opportunities doexist for talented writers who have little or no academictraining beyond high school, most newspapers willconsider only applicants having a college education.Graduate work is increasingly important. A degree injournalism or liberal arts usually is required.
Employment 1968 37,000P'ojected 1980 requirc..:ents 45,000Percent growth, 1968-80 21.6Annual openIngs, 1968-80 total 1,800
Growth 650Replacements 1,150
Available tridning data:'Bachelor's degrees 5,197Master's degrees 785Doctoral degrees 22
' Journalism degrees only.
Technical writers. The bachelor's degree is the desiredentrance requirement, although talented and ex-
perienced writers having less academic training may
4135
qualify. Degrees may be in engineering or science thatincludes writing courses, or in English or journalism thatincludes scientific and technical courses.
Employment 1968 30,000Projected 1980 35,000Percent growth, 1968-80 29.2Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1,300
Growth 700Replacements 600
Available training (MO
Other professional and related occupations
Airline dispatchers. An FAA certificate is required forairline dispatcher jobs. To qualify for tins certificate, anapplicant (1) must spend at least a year in dispatchingwork under the supervision of a certified dispatcher; (2)complete an FAA-approved dispatcher's course at a
school or airline training center; or (3) spend 2 of the 3previous years as an air-traffic controller, dispatch clerk,assistant dispatcher, or radio operator. Although assist-ant dispatchers inay not need certification, 2 years cfcollege or an equivalent amount of time working in somephase of air transportation is required.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 lequirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total .... . . .
Grow thReplacem
Available training data
1,2001,600
33.3SO2525
Air traffic controllers. Applicants must have an airtraffic control certificate. This certificate is obtainedafter 9 weAs of formal training to learn the funda-mentals of airway systems, Federal Aviation Regula-tions, and radar and aircraft performance characteristics.An additional 2 to 3 years on the job is required at theFAA control tower or center.
Employment 1968 14,600Projected 1980 requirements 18,000Percent growth, 1968-80 23.5Annual openings, 1968-80 total 425
Growth 225Replacements 200
Available training data
Architects. A 5-ye r curriculum leads to the bachelorof architecture degree from an architectural school. Alicense, which is needed to practice architecture, may beobtained by graduates of these curriculums after 3 yearsof practical experience in an architect's office and thepassing of a State examination. As a substitute forformal training, most States accept 10 to 12 years ofpractical experience for admission to the licensing
examination.
36
Based on past relationsInps between graduates andregistration, a pproximai, 4,200 architectural graduateswould be needed annually to meet projected require-ments of 2,300 a year. In 1969, about 3,300 bachelor'sor first-professional degrees were granted in architecture.Therefore, to meet requirements over the 1968-80period, degrees granted will have to be about 27 percentabove 1969 levels. U.S. Office of Education projectionsshow the average number of bachelor's degrees inarclfitecture increasing roughly at the required level-
Employment 1968 34,000Projected 1980 requirements 50,000Percent growth, 1968-80 . . ....... . 47.1Annual openings, 1968-80 total . . . , . . . . 2,300
Growth 1,300Replacements 1,000
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees 3,331Master's degrees 579Doctoral degrees 7
Broadcast technicians. A Radiotelephone First Clas3Operator License from the Federal CommunicationsCommissions is required to become a broadcast tech-nician. To obtain this license, applicants must pass aseries of written tests covering the construction andoperation of transmission and receiving equipment; thecharacteristics of eh-- nagnetic waves; and FederalGovernment and inteinational regulations and practicesgoverning broadcasting. Training at a technical school orcollege is useful.Employment 1968 . . - . -
Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data
20,00023,000
14.9400250150
College placement officers. A bachelor's degree is
generally the minimum requirement for college place-ment officer employment. Important undergraduatecourses for the prospective placement officer include
psychology, sociology, counseling, and personneladministration or related business subjec
Employment 1968 2,500Projected 1980 requirements 4,000Percent growth, 1968-80 60-0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 200
Grow th 125Replacements 75
Avaitable traMing data
Commercial artists. Two or 3 years of professionalstudy in an art school or institute is usually required forcommerical artist positions. A growing number of art
:,0
schools, espec_rally those in or connected with uni-versities require 4 years or more of study and confer abachelor's of fine arts degree. Limited training may alsobe obtained through public vocational high schools,private schools, home-study, and practical experience onthe job but supplemental training is usually needed foradvancement.Employment 1968 50,000Projected 1980 requirements 57,000Percent growth, 1968-80 13.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1,900
Growth 500Replacements 1,400
Available training data
Flight engineers. Flight engineer applicants must qual-ify for an FAA flight engineer's certificate after 2 yearsof training or 3 years of work experience in themaintenance, repair, and overhaul of aircraft and engi-neers, including four engine piston and jet aircraft. Theapplicant may also qualify with at least 200 hours offlig,ht time as a captain of a four-engine piston or jetairplane, or with 100 hours experience as a flightengineer in the Armed Forces. Completion of an FAAcourse of ground and flight instruction is the mostcommon qualification.
Employment 1968 7,500Projected 1980 requirements 12,000Percent growth, 1968-80 59.3Annual openings, 1968-80 total 225
Grow th 125Replacements 100
Available training data
Ground radio operators and teletypists. A second-classradio-telephone or radio-telegraph operator's permitissued by the Federal Communications Commission ispreferred. However, a third-class operator's permit isacceptable. A high school education, a good speakingvoice, the ability to type at least 40 words a minute, anda knowledge of standard codes and symbols used incommunications are important qualifications for thiswork.Employment 1968 8,200Projected 1980 requirements 10,000Percent growth, 1968-80 21.6Annual openings, 1968-80 total 225
Growth 125Replacements 100
Available training data
Home economists. A bachelor's degree in home eco-nomics is required. A master's or a doctor's degreeusually is needed for college teaching and research.
Employment 1968 . . . . . . . . . ..... 100.000Projected 1980 requirements . . . . ...... . . 30.000Percent growth, 1968-80 30.0
Annual openings, 1968-80 totalGrowthReplacen
....... 7,8002,5005,300
Available training data;Bachelor's degrees 8,979Master's degrees 1,149Doctoral degrees 102
Industrial designers. The usual requirement for indus-trial designer positions is the completion of a 4- to5-year course in industrial design in a college or artschool. Persons with enOneering and architecture de-grees may qualifi if they have appropriate experienceand artistic talent.
Employment 1968 10,000Projected 1980 requirements .. .... . 1 1 ,500Percent growth, 1968-80 15.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 300
Grow th 100Replacements 200
Available training data
Interior designers and decorators. The usual require-ment for this job is completion of either a 2- or 3-yearcourse at a recognized art school or institute specializingin interior decorating and desigi, or a 4-year collegecourse leading to a bachelor's degree with a major ininterior design and decoration. In most cases, 1 to 3years of on-the-job training also is required.
Landscape architects. A bachelor's degree in landscapearchitecture is usually the minimum requirement foremployment. The degree curriculum requires 4 to 5years of study. Many States require a license. To obtainthis license re 1.1ires 6 to g years' experience, or a degreefrom an accredited school plus 2 to 4 years' experience.
Employment 1968 . . . .. . ....... 8,500Projected 1980 requirements 11,500Percent growth, 1968-80 33.3Annual opeMngs, 1968-80 total 500
Growth 250Replacements 250
Available training data(combined with architecture)
Lawyers. Most lawyers have completed 4 years ofcollege followed by 3 years of law school. Applicantsmust be admitted to the bar for court practice. Fouryears of part-time law study usually is required tocomplete the night school curriculum.
Based on past relationships between law school gradu-ates, numbers taking and passing bar examinations, andnumbers actually entering the occupation, an average ofabout 20,000 law schooi graduates would be needed
4337
annually over the 1968-80 period to meet projectedrequirements of 14,500 a year.
In 1968, almost 1 i,000 persons received bachelor's orfirst professional degrees in law. Thus, to meet require-ments, the average number of law degrees grantedannually will have to increase roughly 20 percent above1968 levels. U.S. Office of Education projections basedon trends in dr study patterns of college students showthe avetage number granted increasing roughly at this re-quired level.
Employment 1968 . . . . ....... 270,000Projected 1980 requirements 335,000Percent growth, 1968-80 22.7Annual openings, 1968-80 total 14,500
Growth 5,500Replacements 9,000
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees . . . .......... 415First professional degrees . } ........ 17,053Master's degrees 830Doctoral degrees 18
Librarians. Usually 4 years of -,11ege followed by 1year of training in library science is required forlibrarians. This training qualifies them for the master'sdegree.
Employment 1968 106,000Projected 1980 requirements 135,000Percent growth, 1968-80 28,6Annual openings, 1968-80 total 8,200
Growth 2,500Replacements 5,700
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees 1,000Master's degrees 5.932Doctoral degrees 17
Models. Although no Col mai educational requirementsexist for models, many employers require a high schooldiploma, and a few prefer some college. Training in amodeling school or modeling experience also are goodqualifications.
Employment 1968 50,000Projected 1980 requirements 64,000Percent growth, 1968-80 15.9Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1,700
Growth 700Replacements 1,000
Available training data . . . ..
Photographers. A wide education range exists forphotographer positions. Many persons work on the job 2or 3 years. Others train through 3-year apprenticeshipprograms. In addition, several colleges and universitiesoffer 4-year curriculums leading to a bachelor's degreewith a major in photography. A few institutions offer2-year photography curriculums.
38
Employment 1968 60,000Projected 1980 requirements 72,000Percent growth, 1968-80 . . . . . . . . . 18.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 2,200
Growth 900Replacements 1,300
Available tra ning d
Pilots and copilots. All pilots must be licensed by theFAA. Copilots and most pilots employed in generalaviation must have a "commerical airplane pilots"license. An "instrument rating" also is often required.To qualify for a commercial airplane pilots license or aninstrument rating license, applicants must be at least 18years and have 200 hours of flight experience. Allcaptains must have an "airplane transport pilots" license.Applicants for this license must be at least 23 and have1,200 hours of flight time including night flying andinstrument flying time. Training may be obtained from aprivate flight school, airline flight school, or throughmilitary service.
Employment 1968 52,000Projected 1980 requlrements . . . . . 114,000Percent growth, 1968-80 116.9Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1,800
Growth 1,100Replacements 700
Available training data:Vocational education completions:
Post-secondary 791
Programmers. Although educational requirementsvary, most employers prefer applicants having a collegedegree. Graduate degrees may be required for somehigh-level programming positions.
Employment 1968 175,000Projected 1980 requirements 400,000Percent growth, 1968-80 129.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 23,000
Growth 19,000Replacements 4,000
Available training data
Psychologists. Generally, the master's degree with amajor in psychology is required for these positions. ThePh. D. is needed for many entrance positions and isimportant for advancement. Psychologists entering in-dependent practice must meet certification or licensingrequirements in many States.Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees 29,332Master's degrees 4,011Doctoral degrees 1,551
32,00058,000
81.33,1002,200
900
4 41
Radio and television announcers. Educational require-ments vary for radio and television announcers. Training
may be obtained in high schools, vocational schools, orcollege. Announcer positions with the national networkstivally require a college degree and e:tperience.
1.2.mp1oymern 1968 14,000Projected 1980 requirements 16,000Percent growth, 1968-80 14.9Annual openings, 1968-80 total 600
Growth 200Replacements . ...... 400
Available training data
Recreation Workers. Most employers prefer appli-cants having a bachelor's degree with a major inrecreation, social science, or physical education.
Employment 1968 40,000Projected 1980 requirements 70,000Percent growth, 1968-80 . . . . ..... 75.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 4,100
Growth 2,500Replacements = ....... = . . = 1,600
Available training data
Social workers. A bachelor's degrPe, preferably insocial welfare, is the minimum requirement for socialworkers. A master's degree is required for many begin-ning jobs. Jobs in teaching and research usually requirean advanced degree. After 2 years' experience socialworkers are eligible fo: certification as members of theAcademy of Certified St, ial Workers.
The primary source of entrants into the profession arenew college graduates having degrees in social work andexperienced social workers reentering the occupationafter a period outside the labor force. If patterns ofreentry of women in social work follow the reentrypatterns of women teachers, and if past patterns of entryto the professioo continue, approximately 20,500 gradu-ates with bachelor's and master's ",,,gees in social workwould be needed annually to meet projected require-ments.
lu 1968 about 7,200 bachelor's and master's degreeswere granted in social work. To meet requirements, theaverage nunfe- granted annually would have to increaseby 185 percent. Projections developed by the U.S.Office of Education based on trends in patterns of studyshow the average annual number of bachelor's andmaster's. degees in social work increasing by 60 percentabove 1968 levels over the 1968-80 period. Therefore,the training in social work will have to be increasedmuch faster dm trends indicate if requirements are tobe met.
Employment 1968 160,000Projected 1980 requirements 270,000Percent growth, 1968-80 66.7Annual openings, 1968-80 total . . 16,700
Growth 9,000Replacements 7,700
Available training data:Bachelor's degrees 3,367Master's degrees 5,037Doctoral degrees 90
Surveyors. The most common way to prepare forsurveying is through a combination of post-high school
courses in surveying and extensive on-the-job training. Aprofessional career in photogrammetry usually requires abachelor's degree in engineering or the physical sciences.Many States require 4 to 8 yeatQ' experience in surveyingand successful completion of an examination for
licensing.
Employment 1968 45,000Projected 1980 requirements ..... . . . . . 68,000Percent growth, 1968-80 50.2Annual openings, 1968-80 total 2,600
Growth 1,900Replacements 700
A ailable training data
Systems analysts. Although systems analysts have nosingle acceptable way of preparing, most employersprefer applicants having college backgrounds and ex-perience in computer programming. Many employersseek candidates who have mathematics, science, engi-neering, or business backgrounds; others stress a
graduate degree. Systems analyst trainees pan learn touse data processing equipment on the h i ihroughspecial courses offered by colleges and nanu-
facturers.
Employment 1968 150,000Projected [980 requirements 425,000Percent growth, 1968-80 133.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 27,000
Growth 23,000Rei.,:accments 4,000
Available training data
Urban planners. For some jobs, a bachelor's degree inurban planning or a related field is acceptable; but amaster's degree in urban planning is increasingly desired.
Employment 1968 7,000Projected 1980 requirements 13,500Percent growth, 1968-80 93.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 800
Growth 600Replacements =
200
Available training data
4539
Managerial Occupations
Employers increasingly require beginning managers :ohave a college degree. A bachelor's degree in businessadministration and a major in accounti economics, orfinance are desired by some employers. Other firms seekapplicants having technical training in engineering,science, or mathematics. Still others train liberal artsgraduates on the job. The number of formal manage-ment trainee programs is relatively small. Advancementto high-level management jobs often occurs after severalyears of progressively more responsible work experience.
Employment 1968 7 776,000prujected 1980 requirements 9,5(10,000Percent growth, 1968 80 12.1
Annual openings, 1968-80 total 380,000Growth 144,000Replacements 236,000
Bank ofilcns
Bank officer positions are filled by promoting eitherexperienced clerical employees or management trainees.A business administration curriculum and a major infinance en liberai ?ii.s that includes accounting,economics, comme..ial law, political science, and sta-tistics courses are excellent preparation for traineepositio ns.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data
Conductors (railroad)
these positions. However, a college education is
becoming increasingly important. When college trainingis required, some employers prefer business admini-stration graduates who have majored in transportation;other employers prefer liberal arts majors who havetaken courses in transportation management, economics,statistics, marketing, or commercial law.
Employment 1968 15,000Projected 1980 requirements . . . . ,, . . ... . 17,000Percent growth, 1968-80 10.4Annual openings, 1968-80 total 500
Growth 150Replacements 350
Available training data
Managers and assistants (hotel)
Hotel experience is genet ally the first consideration toselecting hotel managers; however, employers in-
creasingly emphasize a college education. The bestcollege preparation is provided by specialized 4-yearcurriculums in hotel and restaurant administration.Some large hotel organizations have special managementtrainee programs both for college graduates and personspromoted from within.
125,000 Employment 1968 150,000193,000 Projected 1980 requirements 198,000
53.8 Percent growth, 1968-80 27.611,600 Annual openings, 1968-80 total 9,5005,600 Growth 3.6006,000 Replacements 5,900
Available training datat'Bachelor's degrees 520Master's degrees 22
Qualified brakemen are promoted to conductors on aseniority basis. To qualify, a man usually must haveseveral year's experience as a brakeman and passexaminations covering signals, air brakes, time tables,operating rules, and related subjects.
Employment 1968Projerted 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual open!ngs, 1968-80 total . . .
GrowthReplacements
Available training data
Industrial traffic managers
38,00039,000
2.72,5001,0001,500
Experience in traffic departments enables some per-sons having only a high school education to qualify for
40
' Degecs in hotel an
Purchasing agents
estaurant administration.
For these rbs, employers often prefer to hire gradu-ates of schools of business administration or engineeringwho have had courses in accounting, economics, andpurchasing; and some require applicants to have graduatetraining in business achnini5tration. Other employersprefer experience with the company, whether or notapplicants have a college educatinn.
Employment 1968 140,000Projected 1980 requirements 185,000Percent growth, 1968-80 27.2Annual openings, 1968-80 total 6,700
Growth 3,300Replace men ts 3,400
Availabk training data
Clerical and Rela
All but the most routine clerical positions requiregraduation from high school. Most employers regardinstruction in busines subjects as a particularly goodqualification. The instruction may be obtained in highschool or special schools, or in cooperative work-studyprograms.
Employment 1968 12,803,000Projected 1980 requirements 17,300,000Percent growth, 1968-80 35.1Annual openings, 1968-80 total 912,000
Growth 375,000Replacements . . .. ...... 537,000
Bank clerks
High kchool graduation is adequate veparation formost beginning clerical jobs in banks. For most jobs,courses in bookkeeping, typing, business arithmetic, andoffice machine operation are desirable.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-30Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data ... . . . .
Bank tellers
400,000512,000
28.829,9009,500
20,000
Banks prefer high school graduates with experience inrelated clerical positions when filling teller positions.Applicants also must meet bonding standards.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data
Bookkeeping workers
230.000337,000
elt_220,000
8,00012,000
For bookkeeping jobs, most employers prefer highschool graduates who have taken business arithmetic andbookkeeping courses. Some prefer applicants who havecompleted a post-high school business training programOr junior college.
Employment 1968 1 200,000Projected 1980 requirements 1,500,000Percent growth, 1968-80 18.9Annual openings, 1968-80 total 78,000
70,000Replacements 98,000
Available training data
d Occupations
Cashiers
For cashier jobs, employers prefer pople who havecompleted high school. Courses in business arithmetic,bookkeeping, typing, and other business subjects aregood preparation for this work.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 rcquiremen sPercent growth. 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data
1
730,000110,000
50.669,00031,00038,000
Clerks (railroad)
A high school ecilication is generally required forrailroad clerk jobs. Railroads prefer workers who havetraining or some experience in working with figures.
Employment 1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .
Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data
Dental assistants
93,00089,000
-!!.82,700-4003,100
Although most entrants are trained on the job anincreasing number of dental assisants are entering theoccupation through formal post-high school dentalassisting programs. Based on the known training sources.programs to train dental assistants could double and allrequirements still would not be met by those receivingacademic training.
Employment 1968 100,000Projected 1980 requirements 150,000Percent growth, 1968-80 50.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 9,000
Growth 4.400Replacements 4,600
Available training data:Junior college gsaduates 1,307Vocational education completions:
Secondary . . ........ . . .. 1,201Post-secondary 1,952
Electronic cumputer operating personnel
In filling these jobs, employers usually require a! leasta high school education. For console operator posit:Los.some college training may be preferred.
47 41
Employment 1968 175,000Projected 1980 requirements 400,000Percent growth. 1968-80 129.0Annual openings, 1968-80 twat . . . .. . ... 20,400
Growth 18,800Replacements 1,600
Available training data:Junior colleges
Front office clerks (hotel)
4,633
Although education beyond high school generally isnot required for these jobs, hotel employers are attaching greater importance to college training in selectingapplicants who may later advance to managerial posi-tions.Employ went 1968 50,000Projected 1980 requirements ... . . 69,000Percent growth, 1968-80 27.6Annuai openings, 1968-80 total 3.200
Growth 1,250Replacements 1,950
Available training data
Library technicians
A high school diploma or its equivalent is the standardentrance requirement for both academic and on-the-joblibrary technician training programs .number of new entrants will be requiredin formal academic programs.
An increasingto have trainiug
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements . . , .... . ...... .
Available training data:Junior college graduates
Mail carriers
70,000125,000
77.19,0004,5004,500
134
Although no formal education or prior experience isrequired for mail carriers, applicants must pass civilservice and physical examinations.
Employment 1968 246,000Project,74 1980 requirements 335,001)Percent growth, 1968-80 36.2Annual openings, 1968-80 sltal 12,200
Growth 7,400Replacements 4,800
Available training data
Office machine operators
Graduation from high school or business school is theminimum educational requirement for all but the mostroutine office machine operator jobs. The necessary
42
amount of training dealinn with business machines variesby type of machine used.
Employment 1968 325,000Projected 1980 requirements . . . . .. . . . 460,000Percent growth, 1968-80 . . . . ........ 39.4Annual openings, 1968-80 total 25,000
Growth 10,000Replacements 15,000
Available training data
Postal clerks
Although no formal education or prior experience isrequired for postal clerks, applicants must pass civilcervice and physical examinations.Employment 1968 290,000Projected 1980 requirements 385,000Percent growth, 1968-80 32.8Annual openings, 1963-80 total 14,600
Growth 7,900Replacements .... . . . .. . .... 6,700
Available training data . .. . . .... . 0
Receptionists
Formal educational requirements are rarely specifiedbeyond a high school diploma. Nevertheless, about 1receptionist in 5 has some college training. Businesscourses are valuable for applicants seeking beginningpositions.
Employment 1968 . . . . . . . ..... .. . 240,000Projected 1980 requirements . . . . . . . . ... . .. 400,000Percent grewth, 1968-80 65.6Annual openings, 1968-80 total 30,000
GrowthReplacemen ts
1173:000000
.......Available training data . ....Shipping and receiving clerks
High school graduates are preferred for beginning jobsas shipping and receiving clerks. Post-lugh school trainingo- courses in transportation are important for advance-ment to warehouse managers, industrial traffic managers,or purchasing agents.Employment 1968 370,000Projected 1980 requirements 465,000Percent growth, 1968-80 25.3Annual openings, 1968-80 total ... . . . 15,400
Growth 7,800Replacements 7,600
Available training data:MDTA enrollment J.T . 1,500
Station agents
Experienced telegraphers usually become agents insmall stations or assistants in larger ones.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
....
Available training data
Stenographers and secretaries
10,9005,200-52,1-225-475250
Graduation from high school is essential for practicallyall secretarial and stenographic positions. Graduateswhose high school courses included shorthand, typing,and other business subjects meet the requirements ofmany employers. Some employers prefer persons bayinga background of academic high school subjects supple-mente.d by technical training taken after graduation.Employment 1968 2,650,000Projected 1980 requirements . . . ... . . . 3.650,000Percent growth, 1968-80 36.8Annual openings, 1968-80 total 237,000
8Growth 2,000Replacements 15,000
Available training data:MDTA enrollment:
institutional 6,480Vocational education cornplc ,ons:
Seconi. . 126,782Post-secondary 15,373
Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen (r c,ad)
Most railroads prefer high school graduates for begin-ning positions and require applicants to pass examine.tions on train operating rules and duties related to theirfuture assignments.
Employment 1968 13,200Projected 1980 requirements 12,700Percent growth, 1968-80 3.8Annual openings, 1968-80 total 100
Growth -50Replacements 150
Available training data
Telephone operators
In hiring beOnning telephone operators, employersprefer young people who have at least a high school
education. Courses ,equired or considered helpful in-clude English, business arithmetic, and typing.
Employment 1968 400,000Projected 1980 requireinents 480,000Percent growth, 1968-80 20.9Annual openings, 1968-80 to al 28,000
Growth 6,900Replacements 21,100
Available training data
Traffic agents and cierks (civil aviation)
These jobs generally require high school graduation,and college training is considered desirable. Collegecourses in transportation are helpful for higiter levelpositions such as traffic representative.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirements ..... . .
Percent growth, 1968 -80 . . . ... .
Annual openings, 1968-80 totalGrowthReplacements
Available training data
Typists
37,50060,000
60.!2,6001,5001,100
Most employers require applicants for typing positionstc meet certain standards of speed and accuracy. Typistsshould have a good understanding of spelling, vocabu-lary, punctuation, and grammar. Most typists learn theirskills by attending day or evening classes in public orprivate schools. High school graduates generally arepreferred by employers.
Employment 1968 700,000Projected 1980 requirements 930,000Percent growth, 1968-80 36.8Annual openings, 1968-80 total 63,000
Growth 21,000Replacements 42,000
Available training data:Vocational education completions:
Secondary 80,472Post-secondary 7,592
Sales Occupations
The minimum educational requirements for salescareers vary widely. Some sale positions require noformal education; others specify a college degree in atechnical or scientific field. Even for routine sales jobs,however, a high school diploma is an asset for thebeginner. Training for some sales jobs, such as those in
retail stores, is usually received on the job. Some personscombine on-the-job training with home study or coursesoffered by malaifacturers or local universities.
Employment 1968 . . .... . ... . . . . . . 4,647,000Projected 1980 requirements 6,000,000Percent growth, 1968-80 29.1
43
Annual openings, 1968-80 total 263,000Growth 113,000Replaceme-.t 150,000
Insurance agents and brokers
Although nOt required, a college degree is helpful to aninsurance agent or broker. Courses in accounting, eco-nomics, business law, and insurance arc very useful.Some insurance companies sponsor classes in sales andinsurance principles; other training is available from localeducational institutions or through correspondencecourses. All agents and most brokers must be licensed inthe State where they sell insurance. To receive a license,most States require candidates to pass a written ex-amination in insurance fundamentals and State insurancelaws.
Employment 1968 410,000Projected 1980 requirements .. 480,000Percent growth, 1968-80 16.9Annual openings, 1968-80 total 16,200
Growth 5,800Replacements ......... . 10,400
Available training data . .
Manufacturers' salesmen
Increasingly, employers prefer co,lege graduates forpositions as manufacturers' salesmen, although manypersons succeed with little or no training beyond highschool. Employer preferences for college training in aspecified field vary with the nature of tfw product sold.Training at a college of pharmacy usually is required ofdrug manufacturer salesmen; industrial salesmen oftenneed a scientific of technical background. Beginningsalesmen are given specialized training before they startto work. Some companies have formal training programswhicli may last from I to 2 years; other firms offerclassroom instruction followed by additional training onthe job under supervision of field managers.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80 . . .
Annual openings, 1968-80 totalGrowthReplacements
..........
Available training data
Real estate salesmen and brokers
500,000735,000
47.132,00019,50012,500
A high school diploma is preferred by employers hiringreal estate salesmen. Most real estate salesmen have somecollege training and many are college graduates. Coursesin real estate, psychology, economics, finance, andbusiness are helpful. Many firms offer their own formal
44
training programs for beginning salesmen. Other coursesare available at local educational institutions. All Statesand the District of Columbia require real estate salesmento be licensed. This licensing requires the passing of awritten examination; in over half the States, a specificamount of selling experience or equivalent eduation alsois necessary.huployment 1968 . . . .
Projected 1980 requirements .
Percent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968 80 total
GrowthReplacemen,s
e .......
e .......
Available training data
Retail trade salesworkers
225,000270,000
20.114,2003,800
10,400
Although not essential, employers prefer to hire highschool graduates for retail sales positions. Salesmanship,home economics, and commercial arithmetic are amongthe high school subjects that are usefuk in a sales career.Most salesworkers are trained on the job; but, part-timeselling experience gained while still in school may behelpful in obtaining full-time sales employment. In largerstores, applicants may spend a few days in formaltraining sessions before beginning actual sales work.
Employment 1968 2,800,000Projected 1980 requirements 3,460,000Percent growth, 1968-80 24.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 150,000
Growth 55,000Replacements 95,000
Available training data
Automobile parts countermen
Although not essential, employers prefer to hire highschool graduates for entry jobs as parts countermen.High school or vocational school courses in automechanics, commercial arithmetic, salesmanship, andbookkeeping are important; experience gained throughgasoline service station work also is an asset to theprospective parts counterman. Most countermen learntheir skills on the job; up to 2 years' working experiencemay be necessary before an employee is fullyEmployment 1968Projected 1980 requirements ... . . . .. . .
Percent growth, 1968-80Annual openings. 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data
Automobile salesmen
qualified.65,001;80,000
23.12,5001,2501,250
Many employers require beginning automobile sales-men to be at least 21 years old and a high school
graduate. A growing number of salesmen have edubeyond high school. Courses in public speaking, com-mercial arithmetic, business law, and salesmanship areuseful; previous sales experience or work requiringcontact with the public also is helpful. Most beginningsalesmen are trained on the job, although large firmssometimes provide t urinal classroom training.Employment 1968 . . . . . . . .... . 120,000Projected 1980 requirements 145,000Percent growth, 1968-80 20.8Annual opening 1968-80 total 4,400
Growth 2,100Replacements 2,300
Available training data
Automobile ,ervice advisers
For service adviser trainee jobs, employers sock highschool graduates over 21 years of age who IL, warkexperience in automobile repair or related activities. A
driver's license usually is required and high school orvocational school courses in automobile mechanics,commercial arithmetic, salesmanship, and English areimportant. Beginnina service advisers are trained on thejob under the guidance of more experienced serviceadvisers and the service manager. A beginner usuallybecomes a qualified service adviser in 1 to 2 years.
Employment 1968 10,000Projected 19130 requirements 12,500Percent growth, 1968-80 25.0Annual openings, 1968-30 total 300
Growth . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . , 200Replacements 100
Available training data
Securities salesmen
A college education is increasingly necessary forbeginners seeking to enter this field. A degree in business
administration, aconomics, or liberal arts is good prep-aration for securities sales work. Almost all Statesrequire securities salesmen to be licensed; personal bondsor written examinations are needed to obtain thislicense. In addition, practically every salesman must be aregistered representative of hns firm according to theregulations of the firm's securities exchange, otherexchanges through which it does business, or theNational Association of Securities Dealers: Examinationsand character investigations are required for registration.Most firms provide training for beginners, which mayvary from short informal programs to combined class-
room instruction and on-the-job experienae that lasts 6months or more.Employment 1968 135,000Projected 1980 requirncnts 1702,040.00
Percent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total .. . 7,400
G rowth 2.800Replacements 4,600
Available training data
Wholesale trade salesworkers
High school graduation is the usual educational re-quirer ;nt for a wholesale salesman, although sellingscientinc or technical equipment often requires trainingbeyond high school. In some cases, engineering degreesare necessary. A beginner usually is trained on the job inseveral non-seliing positions before being assigned as asalesman. Generally 2 years or longer are required beforea trainee is ready for a territory of his own.
Employment 1968 530,000Project, . 1980 requirements 695,000Percent gzewth, 1968-80 29.5Annutd openings, 1968-80 total 25,200
Growth 13,200Replacements 12,000
Available trainine dita
Service Occupat
Training requirements clIffer greatly among the variousservice occupations. Although a high school diploma isalways an advantage, some service jobs usually do notrequire any formal education requirements. Some othersrequire a college degree, and still others demand specialtraining.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 tot.d
GrowthReplacements
9,381,00013,100,000
39.6752,000310,000442,000
ns
Barbers
To be eligible for a license that is required inpractically all States, a candidate must have completedat least the eighth grade and graduated from a
State-approved barber school. All but a few Statesrequire betr,inners to take an examination for an appren-tice license. After working 1 or 2 years. the apprenticetakes a sacond examination for his lizonse as a registeredbarber.Employment 1968 21b.000Projecied 1980 rcquircn_ s 260,000
5 1.
45
Percent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
Gr,IwthReplacements
Available training data:Vocational education co i..pktions:
SecondaryPost-secondary
Bel !men and bell captains (hotel)
23.8 Available training data:12,800 MDTA enrollment 0.3.1. 1,8004,200 Institutional 3,6008,600 Vocational education completions:
Secondary 1,563Post-secondary 423
139553
Although no specific educational requirements existfor bellmen, graduation from high school enhancesopportunities for promotion to front office clerical jobs.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings. 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data
Building custodians
30,00032,000
10.61, L 00
300800
There are no formal educational requirements for mostpositions in custodial work, and most custodians acquiretheir skills ol, the job. However, entry workers should beable to do simple arithmetic and follow written direc-tions. Hig)-t school shop courses may help the workerperform the many handyman tasks that are required.
Employment 1968 1,100,000Projected 1980 requirements . . .. . . . . 1,460,000Percent growth, 1968-80 32.7Annuill openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data
(,00ks and chefs
80,00030,00050,000
Most cooksparticularly those who work in smalleating placesacquire their skills on the job. Less
frequehtly they are trained as apprentices under tradeunion con Lracts or new employee training programsconducted by large hotels and restaurants. Trainingoffered by a number of schools and other institutionsis a distinct advantage for applicants seeking jobs ascooks or chefs in some large restaurants or other estab-lishments which provide food.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
46
670,000900,000
33.248,00019,00029,000
Cosmetologists
All States require that cos netologists be licensed, andthat applicants have completed at least eighth gradeinmany States the tenth grade, and in a few the twelthgrade. Successful completion of a State-approved cos-metology course is recognized as adequate preparationfor the State licensing examination; in some States, aperiod of apprenticeship may bc substituted.
Employment 1968 475,000Projected 1980 requirements 685,000Percent growth, 1968-80 42.9Annual openings, 1968-80 total 38,000
Growth 17,000Replacements 21,000
Available training data:Vocational education completions:
Secondary . . . . . .... . . ..Post-secondary
FBI special agents
7,1262,476
An applicant must have graduated from a State-ac-credited resident law school or a 4-year resident collegewith a major in accounting. The law school training musthave been preceded by at least 2 years of residentundergraduate college work. Accounting graduates alsomust have had at least 3 years of experience inaccounting or auditing or a combination of both.
Employment 1968 6,600Projecterl 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total . . .
GrowthReplacements
Available training data
Firefighters
In most communities, qualifying examinations areopen to men who have a high school education. The menwho receive the highest grades on their examinationshave the best chances for appointment. The examina-tions test the applicant mentally and physically. Same
post-secondary training currently is bc-ig provided forfirefighting positions.
Employment 1968 180,000Projected 1980 requirements 245,000Percent growth, 1968-80 . . .... . . . . 34.0
Annual openings, 1968-80 totalGrowthReplacements
Available training data:Vocational education completions:
SecondaryPost-seconduy
Licensed practical nurses
7,7005,2002,500
34823
All States and the District of Columbia licensepractical nurses. Usually only candidates who havecoinpleted a course in practical nursing and passed anexamination are lieensed. Generally, at least 2 years ofhigh school must be completed to enroll in practical
nursing courses.
Employment 1968 . . . , . . . . . . . . .. . . .
Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
A ailable training data:Junior college graduatesVocational education completions:
SecondaryPost-secondary
Hospital attendants
320,000600,000
87.548.00023,00025,000
5,564
2,19219,586
Although some institution ,. hire persons with less than
a high school education, high school graduates arepreferred. Hospital attendants usually learn their skills
on the job with some supplemented classroom work.
Employment 1968 800,000Projected 1980 requirements 1,500,000Percent growth, 1968-80 87.5Annual Jpenmgs, 1968-80 total 100,000
Growth 58,000Replacements 42,000
Available training data:SecondaryPost-secondary
Housekeepers and assinants (hotel)
7,2703,939
Although no specific educational requirements exist
for housekeepers, most employers prefer applicants who
have at least a high school diploma.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data
2 ,00035,000
27.62,400
6001,800
Police officers (municipal)
Some police departments accept recruits wh, have lessthan a high school education, particularly it- they haveworked in a field related to law enforcement. A fewcities require some college training and some hire lawenforcement students as police interns. College trainingis required of women because of their special assign-
ments.Employment 1968 2P7,000Projected 1980 requirements 360,000Percent growth, 11:168-80 27.5Annual operngs, 1968-80 total 15,000
Growth 6,500Replacements 8,500
Available training data:Junior college gradua 2,851Vocational educatiot 5mpletions:
Secondary l 68Post-secondary 4,846
Private household workers
Although a high school diploma is an advantage, noformal education is required for most private householdworkers.Employment 1968 1,700,000Projected 1980 requirements 1,980,000Percent growth, 1968-80 14.8Annual openings, 1968-80 total 121,000
Growth 21,000Replacements 100,000
Available training data .
State police officers
Most States require that applicants have a high schooleducation or an equivalent combination of educationand experience. In all States, recruits enter a formaltraining program of several months.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirements 3525,°00000
Percent growth, 1958-80 47.7Annual openings, 1968-80 total 2,800
Growth 1,700Replacements 1,100
Available training data
Stewardesses (civil aviation)
Applicants must have a 14h school education. Thosebaying 2 years of college, nurses' training, or experiencein dealing with the public are preferred. Most large
airlines train their own stewardesses; however, a fewairlines that do not operate their own schools may hiregraduates who have been trained at private stewardesses'
schools.
oa47
Employment 1968 25,000Projected 1980 requircluents 65,000Percent growth, 1968-80 150.7Annual openings, 1968-80 total
Growth 3,300ReplacemenW
Available training data
' Not available. Stewardesses generally are not affected bynormal death and retirements rates because of the extremelyhigh turnover for this occupation. Many leave the occupationbefore age 30.
Waiters and waitresses
Most waiters and waitresses acquire th ir skills on thejob. Increasingly, employers prefer that beginners have
at least 2 or 3 years of high school. In certainrestaurants, knowledge of a foreign language may beimportan t.
Employment 1968 960,000Projected 1980 requirenwnts 1,240,000Percent growth, 1968-80Annual opc.r.: 1968 SO total 67,000
Growth 23.000Replacements 44,000
Available training data:Vocational educati.
Secondary .
Post-secondary
Craftsmen
A large proportion of skilled workers learn their tradesinformally on-the-job; others acquire the necessary skillsfrom apprenticeship or other formal training. Mosttraining ant: irities recommend a formal apprenticeshipprogram lasting from 2 to 6 years as the best way tolearn a skilled trade. In addition, many companiesprovide on-the-job training and related classroominstruction. Some young persons move from one semi-skilled jub to another and, Over a period of years,acquire the expertise demanded of a skilled worker.Others learn a skilled trade in vocational, trade, or
chnical schools. In addition, many men in the ArmedForces acquire training that helps them to qualify, withadditional experience, for skilled jobs in civilian life.
Employment 1968 10,015,000Projected 1980 requirements 12,200,000Percent growth, 1968-80 21.8Annual openings, 1968-80 total 396,000
Growth 187,000Replacements ....... . . . .. . . 214,000
Available training data
Construction trades
In interpreting data for the construction trades, noteshould be ta.7.en of the points made in the discussion onpage 6, on the special problems of planning training inthe construction trades because of such factors as thecyclical and seasonal nature of the construction in-dustry. In addition it must be kept in mind that in theconstruction trades all annual openings do not have tobe filled by newly trained workers. The economy has anained cadre of construction workers who have ob-tained construction trade skills during the tleak periodsof construction activity of business and seasonal cycles.During periods of increasing construction activity, asimplied in the projectio..s presented in this report, many
48
mpletions:663110
of these trained workers will be drawn into theconstruction crafts from ti.e ranks of the unemployedand from other occupations to which they shifted duringperiods of reduced construction activity.
As indicated earlier in this report, the projectionspresented here are based on a series of assumptions,concerning such factors as the international politicalsituation, the dr-ection of Government programs, andgeneral economic conditions, all of which are subject towide variability over the long run. In construction andother industries where the demand for workers is
particularly affected by changes in economic conditionsand the economic policy of government these assump-tions become even more critical, Officials concernedwith planning training programs must keep these as-sumptions clearly in mind in using the projections andmake judgments as to the affect on training needs ofcircumstances which indicate that the assumptions willnot be borne out."
In this section on construction trades occupations,data are presented on einployment and manpower needsfor these workers in the construction industry as well asan all-industry total. As an additional aid to individualsengaged in planning training programs, information isalso presented on annual openings and apprenticeshipcompletions over the 1960-68 period as well as the dataon 1968-80 projections and current training. (See dis-cussion on page 6 for illustiative uses of historical data).
Asbestos and insulating workers. Most asbestosworkers learn their trade through a 4-year "improver-ship- p7 'gram where they learn to use the tools of thetrade and to work with insulating materials.
34 See discussion on alternate projections for const'uctioncraftsmen in chapter 1. g, 4.
11
industrwsConstruction
industryEmployment 1968 22,000 15,000Projected 1980 requirements . 28,000 21,000Percent growth 27.3 14.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total . 800 700
Growth ...... . 500 500Replacements 300 200
Available training data
Bricklayers. Completion of a 3-year apprenticeshipprogram is the desired training for bricklayers. Duringthe 1960's apprenticeship completions numbered nearlyone-half of openings resulting from growth and deathand retirement. A high school education or its equivalentis important for entry to apprenticeship programs. Someskills of the trade may also be obtained throughvocational school courses. Training may also be obtainedinformally on the job.
Employ?? it 1968 and projected 1980 req ements'
All Constructionindustries industrY
Employment 1968 200,000 175,000Projected 1980 requirements 260,000 225,000Percent growth 30.0 28.6Annual openings, total 8,400 7,200
Growth 5,000 4,200Replacements 3.400 3,000
Employm 960-68Employment 1960 . . . . 200,000Employment 1968 200,000Percent growth --Annual openings, total 3,000
GrowthReplacements 3,000
Available training data:
Apprenticeship com-pletions . . . 1,651 (1969) 1,430 (annual
average1961-68)
Vocational educationcompletions:
Secondary 4,032Post-secondary 272
' Includes stonemasons marblesetters, and tile setters.
carpenters. A 4-year apprenticeship program, in-cluding 144 hours or related classroom instruction, isrecommended. During the 1960's. apprenticeship com-pletions numbered about 14 r--rcent of openings re-sulting from growth and death ,,ind retirements. A highschool education or its equivalent is desirable. Trainingmay also be acquired on the job. Some knowledge of thetrade may also be obtained through vocational schoolcourses.
Employment 1968 and mope' ,d 1980 requirenwnisAll Construction
industries industryEmployment 1968 869,000 670,000Projected 1980 requi lents 1,075,000 825,000Percent growth 23.7 23.1Annual openings, total 39,300 30,000
Growth 17,200 13,000Replacements . . 22,100 17.000
9 -68EmploymentEmployment 1960 831,000Employment 1968 869,000Percent growth 4.4Annual openings lal . 23,900
Growth 4,600Replacements 19,300
Available training data:MDTA (OJT) . . 3,700MDTA Institutional 500Apprenticeship .... . . 3,698 (1969) 3,256 (annual
average1961-68)
Vocational education com-pletions:
Secondary ...Post-secondary
7,4721,080
cement Masons. A 3-year apprenticeship program thatincludes related classroom instruction is recommended.During the 1960's, apprenticeship completions num-bered *mit 1/ percent of openings resulting fromgrowth and death and retirement. Education above thegrade school level is desirable. Skills may also beacquired informally on the job.
Employment 1968 and projected 1980 requirementsAll Constructkni
industries industryEmployment 1968 60,000 55,000Projected 1980 requirements 90,000 85,000Percent growth 50.0 54.5Annual openings, total . . . 3,600 3,600
Growth ..... . . . . . 2,500 2,500Replacements 1,100 1,100
Employ?? ent 1960-68
Employment 1960Employment 1968Percent growthAnnual openings, total
GrowthReplacements
.......
.....
45,00060,000
33.32.7001,9J0
800
Available training data:Apprenticeship com-
pletions 300 (1969) 327 (annualaverage1961-68)
Electricians (construction). A high school education isrequired for electrician jobs. An apprenticeship programlasting 4 years and including 144 hours of classroominstruction each year is recommended. During the1960's, apprenticeship -ompletions numbered about 55
49
percent of openings resulting from growth and death andretirement. Most cities require electricians to passlicensing examinations. Training may also be acquired onthe job. Some skills of the trade may also be acquiredthrough vocational school courses.
Emp lent 1968 and projected 1980 requirements
Employment 1968 , 190,000Projected 1980 requirements . 270,000Percent arowth 42.1Annual openings, total 10,500
Growth 6,700Replacements 3,800
la 1960-68Employment 1960 . . 155,000Employment 1968 190,000Percent growth 22.6Annual openings, total 7,200
Growth 4A00Replacements .... 2,800
Available training data:'Apprenticeship com-
pletions 5 091 (1969) 4,005 (annualaverage(1961-68)
' Vocational education curriculums are provided for elec-tricians hut the statistics on completions are combined with dataon maintenance electricians.
Elevator constructors. Training is obtained tlu-oughemployment as an .levator constructor helper fo_ anumber of years. At least 2 years of continuous jobexperience including 6 months' on-the-job training at thefactory of a major elevator firm is usually necessary. Thehelper-trainee generOly attends evening classes in voca-tional schools.
Employmnnt 1968 14,500Projeetee 1980 requirements 18,000Percent growth, 1968-80 . . . . ... ... . . 24.1Annual openings, 1968-80 total 500
Growth 300Replacements 200
Available training data
Floor covering installers. Employers prefer that floorcovering installers have a high school education. Al-though many workers acquire their skills through in-formal training, a 3-to-4 year apprenticeship program,including related classroom instruction, is recommended.Training may also be obtained through formal on-the-jobtraining. Some skills of the trade may be acquiredthrough vocational school courses.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirem
50
nta
industries37,00047,000
Constructionindustry26,00033,000
Percent g To w th 27.0 26.9Annual openings, total 1,700 1,250
Growth 800 575Replacements 900 675
Availablc training data
Glaziers construction). Although many learn thetrade informally on the job, a 3-year apprenticeship isrecommended. During the 1960's, completions ofapprenticeship programs numbered about 45 percent ofopenings resulting from growth and death and retire-ment of glaziers in the construction industry, but some ofthese apprentices work outside of construction. A WOschool diploma or its equivalent is required for entry toapprenticeship programs.
Employment 1968 and projected 1980 requirements
Employment 1968 9,000Projected 1980 req'litements 13,000Percent growth 44.4Annual openings, total 500
Growth 350Replacements 150
Employment 960-68Employment 1960 5.000Employment 1968 9,000Percent growth 80.0Annual openings, total 500
Growth 400Replacements 10t
Available training data:App enticeship com-
pletions 217 (1969) 225 (annualaverage1961-68)
Lathers. Although many lathers acquire their skillsinformally on the job, a 2-year apprenticeship is recom-mended. During the 1960's, apprenticeship completionsnumbered about 40 percent of openings resulting fromgrowth and death and retirement. A high school educa-tion is encouraged.
Employment 1968 and projected 1980 requirements
Allindustries'
Employment 1968 30,000Projected 1980 requirements 38,000Percent growth 26.7Annual openings, total 1,250
Growth 650Replacements 600
Employment, 1960-68
Employment 1960 . . .. . 27,000Employment 168 ..... 29,000Percent growth 7.4Annual openings, total 750
Growth 250Replacements . . 500
Available training data:Apprenticeship COM-
pletions . 145 (1969) 310 (annualaverac1961 -68)
' Nearly all are employed in the construction industry.
Operating engineers, A 3-year apprenticeship programis the recommended training. A high school education orits equivalent is required for entry to these programs.Training may be obtained informally on the job by oilers(operating engineers assistants), and helpers to heavyequipment repairmen who demonstrate the initiative andskill to be given instructions by experienced operatingengineers. Some skills of the trade may also be acquiredthrough vocational school courses.
Employment 1968 and projected 1980 requirementAll
industriesConstruction
industryEmployment 1968 285,000 220,000Projected 1980 requirements 410,000 300,000Percent growth 435 36.4Annual openings, total 14,800 10,000
Growth . . . . . . , . . .. . 10,400 6,700Replacements 4,400 3,300
Employment, 1960-68
Employment 960Employment 1968Percent growthAnnual openings, total
GrowthReplacements . ..
210,000285,000
35.712,5009,4003,100
Available training data:Apprenticeship com-
pletions 829MDTA enrollment
(OJT) . ... . 800Vocational education
completions:Secondary . . . 103Post-secondary . 299
Painters and paperhangers. A high school education ispreferred but not essential for painter and paperhangeremployment. Although a 3-year formal apprenticeshipprogram including related classroom instruction is
recommended, training may Oso be obtained informally,on the job. During the 1960's, apprenticeship com-pletions numbered only about 7 percent of openingsresulting from growth and death and retirement. Someskills of the trade may be acquired through vocationalschool courses.
Employment 1968 and projected 1980 requirementsAll Construction
industries industryEmployment 1968 430,000 300,000Projected 1980 requirements 510,000 350,000Percent growth 18.6 16.7
Annual openings, total 18,200Growth 6,700Replacements . 11,500
Employment 1060-68Employment 1960 415,000Employment 1968 ... . 430,000Percent growth 3.6Annual openings, total . 12,500
Growth 1,900Replacement s 10,600
Available training data:Apprenticeship completions 829 1969)
Vocational educatio C0111-
pletions:SecondaryPost-secondary
40533
12,3004,2008,100
860 (annualaverago1961-68)
Plasterers. A 3 to 4 year apprenticeship includingclassroon, instruction is recommended for work as aplasterer. Skills may also be aNuired on the job byworking as plasterers' helpers or laborers. Some skills ofthe trade may also be acquired through vocationalschool courses.
Employment 1968 and projected 1980 requirementsAll
industriesConstruction
industryEmployment 1968 . . . . . . 40,000 35,000Projected 1980 requirements . . 40,000 35,000Percent growth . . . . . 0 0
Annual opening tal 700 600Growth 0 0
Replacemen 700 600
Employment 1960-68Employment 1960 50,000Employment 1968 40,000Percent growth -20.0Annual openings, tota -450
Growth -1,250Replacements . . . . . 800
Available training data:Apprenticeship com-
pletions 228 (1969) 'i48 (annualaverage1961-68)
Vocational educcompletions:
SecondaryPost-secondary
2611
Plumbers and pipefitters. A 5-year apprenticeshipincluding related classroom instruction is recommendedfor these jobs. Plumbing and pipefitting skills also maybe acquired informally on the job. Some skills of thetrade may be acquired thrOugh vocational schoolcourses. Some localities require workers to pass alicensing examination.
575 1
11111i .25
11111 11111L1, It'.6
MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART
N4T1QNAL BUREAU OF STANDARDC-063- A
Einp!oymet t 1968 and ininceted 1980 requirements
industriesConstruction
industryEmployment 1968 330,000 210,000Projected I 980 requirements 475,000 285,000Percent grow th 43.9 35.7Annual openings, total 19,500 10,800
Growth 12,100 6200,
Replacements 7,400 4,600
Erni loyt en 1960-68
Employment 1960 325,000Employment 1968 330,000Peree-it growth 1.5Annual openings, total 6,700
Growth 600Replacements 6,100
Available training data:Apptenticeship com-
pletions 4,888 (1969) 3,248 (annualaverage1961-68)
Vocational educationcompletions:
SecondaryPost-secondary
725162
Roofers. A 3-year apprenticeship including relatedclassroom instruction is recommended for this work.Training also may he acquired informally on the job. Alilgh school education or its equivalent is desirable for
roofers.
Employment 1968 and projected 1980 ivAll
industriesEmployment 1968 .... 55,000Projected 1980 requirements 80,000Percent growth 45.5Animal openings, total 3,000
Growth ... .. . . 2,100Replacements 900
dremcnts
Constructionindustry50,000704,000.00
2,5001 ,700
800
Employment 1960-68Employment 1960 50,000Employment 1968 . 55,000Percent growth .. 10.0Annual openings, total 1,300
Growth 600Replacements 700
Available training data:Apprenticeship com-
pletions 266 (annual average 1961-68)
Sheet metal workers. A 4-year apprenticeship programincluding related classroom instruction is recommendedfor sheet metal workers. During the 1960's, the numberof apprenticeship completions totaled more than open-ings for sheet metal workers in the construction in-
dustry, but many individuals completing the trainingwent into other industries: A high school education orits equivalent is required for entry to apprenticeshipprograms. Many workers in this trade acquire their skill
52
informally on the job. Skills of the trade may also beacquired though vocational school courses.
Employment 1968 and projected 1980 requirementsAll
industriesConstruction
industryEmployment 1968 50,000 40,000Projected 1980 requirements 70,000 55,000Percent growth 40.0 37.5Annual openings, total 2,500 2,000
Growth 1,700 1;250
Replacements 800 750
Emplo wient, 1 60-68
Employment 1960 48,000Employment 1968 50,000Percent growth . . 4.2Annual openings, total 1,200
Growth .. . 500Replacements 700
Available training data:Apprenticeship com-
pletions .
Vocational educationcompletions:
SecondaryPost-secondary
2,544 (1969) 1,829 (annualaverage1961-68)
1,388254
Stonemasons, marble setters, tilesetters, and terrazzoworkers. A 3-year 2pprenticeship program includingrelated classroom instruction is recommended for thesejobs. However, many persons acquire their skills throughon-the-job training. A high school education or itsequivalent is desirable for this woi k.
Employment 1968 30,000Projected 1980 requirements 35,000Percent growth, 1968-80 16.7Annual openings, 1968-80 total 850
Growth 350Replacements =
500
Available training data
Structural-, ornamental-, and rein oreinffiron work-ers, riders; and machine movers. A 3-year apprentice-ship program including relatixl classroom instruction isrecommended for these jobs. During the 1960's, appren-ticeship completions numbered about 40 percent ofopenings resulting from growth and death and retire-ment. However, many workers acquire skill on the job.A high school education or its equivalent is desirable.
Employment 1968 and projected 1980 requirementsAll
industriesConstruction
industryEmployment 1968 . ... . . 75,000 45,000Projected 1980 requirements . 103,000 70,000Percent growth 40.0 55.6Annual openings, total 3,900 3,000
Growth 2,500 2,100Replacements 1,400 900
Ent
Employment 1960Employment 1968Percent growthAnnual openings, total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data
Machining occupations
;0-6865,00075,000
15.42,4001,3001,100
All-round machinists. Although a 4-year apprentice-ship is the best way of learning the machinist trade,many persons qualify through years of experience inmachining jobs. A high school or vocational schooleducation that includes courses in mathematics, physics,or machine shop is helpful. A typical apprenticeship lastsabout 4 years and includes 8,000 hours of shop trainingand 570 hours of related classroom instruction.
Employment 1968 and proieeted (980 requirements
Employment 1968 . .... 400,000Projected 1980 requirements . 450,000Percent growth 12.5Annual openings total 12,600
Growth 4,200Reilact:ments 8,400
Employmen 960-68Employment 1960 .... , . 300,000Employment 1968 400,000Percent growth 33.3Annual openings, total 19,300
Growth 12,500Replacements 6,800
Available training data:Apprenticeship eon,-
pletions 3,527 ( 969) 1,581 (an-nual av-erage1961-68)
MDTA enrollment(OJT) 1,900
institutional . 1,800
Layout men. From 6 to 10 years' training andexperience are needed to develop the skills required forthis occupation. A machinist apprenticeship or equiva-lent knowledge of machining operations is necessary. Alayout man must be trained in mathematics; blueprintreacling; and the use of precision-measuring tools.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total .
Growth ... . . . . . .... . .
Replacements .
Avallab training data
' Included in all-round machinists' total.
Instru makers--mechanicaL Most instrumentmakers learn their trade through apprenticeships. Atypical 4-year apprenticeship consists of about 8,00Chours of shop training and 570 hours of classroominstruction. Shop training includes the use of hand andmacine tools and measuring instruments; classroominstruction covers subjects such as mathematics, physics,blueprint reading, chemistry, and electronics. Employersgenerally prefer that apprentices have a high schooleducation, including courses in algebra, geometry,science, and machine shop wort:
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirements (i )Percent growth, 1968-80 (1)Annual openings, 1968-80 total (1)
Growth ...... . . . ( )Replacements . . ...... . .
111
Available training dvi
Included in all-round machinists' total.
Setup men (machine tools). A set-up man usuallymust qualify as an all-round machinist or skilled machinetool operator. A set-up man must have thorough trainingin the operation of one or more kinds of machine tools;reading blueprints; and making computations to selectspeeds and feeds for machine tools.
Employment 1968 70,000Projected 1980 requirements 85,000Percent growth, 1968-80 26.9Annual openings, 1968-80 total 2,600
Growth 1,500Replacements 1,100
Available training data
Tool and die makers. Tool and die making can beacquired through formal 4 or 5 years formal apprentice-ship or equivalent time on the job. Most employersprefer apprentices who have a high school or tradeschool education, Several years' experience is necessaryto qualify for more difficult work. Many metal machineworkers, after years of experience, take classroom train-ing to become tool and die makers.
Employment 1968 and projected 1980 requirements
Employment 1968 150,000Projected 1980 requirements 160,000Percent growth . . . . . 6.7Annual openings, total 3,700
ellowth 800Replacements 2,900
Employment, 1960-68Employment 1960 140,000Employment 1968 150,000Percent growthAnnual openings, total 3,800
Growth .1,300Reptacements 2,500
53
Available training data:Apprenficeship com-
pletions ... . 4,125 (1969 ) 1.873 (annualaverage1961-68)
Mechanics and repairmen
Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating median-
ics. Most air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heatingmechanics start as helpers and learn their skills on the
job. Increasingly, employers prefei on-the-job trainees to
he high school graduates who have had courses inmathematics, physics, and blueprint reading. Many highschools and vocational schools offer coures to preparestudents for entry jobs as air-conditioning and refrigera-
tion mechanics or oil burner mechanics.
Employment 1968 . . . . ... 100,000
Projected 1980 requirements 140,000Percent growth, 1968-80 40.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 5,000
Growth 3,300Replacemen ts 1,700
Available training data
Aircraft mechanics. Aircraft mechanics must be
licensed by the FAA or the FCC. Mechanics may preparefor the trade and their licenses by working as trainees orapprentices, or as helpers to experienced mechanics. The
larger airlines train apprentices in a carefully planned 3-
or 4-year program of instruction and work experience.For trainee or apprentice jobs, the airlines prefer menwho have a high school or trade school educationincluding courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry,
and machine shop. Other mechanics prepare for theirtrade by graduating from an FAA-approved mechanicsschool. Most of these schools have an 18 to 24-month
program. Several colleges and universities also offer2-year programs that prepare the student for the FAAmechanics examination.
Employment 1963 135,000Projected 1980 requiremer ts 230,000Percent growth, 1968-80 70.4Annual openings, 1968-80 total . . . . . . . 9,900
Growth 7,900Replacements 1,800
Available training dat.L
Appliance servicemen. Appliance servicemen usuallyare hired as helpers and acquire their skills on-the-job.Trainees generally are supervised closely for 6 to 12months. Some servicemen need up to 3 years' experience
to become fully qualified. Many trainees take corre-spondence courses or attend technical schools to im-
prove their skills.Employment 1968 205,000Projected 1980 require ents 260,000
54
Percent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
Growth . ... . . ..... .
Replacements
26.88,6004,6004,000
Available training data:Vocational education completions:
Secondary . .... . . . . . . ...... . 880
Post-secondary 1,781
Automobile body repairmen. Generally, 3 to 4 yearsof on-the-job training is necessary to become a fully
qualified automobile body repairman. Most trainingauthorities recommend the completion of a 3- or 4-yearformal apprenticeship program as the best way to learn
the trade. These programs include on-the-job and relatedclassroom instruction. Although high school graduationusually is not required for an entry job, most employers
consider this an asset.
Employment 1963 and protected 1980 requirements
Employment 1968 . .. . .
Projected 1980 requirements .
Percent growth . . . . . ..Annual openings, total
GrowthReplacements
100,000125,000
25.03,5002,1001,400
Employment, 1960-68
Employment 1960 86,000Employment 1968 100,000Percent growth -Annual opeMngs, total 3,000
Growth . . .. . 1,800Replacements . .. 1,200
Available trainLng data:MDTA enrollment
(OJT) 2,000Institutional 3,900Apprenticeship com-
pletions 211 (1969) 163 (annualaverage1961-68)
Vocational educationcompletions:
SecondaryPost-sceondary
4,1641,586
Automobile mechanics. Most automobile mechanicslearn the trade through 3 to 4 years of on-the-jobexperience. An additional year or two usually is needed
to learn a specialty, such as automatic transmissionrepair. Most training authorities recommend completionof a 3- or 4-year formal apprenticeship program as the
best way to learn this trade. Work experience as agasoline service station attendant, training in the ArmedForces, and courses offered at high schools, vocational
schools, or private trade schools are helpful.
Employment 1968 and projected 1980 requirements
Employment 1968 . . . . . . . 615,000Projected 1980 requirements 745,000
Percent growth . 21,1Annual openings, total 20,050
Growth . . . . 11,300Replacements . , . 8,750
Employ men t, 1960-68
Employment 1960 -535,000Employment 1968 615,000Percent growthAnnual openings, total 17,300
Growth . . . . . . 10,000Replpcements . 7,300
Available training data:MDTA enrollment
(OJT) 2,200Institutional 9,700Apprenticeship corn-
pletions 1,01 (1969) 5'24 (averageannual1961-68)
Bowling-pin machine mechanics. Pinsetting machinemechanics learn their skills at schools maintained bybowling-machine manufacturers. To become a trainee ata factory school, candidates usually must be 16 yearsold, and take written tests of mechanical ability andpersonality traits. After attending factory schools,trainees need several months of on-the-job experience.Employers prefer to hire persons who are high schoolgraduates.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data
6,5006,000
-7.750
-50100
Business machine servicemen. Most business machineservicemen acquire their skills through on-the-job train-ing and work experience following instruction inmanufacturer's or dealer's training schools. Employersprefer trainee applicants who are high school graduatesand uncle' 30 years of age, although candidatz.s Lavingunusual mechanical aptitude or related work experiencemay be accepted without meeting these requirements. Aserviceman usually needs 1 to 3 years of practicalexperience and on-the-job training following a formaltraining program before he is considered fully qualified.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data:Vocational education completions:
SecondaryPost-secondary
115,000200,000
73,98,5007,1001,400
Electric sign servicemen. Most electric sign servicemenarc trained on the job; generally, 3 years of on-thelobtraining are required to become fully qualified. Sonicqualify through apprenticeship programs that combineon-the-job training and classroom instruction and last 3to 5 years. Employers prefer to hire high schoolgraduates. Many cities require servicemen to have
licenses. An applicant can obtain a license by passing acompreiyonsive examination in electrical theory.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirements .... . . . . .
Percent growth, 1968-80Annualopenings, 1968-80 totalGrowth 200Replacements 100
Available training data
Farm equipment mechanics. Most farm equipmentmecha;lics begin as helpers and learn their skills on thejob. Generally, at least 3 years of on-the-job training isnecessary before a person can become a qualifiedmechanic. Some mechanics have completed a 3 to 4 yeatapprenticeship program that includes on-the-job trainingand related classroom instruction.
Employment 1968 . ......... . 40,000Projected 1980 requirements 45,000Percent growth, 1968-80 12.5Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1,100
Growth 400Replacements 700
Available training data ..... . .if
Industrial machinery repairmen. Most workers whobecome industrial machinery repairmen begin as helpersand acquire their skills through several years' experienceon the job. Others learn their trade through 4-year formalapprenticeship programs consisting of on-the-job trainingand related classroom instruction.
Employment 1968 175,000Projected 1980 requirements . . . . . . . _ . . 220,000Percent growth, 1968-80 253Annual openings, 1968-80 total 7,500
Growth 3,750Replacements 3,800
Available t aining
Instrument repairmen. Inatrument repairmen maylearn their trade on-the-job or through formal appren-ticeship programs. Apprenticeships generally last 4 yearsand combine courses with actual work experience. Sometrain for instrument repair work in technical institutes orjunior colleges. These schools offer programs thatusually last 2 years and emphasize basic- engineering
379 courses, science, and mathematics. Men hired as trainees
119 or apprentices generally must be high school graduates.
81.55
Employment 1968 ;!5,000Projected 1980 requirernonts 120.000Pereent growth, 1968- 80 11.2Annual openings, 1968-80 total 4,600
Growth 2,900Replacemen ts . . .... 1,700
Available training data:Vocational education completions:
SecondaryPost-secondary
232211
Maintenance electricians. Maintenance electricianslearn the skills of their trade on the job or throughformal apprenticeship programs. Apprenticeships usuallylast 4 years and combine on-the-job training withclassroom instruction in related technical subjects. Morethan 4 years generally are required to become amaintenance electrician informally, on the job. Agrowing number of cities and counties require elec-tricians to pass a comprehensive examination and get alicense.Employment 1968 . . . . . .. . . 240,000Projected 1980 requirements 305,000Percent growth, 1968-80 27.1Annual openings, 1968-80 total . . . 9,900
Growth 5,400Replacements . . .. . ..... 4,500
Available training data
Millwrights. Millwrights acquire their skills 'J.: the jobor through apprenticeship programs. Apprenticeshipsgenerally last 4 years and combine shop training withrelated classroom instruction. Many companies requirethat apprentice applicants be high school graduatesbetween the ages of 18 and 26. High school courses inscience, mathematics, mechanical drawing, and machineshop are important for the prospective millwri
Employment 1968 75,000Projected 1980 requirements 85,000Percent growth, 1968-80 13.3Annual openings, 1968-80 total . 2,400
Growth 900Replacements . .... . . 1,500
Available training data
Television and radio service Technicians. Workers mayqualify as television and radio service techniciansthrough technical, vocational, or high school training inelectronics subjects, mathematics, and physics. Two or 3days' combined training and on-the-job experience areneeded to become a qualified technician. Home studycourses also are helpful. Young men often gain ex-perience in servicing electronic equipment throughmilitary service.Employment 1968 . . . .. . 125.000Projected 1980 requirenients 145,000Percent growth, 1968-80 16.0
56
Annual ormngs, 1968-80 total 3.000Growth 1,700Replacements 1,300
Available training d
Truck mechanics and bus mechanics. Most truck orbus mechanics learn their skills on the job. Generally, 3to 4 years' experience is necessary to qualify as anall-round mechanic. A formal 4-year apprenticeship isthe recommended way to learn these irades. Typicalapprenticeships consist of about 8,000 hours of shoptraining and 576 hours of related classroom instruction.For entry jabs, employers usually seek high schoolgraduates who are at least 18 years of age. High schoolOf vocational school courses in automobile repair, andmathematics are useful. For some jobs that requiredriving, the mechanic must have a State chauffeur'slicense or meet qualifications for drivers established bythe U.S. Department of Transportation.
Employment 1968 110,000Projected 1980 requirements 130,000Percent growth, 1968-80 18.2Annual openings, 1968-80 total 2,900
Growth 1,400Replacements 1,500
Available training data
Vending machine mechanics. Although not required,many beginning vending machine mechanics are high
school graduates. High school or vocational schoolcourses in electricity and machine repair are helpful.Mechanic trainees acquire their skills by working 6months to 2 years on the job or by attending manu-facturer-sponsored training sessions. A commercialdriver's license and a good driving record usually arerequired for vending machine repair jobs.
Employment 1968 16,000Projected 1980 requirementt: 20,000Percent growth, 1968-80 25.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 650
Growth 350Replacements 300
Available training data .. ... .
Watch repairmen. Many persons prepare for this tradethrough courses given in private watch repair schools orpublic vocational high schools. Some are trained in-formally on the job or through formal apprenticeship.Although not required, students in' most watch repairschools are high school graduates. A few States requirewatch repairmen to pass a qualifying examination andobtain a license.
Employment 1968 20.000Projected 1980 requirements .. 21,000Percent growth. 1968-80 = 5.0
Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1,400
Growth 800Replacements 600
Available training data
Printing (graphic arts) occupations
Bookbinders and related workers. A 4- or 5-yearapprenticeship that combines on-the-job training withrelated classroom instruction generally is required to
qualify as a skilled bookbinder. Apprenticeship appli-
cants usually must have a high school education and beat least 18 years of age. For the less skilled binderyoccupations, the training period may last from several
months to 2 years.
Employment 1968 and projected 1980 requirements
Employment 1968 . . . . . . 30,000Projected 1980 requirements 25,000Percent growth -16.7Annual openings, total 400
Growth -400Replacements 800
Employment 1960-68
Employment 1960 28,000Employmen t 1968 30,000Percent growth 7.1Annual openings, total 1,200
Growth 300Replacements . 900
Available training data:Apprenticeship corn-
pletions 1969) 228 (averageannual1961-68)
composing room occupations. Most compositort learntheir trade thiough apprenticeships that generally re-quire 6 years of progressively advanced training
supplemented by classroom instruction or corre-spondence courses. Some work as helpers for severalyears or combine trade school and helper experience. Atypical apprenticeship program for compositors includesinstruction in elementary hand composition; page make-up; proofreading; and intensive training in one or morespecialized fields. Applicants for apprenticeships usuallymust be high school graduates.
Etnployment 1968 and projected 1980 requirements
Employment 1968 190,000Projected 1980 requirements 180,000Percent growth -5.3Annual openings, total 3,200
Growth -800Replacements 4.000
loyment 1960-68
Employment 1960 180,000Employment 1968 190,000Percent grow th 5.6
Annual openings, total 5,300Growth .. 1,300Replacements 4.000
Available training data.Apprenticeship com-
pletions 837 (1969) 767 (averageannual1961 -68)
Electrotypers and stereotypers. Elec!rotypers and
stereotypers usually learn their trades tluo'igh appren-ticeships which last 5 or 6 years and includes training onthe job and classes in related technical subjects. Appren-ticeship applicants usually must be at least 18 years of
age and have a high school education or its equivalent.
Employment 1968 and projected 1980 requirements
Employment 1968 . . . . . . 8,000Projected 1980 requirements . 6,000Percent growth -25.0Annual openings, total -25
Growth -175Replacements 150
Employment 1960-68
Employment 1960 9,000Employment 1968 8,000Percent growth -11.1Annual openings, total 500
Growth -1,200ReplacementS 1,700
Available training data:APprenticeship com-
pletions 77 969) 80 (averageannual1961-68)
Lithographic occupations. A 4- or Syear apprentice-ship usually is required to become a well-roundedlithographic craftsman. In this program, an apprenticrbecomes familiar with all lithographic operations, al-
though the specific occupation in which he seeksjourneyman status is emphasized. Apprenticeship appli-cants generally must be at least 18 years of age, highschool graduates, and in good physical condition.
Employment 1968 73,000Projected 1980 requirements 80,000Percent growth, 1968-80 9.6Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1,800
Growth 600Replacements 1.200
Available training data:Apprenticeship completions 785
Photoengravers. Most photoengravers learn their skillsthrough a 5-year apprenticeship which includes at least800 hours of related classroom instruction. Applicants
must be at least 18 years Of age, have a high schooleducation or its equivalent, and know chemistry,physics, and art. Credit for previous experience acquired
63 57
in photoengraving work may shorten theapprenticeship time.
required
Employment 1968 18,000Projected 1980 requirements 18,000Percent growth, 1968-80 0,0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 300
Growth 0
Replacements 300
Available uaining data:Appwnticeship completions 54
Printing pressmen and assistants. The most commonway of learning the pressman's trade is through a 2- to5-year apprenticeship that combines on-thejob trainingand related classroom or correspondence school work.Some workers learn the skills as helpers or pressassistants or through a combination of work experienceand training in vocational or technical schools. A highschool education or its equivalent generally is required;courses in physics and chemistry are recommended.
Employment 1968 and protected 1980 requirements
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth . .
Annual openings, totalGrowthReplacements
90,000105,000
16.72,8501,2501,600
Employment 1960-68
Employment 1960 76,000Employment 1968 90,000Percent growth 18.4Annual openings, total 3,100
Growth 1,800Replacements 1,300
Available training data:Apprenticeship com-
pletions 826 (1969) 538 (averageannual1961-68)
Telephone industry occupations
Central office era tsmen. The telephone companiesusually 1-gre inexperienced men to train for skilled jobsin central offices. Applicants for these jobs rnust have atleast a high school or vocational school education.Telephone training and experience in the Armed Forcesor technical training beyond high school may be helpful.
Employment 1968 80,000Projected 1980 requirements 92,000Percent growth, 1968-80 15.8Annual openings, 1968-80 tota' 2,700
Growth 1,000Replacements 1,760
Available training data . .......Central office equipment installers. Applicants must
have a high school or vocational school education. Men
58 Ii
with sonic college education, especiallyengineering training, often are hired For thes
Employment 1968Piojected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacem nts . . . .
those withjobs.
22,00022,000
0.0400
0400
Available training data . e ...........Linemen and cable splicers. Telephone companies
train high school or vocational school graduates aslinemen and cable splicers. Men who have receivedtelephone training and experience in the Armed Forcesfrequently are given preference for job openings.
Employment 1968 40,000Projected 1980 requirements 39,000Percent growth, 1968-80 6.8Annual openings, 1968-80 total 600
Grow h 200Replacements 400
Available trainir,g data .......... -
Telephone and PBX installers and repairmen. Theminimum educational requirement for telephone PBXinstallers and repairmen is a high school or vocationalschool education. Telephone companies give classroomand on-the-job training to inexperienced men. Theseworkers continue training to qualify for more difficultassignments.
Employment 1968 86,000Projected 1980 requiremen . . . . . . 100,000Percent growth, 1968-80 16.9Annual openings, i968-80 total 3,000
Growth 1,200Replacements 1,800
Available training data
Other crafts occupations
Automobile trimmers and installers (automobile up-holsterers). A high school education is desirable but notessential. High school and vocational school courses infurniture upholstery provide valuable training; courses inmathematics also are helpful. Although a small numberof workers learn through 3- or 4-year apprenticeships,most automobile upholsterers learn their skills on thejob.
Employment 1968 8,000Projected 1980 requirements 10,000Percent growth, 1968-80 25.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total 350
Growth 175Replacements 175
Available training data
Blacksmiths. Most workers enter this occupation byobtaining jobs as helpers in blacksmith shOps; othersenter through 3 or 4 years of formal apprenticeshiptraining.
Employment 1968 15,000Projected 1980 requirements 14,000Percent growth, 1968-80 6.7Annual openings, 1968-80 total 500
Growth . . . ..... ..... . . 100Replacements 600
Available training data
Bollermaking occupations. Although many men workas helpers to experienced boilermakers, and many layoutmen and fit up men acquire skills on the job, trainingauthorities agree that a 4-year apprenticeship is the bestway to learn this trade. Most employers prefer to hirebeginning workers having a high school education.
Employment 1968 and projected 1980 requiFements
Employment 1968 25,000Projected 1980 requirements 30,000Percent growth 20.0Annual openings, total . . . 1,000
Growth . . , ..... 400Replacements . . . 600
Employment 9 0-68Employment 1960 24,000Employment 1968 25,000Percent growth 4.2Annual openings, total 600
Growth . .... . . 100Replacements 500
Available training data:Apprenticeship com-
pletions ISO (1969) 100 (averageannual1961-68)
Dispensing opticians and optical mechanics. Althoughmost optical mechanics and dispensing opticians learnskills on the job, training authorities agree that anapprenticeship offers more job opportunities, security,and advancement than learning on the job.
Employment 1968 22,000Projected 1980 requirements . . .. . 23,000Percent growth, 1968-80 4.5Annual openings, 1968-80 total 500
Growth 100
Replacements 400
Available training data:Vocational education completions:
SecondaryPost-secondary
4477
Foremen. Most workers who are promoted to fore-men are high school graduates who have learned theirskills on the job. Although fewer than one-tenth of allforemen are college graduates, a growing number of
employers are tiring foremenba ck growl ds.
trances with college
Employment 1968 1 444,000Projected 1980 requirements 1 730,000Percent growth, 1968-80 19.8Annual openings, 1968-80 total 56,200
Growth 24,000Replac,Tanents 32,000
Available training data
Furniture upholsterers. The most common way tOlearn this trade is to complete on-the-job training in anupholstery shop. Other ways of acquiring training are byworking for furniture manufacturers in jobs closelyrelated to upholstering and through vocational or highschool courses. A few people acquire the necessary skillsthrough formal apprenticeship programs.
Employment 1968 32,000Projected 1980 requirements 33,000Percent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total . ..... . . . 800
Growth 100Replacements 700
Available training data:Vocational educa tion completions:
Secondary 1,330Post-secondary 332
Jewelers and jewelry repairmen. Young persons gener-ally learn the jewelry trade either by serving a 3- to4-year formal apprenticeship or through informal on-the-job training while working for an experiencedjeweler.
Employment 1968 25,000Projected 1980 requirements 25,000Percent growth, 1968-80 0.0Aimual openings, 1968-80 total 200
Growth 0
Replacements 200
Available training data
Locomotive engineers. Firemen (helpers) who havequalified for promotion are selected on a seniority basisto fill engineer positions. To qualify, the applicant must
pass a comprehensive examination.
Employment 1968 35,000Projected 1980 requirements 33,000Percent gjowth, 1968-80 5.7Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1,350
Growth 150Replacements 1,500
Available training data
Locomotive firemen. Employers prefer applicantswho have a 14h school education or equivalent. Fir amenwho have sufficient experience and seniority and whopass qualifying examinations can be promoted to
op 59
engineer. Newly hired firemen who have demonstratedability on trial (rips and passed qualifying examinationsare subject to call for temporary work assignments.
Employment 1968 19,000Projected 1980 requirements 14,100Percent growth, 1968-80 . . . . . -25.8Annual openings, 1968- 80 total -200
Growth -400Replacements 200
Available training data ....... . .
Motion picture projectionists. Most rmtion picturetheaters in urban areas are unionized, and young peoplewho aspire to work as motion picture projectionists inthese theaters must complete a period of apprenticeship.A high school education is preferred by employers. In anon-union theater, a young man may start as an usher orhelper and learn the trade by working with an experi-enced projectionist.
Employment 1968 16,000Projected 1980 requirements . . . . . . ... . 18,000Percent growth, 1968-80 12.5Annual openings, 1968-80 total 750
Growth 150Replacements 600
Available training data
Shoe repairmen. Most shoe repairmen are hired ashelpers and receive on-the-job training in large shoerepair shops. Some shoe repairmen learn this trade invocational schools, Others enter the occupation throughapprenticeship training programs.
Employment 1968 30,u00Projected 1980 requirements 30,000Percent growth, 1968-80 0.0
Annual openings. 1968-80 totalGrowthReplacements
Available training data:Vocational education completion..
SecondaryPost-secondary
.5000
I .500
24826
Shop trades (railroad). Apprenticeship training is acommon way of entering the railroad shop trades,although many workers are upgraded front helpers andlaborers. Others enter the railroad industry as shopcraft smen,
Employment 1968 87,000Projected 1980 requirements 85,000Percent change, 1968-80 _2.71
Annual openings, 1968=80 total 2,250Grow th -150Replacements 2,400
Available training data
Stationary engineers. Many stationary engineers startas helpers or craftsmen in other trades and acquire theirskills informally on the job. Most training authorities,however, recommend formal apprenticeship training asthe best way to learn this trade. In selecting apprentices,most joint lit bor-rnanagement apprenticeship committeesprefer high school or trade school graduates.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirements . . .... . . . .
Percent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
Growth . . ........ . . . ...... .
Replacements
Available training data
Operatives
These workers ordinarily receive only brief on-the-jobtraining. The simplest repetitive and routine semiskilledjobs can be learned in a day and mastered in a week.Even those jobs that require a higher degree of skill canbe learned in a few months. The ability to learn new jobsquickly, however, is an important qualification forsemiskilled workers.
Employment 1968 13,955,000Projected 1980 requirements . .. . 15,400,000Percent growth, 1968-80 10.4Annual openings, 1968-80 total 426,000
Growth 120,000Replacements 306,000
Available training data
60
Driving occupations
260,000275,000
5.87,0.01,2505,800
Busdrivers, intercity. Most companies prefer appli-cants having a high school education or its equivalent.Some States require the applicant to have a chauffer'slicense. All drivers must be 21 years old and meet
health and experience qualifications estab-lished by the U.S. Department of Transportation.Applicants must have a good record and 1 year's drivingexperience. On-the-job training usually lasts for 2 to 6weeks but can extend to 3 thonths.
Employment 1968 24,000Projected 1980 requirements 28,000Percent growth, 068-80 17.5
Annual openGrowthReplacements
1968-80 total .
Available f..aeing data
900350550
Busdriverlocal transiz% Many employers prefer appli-cants having a high school education or its equivalent.Generally, a motor vehicle operator's permit and I or 2
years of driving experience on some type of motorvehicle are basic requirements. Most States require achauffer's license. Most companies train new workers on
the job.
Employment 1968 65,000Projected 1980 requirements 56,000Percent growth, 1968-80 -13.9Annual openings, 1968-80 total 500
Growth . . .-800
Replacements 1,300
Available training data
Routeinen. In most States, a routeman is required tohave a chauffer's license. Most employers require highschool gaduation. Sales experience or a job as route-man's helper or work in a bakery, dairy, laundry, or drycleaning establishment are valuable qualifications. Mostcompanies train new workers on the job.
Employment 1968 235,000Projected 1980 requirements 250,000Percent growth, 1968 -80 5.1
Annual openings, 1968-80 total . . . .. . 3,800Growth 1,000
Replacements 2,800
Available training data
Thick drivers, over-the-road. Many employers require
at least a grade school education; others require 2 yearsof high school. Driver training courses in hi,01 school,
driving schools, or technical vocational schools arerecommended. A course in automotive mechanics is
helpful. Some companies have formal testing andtraining programs. At least 1 year of driving experienceis required and most States require a chauffer's license.Previous experience in local trucking is a valnable
qualification.Employment 1968 - .. . .
Projected 1980 requirementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data
Other operative occupations
640,000800,000
24.721,60013,200
Assemblers. Assemblers are usually trained on the job
in a few days or weeks. High school graduates or workers Available tiaining data
who have taken vocational school courses, such asblueprint-reading, are preferred by many employersa!though a high school diploma is not usually required.
Employment 1968 785,000Projected 1980 requirements . 850.000Percent growth, 1968-80 8.4
Annual openings, 1968- 80 total 26.000Growth 5,500
Replacements . . ..... 20,500
Available training data
Taxi drivers. In addition to a State-issued chauffer'slicense, a taxi driver must have a special operator'slicense issued by the local police, safety department, orPublic Utilities Commission. Some companies teach theapplicant taxicab regulations and the location of streets.Formal education seldom is required. Howeim, manycompanies prefer applicants who have at least an eighth
gade education.Employment 1968 85,000Projected 1980 requirements . . . . .... . . 75,000Percent growth, 1968-80 . . . ...... . . . -10.7Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1,200
Growth -700Replacements 1,900
Available training data
Truck drivers, local. Some employers prefer applicantswho have completed 2 to 4 years of high school.
Training is often informal. Applicants sometimes ride
with and observe an experienced driver. Some companies
give a 1- or 2-day indoctrination course which coversgeneral duties, the efficient operation and loading of atruck, company policies, and the preparation of deliveryforms and company records. A few receive training
sponsored by Federal Government programs.
Employment 1968 . . . .. . . .... 1,200,000Projected 1980 requirements . . ... 1,450,000Percent growth, 1968-80 21.9Annual openings, 1968-80 total 37,000
Growth 21,500Replacements 15,500
Avai:able training data
Automobile painters. Most automobile painters startas helpers and acquire their skills informally by workingfor 3 to 4 years with experienced painters. A small
number learn through a 3-year apprenticeship. Appli-
cants having a high school education are preferred.
Employ men t 1968 30,000Projected 1980 requirements 35,000Percent growth, 1968 -80 25.0Annual openings, 1968-80 total . . .. 1.200
Growth 600Replacements 600
61
67
Brakemen railroad. A high school education oequivalent is preferred. No previous training is required.The usual training is on the job and lasts about a year.
Employment 1968 74,009
Projected 1980 requirements 70,000Percent growth, 1968-80 -5.2Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1,090
Growth -300Replacements 1,300
Available training data
Electroplaters. Most electroplaters learn their skills onthe job. Others train through a 3- or 4-year appren-ticeship. High school, vocational school, college, andtechnical institute courses in electroplating are useful.
Employment 1968 13,000Projected 1980 requirements 15,700Peccent growth, 1968-80 20 8
Annual openings, 1968-80 total 60-Growth 200
Replacements 400
Available training data a-
Gasoline and serrice station attendants. A high schooleducation is preferred for these jobs. Most gasoline andservice station attendants acquire their skills CM the job.These workers nmst have a driver's license, a generalunderstanding of how an automobile works, and aknowledge of simple arithmetic. It usually takes fromseveral months to a year for a gasoline service stationattendant to become fully qualified. Formal training forthis occupaticn is available in some high schools. Mostoil companies conduct 2 to 8 weeks of formal trainingprograms for service station managers.
Employment 1968 400,000
Projected 1980 requirements 475,000Percent growth, 1968-80 15.9Annual openings, 1968-80 total 10,900
Growth . . . . ... ... . 6.200Replacements 4,700
Available training data
Inspectors (manufacturing). Inspectors are usuallytrained on the job for a brief periodfrom a few hoursor days to several months. Workers having a high schooleducation are preferred.
Employment 1968 585,000Projected 1980 requirements . . ...... . . . . . 635,000Percent growth, 1968-80 8.5Annual openings, 1968-80 total 19,200
Growth 4,200
Replacements 15,000
Available training data
Machine tool operators. Usually 11/2 to 2 years ofon-theiob training is needed for this work. Courses inmathematics and blueprint reading are useful.
62
Employment 1968 500,000
Projected 1980 requirements . . . . 520,000
Percent growth, 1968-80 . ... ... . . 4.0
Annm.1 openings, 1968-80 total 10,500
Growth 1,700Replaosments 8,800
Available training data
Meat cutters. Most meat cutters acquire their skillseither through a 2- to 3-year apprenticeship program oron the job. Workers having a high school education arcpreferred. Training in mathematics, English, and the useof power tools is helpful.
Employment 1968 200,000
Projected 1980 requiwments 200,000Percent growth, 1968-80 = 2.6Annual openings, 1968-80 total 4,500
Growth 400Replacements 4,100
Available training data:MIJTA enrollment compleaons
lnsti cu tional 630Vocational education completions:
Secondary 630Post-recondary 109
Photographic laboratory wrrkers. Althougi generallyis not required for semiskilled jobs in photograpthclaboratory work, completion of ligh school frequently isneeded for advancement to supervi3ory jobs. Generally,the trainin6 time required to become a specialist in aparticular activity is less than that needed to become anali-round darkroom technician. Training on the job tobecome a fully qualified darkroom technician usuallytakes 3 or 4 years. Completion of college level courses inthis field is important for people aspiring to supervisoryjobs in photographic laboratories. On-the-job training forworkers in semiskilled photo lab occupations rangefrom a few weeks to several months.
Employment 1968 30,000Projected 1980 requirements 39,000Percent growth, 1968-80 29.9Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1,600
Growth 750Replacements 850
Available training data:Vocational education completions:
Secondary 711
Post-secondary 666
Power truck operators. Most workers can learn tooperate a power truck in a few days. It may take severalweeks, however, to learn the physical layout andoperation of a plant or other establishment and the mostefficient way of handling the materials to be moved.
Employment 1968 163,000Projected 1980 requirements 183,000Percent growth, 1968-80 12.2
Annual openings,GrowthRep lacemem
968-80 total . .. . . .
Available training data
4,1001,5002,600
Production painters. High school graduation is notgenerally required for a production painter. Most
workers in this field receive on-the-job training that lastsfrom 2 weeks to several months.Employment 1968 160,000Projected 1980 requirements 170,000Percent growth, 1968-80 8.5
Annual openings, 1968-80 total 4,0001,100
Replacements 2,900
Available training data
Signal department workers (railroad). Railroads pre-fer that these workers have a high school educationor its equivalent. Knowledge of electricity and mechan-ical skill are assets to young men seeking these jobs. Newemployees are hired as helpers and after about 1 year oftraining on the job they usually advance to assistant.Openings for sigaalmen and signal maintainers are filled
by promoting qualified assistants according to seniority
rules.Employment 1968Projected 1980 requkementsPercent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data
12,10011,600
4.5450550
100
Stationary firemen (boiler). Some large cities and afew States require stationary firemen to be licensed.Although requirements differ from State to State, theapplicant usually must have the necessary experienceand pass an examination to qualify. Firemen sometimessupplement on-the-job training hy taking courses insubjects such as practical chemistry; elementary physics;blueprint reading; applied electricity; and the !heory ofrefrigeration, air-conditioning, ventilation, and heating.
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirements .... . . .
Percent growth, 1968-80Annual openings, 1968-80 total
GrowthReplacements
Available training data
Waste water treatment plant operators. Entry jobsgenerally do not require specific training, and mostoperators learn their skills on the job. Most municipal-ities ac e t men with less than a high school education;howe a number of large municipalities applicants
....
73,00058,000
-20.6600
1;300700
must have a high school education or its equivalent.Most States have certification programs that issuequalification standards for operators. Sixteen States haveadopted mandatory certification, while voluntary certifi-cation programs are in effect in 29 States.
Em ploy men t 1968 23,500Projected 1 980 requirements 40,000Percent growth, 1968-80 68.9Annual openings, 1968-80 total . .. 2,500
Growth 1,400Re placem en ts 1,100
Available training data
Bridge and building workers (railroad). New em-ployees usually receive their training on the job ashelpers.
Employment 1968 11,200Projected 1980 requirements 10,900Percent growth, 1968-80 2.7Annual openings, 1968-80 total 275
Growth 75Replacements ... . . . . ..... 300
Available training data
Track workm (railroad). Track workers generally aretrained on the job. Up to 2 ycais are required to learnthe skills of an all-round trackman. Most railroads seek
men between the ages of 21 and 45 who are able to read,write, and perform heavy work. Applicants often arerequired to take physical examinations.
Employment 1968 57,000Projected 1980 requirements 55,000Percent growth, 1968-80 33Annual openings, 1968-80 total 1,300
Growth 200Replacements 1,500
Available training data
Welders and oxygen and arc cutters. Generally, it
takes several yeals of trainins to become a skilled
manual arc or gas welder, and somewhat longer tobecome a combination welder. Some skilled jobs may
require a knowledge of blueprint reading, weldingsymbols, metal properties, and electricity. Some of theless skilled jobs, however, can be learned after a fewmonths of on-the-job training. For entry in manualwelding jobs, most employers prefer to hire young menwho have high school or vocational school training inwelding methods. Before being assigned to work wherethe strength of the weld is a highly critical factor,welders may be required to pass a qualifying éxamina-lion. Where critic0 safety factors are involved, certifi-cation may be necessary. Some localities require weldersto obtain a license before they can do certain types ofoutside construction work.
SO 63
Employment 1968Projected 1980 requirement.: ...... 480,000
675,000Available training data:
MDTA enrollment completions:
Percent growth, 1968-80 .......... 40.6 OJT 1,700
Institutional . . . . . . . .... . . 8,800
Annual openings, 1968-80 23,000 Vocational education completions:
Growth 16,000 Secondary . 6,596
Replacements 7,000 Post-secondary . . ..... . . . 4,254
Laborers (Nonfarm
Much ot the work that nonfarm laborers performinvolves simple tasks that require little special training.Brief instruction and a few hours of on-the-job training
usually are sufficient preparation for job as a nonfarm
laborer.
Construction laborers and hod carriers. Little formaltraining is required for work as a building or construc-tion laborer. Employers generally seek young men who
are at least 18 years of age and in good physicalcondition.
Employment 1968 750,000
Employment 1968 3,555,000 Projected 1980 requirements 925,000
Projected 1980 requirements 3 500,000 Percent growth, 1968-80 23.3
Percent growth, 1968-80 . . . . ...... . . -1.5 Annual openings, 1968-80 total 29,000
Annual openings, 1968-80 total 60,000 Growth 15,000
Growth -4,000 Replacements 14,000
Replacements 64,000Available training data Available training data ......... -a
7064
Appendix A. Methodology and Assumptions of Requirements Projections
The methods used to develop the projected 1980requirements presented in this report are the same asthose used in other Bureau of Labor Statistics studies offuture occupational needs. The BLS has developedprojections that encompass a number of interrelatedcomponents and permit a comprehensive view of tomor-row's economi and its manpower needs. The projectionsprepared by BLS cover labor force, hours of em-ployment, output per mankrour, potential demand, grossnational product or GNP, the composition of demand,output and productivity by 82 detailed industry groups,and employment in over 250 industries and in detailed
occupa tions.'
Projection methods
The first step in making industry and occupationalprojections is to use statistics made by the Bureau ofCensus of total population to the target year and itscomposition by age, sex, and color. As a second step, the
Bureau of Labor Statistics develops projections of thelabor force by age, sex, and color on the basis ofpopulation and changing labor force participation ratesfor each group in du population. These changes reflect avariety of factors, including changing educational stan-dards, retirement practices, and participation of womenin the labor force. Labor force projections are thentranslated into the level of gross national product (GNP)
that can be produced by a fully employed labor force.GNP is derived by subtracting unemployment from the
labor force and multiplying that figure by an eitimate ofoutput per worker in the target year of the projection.Calculations are not so simple as it may seem. Allowancemust be made for average growth in productivity andexpected changes in hours of work.
The ncxt step is to distribute this potential growth inreal GNP among the major components of GNP:
consumer expenditures, business investment, govern-ment expendituresFederal, State, and localand netforeign demand, In distributing GNP among its corn-
IA summary report of all 1980 projections with a moredetailed statement on methodology has been published by theBureau titled, The U.S. Economy in 1980 (BLS Bulletin1673)."
ponents, alternati' .s are corrsidered.After calcu-- and distributing potential GNT
growth among its major categories, pwjecrions aredeveloped for each of the major demand categories, such
as the amount spent by consumers for food, clothing,rent, automobiles, drugs, cosmetics, trips abroad,mei:heal expenses, and other goods and services. For each
of the major GNP demand categories, a different
procedure is followed in allocating demand to theproducing industry-
Once estimates are developed for the products orservice to be purchased, the production load is allocated
not only to the various industries which make the finalproduct but also to the intermediate and basic industrieswhich provide raw materials, components, transporta-tion, electric power, and other goods or services requiredin making final productr. For this purpose, the Depart-ment of Commerce has developed an input-output tablefor the economy of the United States. This table showstransactions among industries; effects of such trans-actions can be traced among industries.
Estimates of production in each industry are thentranslated into employment requirements by projectingchanges in output per man-hour in each industry anddividing his figure into output. Changes in output perman-bour are developed through studies of productivityand technological trends in all industries. These studiesprovide inputs to assess such things as potential competi-tion amoig products, potential employment and eco-nomic effects of new technologies and inventions, andthe effect of technological changes on the occupationalstructure of industries.
As an independent check and to develop more detailedindustry employment projections than allowed for byhiput-output tables, a regression analysis is conductedrelating production and employment in various in-dustries against the levels of final demand and.other key.
variables. Also, detailed in-depth studies are conductedon several industries which encompass the developmentof projections of requirements through the analysis of a
variety of economic variables. Results of the regressionanalysis and input-output model are evaluated along
with detailed industry analyses to develop final industry
projectiOns.Projections of industry manpower requirements are
71 65
then translated into occupational requirements. Thiscalculation IS 11 ladO through the use ol occupationalcomposition patterns for all industries in the UnitedStates, which are summarized in the BLS Industry-Oc-cupational Matrix. This matrix, which is divided into120 industry sectors, shows the percentage compositionof employment according to 160 occupations.' Thesepatterns are applied to current employment and toprojected requirements by industry to estimate currentemployment and future requirements by occupation. Inmaking these projections, allowance is made forchanging occupational structures based on studies of theway each industry has changed in the past and is likelyto change in the future. To arrive ar a total for theeconomy, future employment re.quirements for eachoccupation are aggregated across ail industries.
For many occupations, requirements are projected onthe relationship of certain independent variables ratherthan on proportional representation in each industry.For example, employment requirements for automobilemechanics are projected on the expected stock of motorvehicles and their maintenance requirements, and ele-mentary school teachers on trends in pupil-teacher ratiosapplied to projected school attendance. Projectionsdeveloped independently arc meshed with other occupa-tional data in the matrix.
After estimating the requirements of each occupation,projections are prepared of the number of workers whowill be needed as replacements. These separationsfrom the labor force resulting from all causes includingoccupational transfers constitute a very signiacan1 por-tion of total annual training needs.
Tables of working life have been developed based onactuarial experience for deaths and general patterns of
2See the "Industry-Occupational Matrix," in OccupationalEmployment Patterns, 1960 and 1975 (BLS Bulletin 1599).
66 47..
labor force participation of each uge.3 Withdrawals from'he labor force can be projc el for men and womenseparately in each occupation for which age and sex areknown. The net effects of inier-oecupational transfers,however, are not known in any systematic fashion andcan only be estimated ir; projecting manpower trainingneeds.
Assumptions
The BLS projections to 1980 presented in this reportare based on these specific assumptions:
The international climate will improve. The UnitedStates will no longer be fighting a war, but a still guardedrelationship between the major powers will permit nomajor reductions in armaments. This assumption wouldstill permit mine reduction from the peak levels ofdefense expenditures during the Vietnam conflict.
Armed Forces strength will drop back to about thesamc level that prevailed in the pre-Vietnam escalationperiod.
The institutional framework of the A erican economywill not change radically.
Economic, social, technological, and scientific trendsincluding values placed on work, education, income, andkisure will continue.
Fiscal and monetary policies will achieve a satisfactorybalance between low unemployment rates and relativeprice stability without reducing the long-term economicgrowth rate.
All levels of government will join efforts to meet awide variety of domestic requirements, but Congress willchannel more funds to State and local government.
Fertility rates will be lower than they have been in therecent past.
3 See Tomorto 's Manpower Needs (BLS Bulletin 1606, Vol.I) for detailed information.
72
Appendix B. D ailed Occupational Projections
Appendix B presents employment estimates, projectedrequirements, and annual job openings in tabular formfor 232 occupations in more detail than any other whichthe Bureau has published. They are presented only f3rindividuals who need statistics on projections for theirspecific purposes. Chapter IV presents the same dataalong with ways workers are trained in specific occupa-tions; statistics on completions of training programs;aprendix C summarizes the training statistics in tabularform. In the table, occupations are classified in thetraditional way; piofessional and technical workersfollowed by manageria', clerical, sales, craftsmen, opera-tives, nonfarm laborors, service, and farm wo:-kers.Within each of these major groups, however, individualoccupations are classified into related fields, e.g., health,counseling, building trades, etc.
When applicable, the table includes the program code
for the related instructional program used by the Officeof Education in Vocational Education and Occupa-tions.' Projections cover the following proportion ofworkers in the five program areas:
Progratn areaTechnicalHealthTrade and industrial . ...... . . . . . . .
OfficeDistributivc
Percent9693827322
In the table, absolute figures are rounded and percent-ages shown to one decimal place. Hence, totals andpercentages calculated on the basis of unrounded figures
do not always correspond exactly with rounded data inthe table.
Office of Education Bulletin 0E-80061, 1969.
Table B-1. Estimated 1968 employment, projected 1980 requirements, and average annual openings, 1968-80, byoccupation
Occupation
Voce-tional
educe-tion
codc-4
Esti-mated
employ-ment,1968
Pro-jected
require-ments,
1980
Percentchange1968-80
Average annual openings, 1968-80
TotalEmploy-
mentchange
Replace-mentneeds
Professional and technical occupa-tions 10,325,000 15,500,000 50.1 777,000 431.000 346,000
Business administration andrelated professions:
Accountants 500,000 720,000 43.4 33,000 19,000 14,000
Advertising workers 04.01 140,000 156,000 8.1 5,700 950 4,750Marketing research workers . 04.01 20,000 42,000 105.8 2,700 1,800 900Personnel workers 14.06 110,000 155,000 42.9 6,900 3,900 3,000Public relations workers 100,000 165,000 64.0 8,800 5,300 3,500
Clergymen;Protestant clergyman . . 744,000 295,000 20.1 11,000 4,100 6,900Rabbis 6,000 7,100 20.1 300 100 200Roman Catholic priests . . 62,000 75,000 20.1 2,800 1,000 1,800
Conservation occupations:Foresters 25,000 32,000 28.0 1,000 600 400Forestry aides 16.0603 13,000 20,000 573 900 600 300Range managers 4,000 5,200 30.0 200 100 100
Counseling occupations;Employment counselors . . 5,300 10,800 102.3 700 450 250Rehabilitation counselors 12,000 21,000 72.6 1,050 700 350Schordounselors 54,000 75,000 41.8 3,800 1900, 1$00
See f -t t end of table.
67
Table B-1. Continued-Estimated 1968 employment, projected 1980 requirements, and average annual openings,
1968-80, by occupation
Occupation
Voce-tionaled uca-
doncodes'
Esti-mated
employ-merit,1968
Pro-jected
require-men ts,1980
Percentchange1968-80
Average annual openings, 1968-S0
TotalEmploy-
rnentchange
Replace-rnentneeds
Professional and technical occupa-tions-continued
Engineers 1,100,000 1,500,000 40.2 73,400 36,000 237,400
Aerospace 65,000 75,000 16.3 1,400 900 500
Agricultural 12,000 14,500 20.0 400 200 200
Ceramic 10,000 12,000 20.0 400 200 200
Chemical 50,000 67,000 25.0 1,600 1,100 500
Civil _ . . . . , . ... . . . 180,000 270,090 48,9 11,500 7400 4,100
Electrical 230,000 345,000 49.0 12,500 9,500 3,000
Industrial 120,000 185,000 56$ 7,200 5,500 1,700
Mechanical 215,000 275,000 27.6 8,600 5,200 3,400
Metallurgical 6,000 8,500 42.4 300 200 100
Mining . . . , . . . 5,000 5,300 6.0 100 25 75
Health service occupations . . . . 07.000Physicians 295,000 450,000 53.1 20.000 13,000 7,000
Osteopathic physicians . . . . 12,000 18,500 54.2 800 509 300
Dentists 100,000 130,000 313 4,900 2,600 2,300
Dental hygienists 07.010216,0301 16,000 33,500 109.4 2.400 1,500 900
Dental laboratory technicians 07.0103 27,000 37,500 38.9 2,100 900 1,200
Registered nurses 07,030116.0305 660,000 1,003,000 51.5 65,000 28,000 37,000
Optometrists 17.000 21,000 23.5 890 300 500
Pharmacists . . . . . 121,000 10,000 7.0 4,400 700 3,700
Podiatrists 8.500 9,500 11.8 200 100 100
Ch iropractors 16,000 19,000 18.8 900 250 650
Occupational therapists . 7,000 19,000 171.4 1,500 1,000 500
Physical therapists 14,000 36,000 157.1 2,800 1,800 1,000
Speech pathologists andaudiologists 18,000 33,000 83.3 2,300 1,300 1,000
Medical laboratory workers . 07,0216.0303 100,000 190,000 90.0 12,800 7,500 5,300
Radiological technologists . . 07.0501,02, 0316.0304 75,000 120,000 60.0 7,300 3,800 3,800
Medical record librarians . . . 12,000 20,000 66.7 1,400 700 700
Dieticians 30,000 42,100 403 2,700 1,000 1,700
Hospital administrators . 15,000 22,000 46.7 900 600 300
Sanitarians 10,000 14,000 41.0 600 300 300
Veterinarians 24,000 34,000 41.7 1,400 800 600
Mathematics and related occupa-tions:
Mathematicians 65,000 110,000 60.4 8,400 3,500 34,900
Statisticians . . . . . .. 23,000 33,000 45,9 1,600 900 700
Actuaries 4,000 6,700 59.5 300 200 100
Natural science occupations!Environmental scientists:
Geologists = 22,800 27,100 18,9 800 400 400
Geophysicists 6,800 8,600 26.5 300 150 150
Meteorologists 4,000 5,500 34.1 200 100 100
Oceanographers 5,200 9,700 85.4 500 400 100
Life science occupations: i
Life scientists 170,000 240,000 41.1 15,200 5,800 '9,400Biochemists . . . . .. 11.000 17,000 55.5 700 500 200
See footnotes at end of table,
68-7 4
Table B-1. Continued-Estimated 1968 employment, projected 1980 requirements, and average annual openings,
1968- 80, by occupation
Occupation
Voca-bonaleduce-
tioncodes'
Esti-mated
employ-ment,1968
Pro-jectedrequire-merits,1980
Percentchange1968-80
Average annual openings, 1968-80
TotalEmploy-
mentchange
Replace.mentneeds
Professional and technical occupa-tions-ContinuedPhysical scientists:
Chemists 130,000 200,000 55.7 12,800 6,000 s 6,800
Physicists 45,000 75,000 63.9 4,600 2,400 2,200
Astronomers 1,400 1,900 35.7 100 SO 50
Performing artists:Actors and actresses . . . . 14,000 18,500 32.4 900 400 500
Dancers 23,000 27,500 18.3 1,400 400 1,000
Musicians and musicteachers 166,000 190,000 13.8 6,600 1,900 6,700
Singers and singingteachers 60,000 70,000 14.2 3,100 700 2,400
Social scientists:Anthropologists ...... 3,000 4,100 364 200 100 100
Economists . . . . . . . 31,000 48,000 54.6 2,200 1,400 800
Geographers 3,900 5200, 32.0 200 100 100
Historians . . . . 14,000 19,000 35.7 800 400 400
Political scientists 11,400 17,000 49.1 800 450 350
Sociologists
reachers:
10,000 14,000 37.8 600 300 3 '0
Collage and universityteachers 2E6,000 395,000 37.8 17,000 9,000 8,000
Kindergarten and ele-mentary school teachers 1,230,000 1,270,000 3.3 99,000 3,300 '95,700
Secondary school teachers . WI 0,000 1,065,000 13.6 101,000 11,000 90,000
Technicians:Draftsmen 17.13 295,000 435,000 48.1 15,300 11,800 3,500
Engineering and science 16.01 620,000 890,000 43,2 31,000 22,000 9,000
Writing occupations:Newspaper reporters 37,000 45,000 21.6 1,800 650 1,150
Technical writers 30,000 35,000 29.2 1,300 700 600
Other professional and relatedoccupations:
Airline dispatchers 1,200 1,600 33.3 50 25 25
Air traffic controllers 17.0403 14,600 18,000 23.5 425 225 200
Architects 34,000 50,000 47.1 2,300 1,300 1,000
Broadcast technicians 16.0108 20,000 23,000 14.9 400 250 150
College placement officers . . 2,500 4,000 60.0 200 125 75
Commercial artists 17.0717.19 50,000 57,000 13.0 1,900 500 1,400
Flight engineers 17.0402 7,500 12,000 59.3 225 125 100
Ground radio operators andteletypists 8 200 10,000 21.6 225 125 100
Home economists . . 100,000 130,000 30.0 7,800 2,500 5.300
Industrial designers 17.0703 10,000 11,500 15.0 300 100 200
Interior designers anddecorators 17.0701
.0702 15,000 17,300 15.0 700 200 500
Landscape architects 8500 11,500 35.3 500 250 250
Lawyers 270,000 335,000 22.7 14,600 5,500 9,000
Librarians 106,000 135,000 28.5 8,200 2,500 5,700
Models 50,000 64,000 15.9 1,700 700 1,000
Photographers 60,000 72,000 18.0 2,200 900 1,300
See es at end of table.
69
Table B-1. Continued-Estimated 1968 employment, projected 1980 requirements, and average annual openings,
1968-80, by occupation
Occupation
VoCH-tionaleduce-
tiOricodes'
Esti.mated
employmerit,1988
Pro-jected
require-ments,
1980
Percentchange1968-80
Average annual openings, 1968-80
TotalEmploy-
mentchange
Replace-mentneeds
Professional and technical occupa-tions-Continued
Other professional and technicaloccupations-Continued
Pilots and copilots 16.0601 52,000 114,000 116.9 1,800 1,100 700
Programmers . . . . . . . .. . 16.040114.0203 175,000 400,000 129.0 23,000 19,000 4,000
Psychologists 32,000 58,000 81.3 3,100 2,200 900
Radio and televisionannouncers 14,000 16,000 14.9 600 200 400
Recreation workers 40.000 70,000 75.0 4,100 2,500 1,600
Social workers . . . . 160,000 270,000 66.7 16,700 9.000 7,700
Suiveyors 45,000 68,000 50.2 2,600 1,900 700
Systems analysts 14.0204 150,000 425,000 183.0 27,000 23,000 4,000
Urban planners 7,000 13,500 93.0 800 600 200
Managerial occupations 7,776,000 9,C00,000 22.2 380,000 144,000 236,000
Bank officers 125,000 193,000 53.8 9,900 5,600 4,300
Conductors (railroad) 38,000 39,000 2.7 2,500 1,000 1,500
Industrial traffic manaaers . . . 15,000 17,000 10.4 500 150 350
Managers and assistants(hotels) 04.10 150,000 198,000 27.6 9.500 3,600 5,900
Purchasing agents 04.99 140,000 185,000 27.2 6,700 3,300 3,400
Clerical and related occupations 12,803,000 17,300,000 35.1 912,000 375,000 537,000
Bank clerks 400,000 512.000 28.8 29,500 9,500 20,000
Bank tellers .... 04.04,14.0105 230,000 337,000 46.2 20,000 8,000 12,000
Bookkeeping workers 14.0102,14.0104 1,200,000 1,500,000 18.9 78,000 20,000 58,000
Cashiers 04.08,14.0103 730,000 1,110,000 50.6 69,000 31,000 38,000
Clerks (railroad) 93,000 89,000 -4.8 2,700 -400 3,100
Dental assistants 07.0101 100,000 150,000 50.0 9,000 4,400 4,600
Electronic computer op-erating personnel 14.0201,
.0202,02.0201 175,000 400,000 129.0 20,400 18,800 1,600
P i ont office clerks (hotels) . 04.10 50,000 69,000 27.6 3,200 1,250 1,950
Library technicians 70,000 125,000 77.1 9,000 4,500 4,500
M.:.il carriere 14.0403 246,000 335,000 36.2 12,200 7,400 4,800
Office machine operators 0301.0404 325,000 460,000 39.4 25,000 10,000 15,000
Postal clerks 14.0403 290,000 385,000 322 14,600 7,900 6,700
Receptionists 14.0405 240,000 400,000 65.6 30,000 13,000 17,000
Shipping and receiving clerks . . . 14.0503 370,000 437,000 18.1 12,400 5,400 7,000
Station agents (railroad) 10,900 5,200 -52.1 -225 -475 250
Stenographers and secretaries . 14.07 2,650,000 3,650,000 36.8 237,000 82.000 155,000
Telegraphers, telephoners, andtowermen (railroad) 13,200 12,700 -3.8 100 -50 150
Telephone operators 14.0401 400,000 480,000 20.9 28,000 6,900 21.100
Traffic agents and clerks (civilaviation) 37,500 60,000 60.1 2,600 1,500 1,100
Typists 14.09 700,000 930,000 36.8 63,000 21,000 42,000
Sales occupations 4,647,000 6,0130,000 29.1 263,000 113,000 150,000
Insurance agents and brokers . 04.13 410,000 480,000 16.9 16,200 5,800 10,400
Manufacturers salesmen 500,000 735,000 47.1 32 000, 19,500 12,500
See footnotes at end of table.
70
Table B-1. Continued-Estimated '1968 empIoy;ent, projected 1980 requirements, and average annual openings,1968-80, by occupation
Occupation
Voce-tionaleduce-
tioncodes'
Est!-mated
employ-mem,1968
Pro-jected
require-merits,1980
Percentchange1968-80
Average annual openings, 1968-80
TotalEmploy-
mentchange
Replace-mentneeds
Sales occupations-ContinuedReal estate salesmen and
brokers 04.17 225,000 270,000 20.1 14,200 3,800 10,400Retail trade salesworkers 2,800.000 3,460,000 24.0 150,000 55,000 95,000
Automobile parts countermen 04.03 65,000 80,000 23,1 2,500 1,250 1,250
Automobile salesmen 04 03 120,000 145,000 20.8 4,400 2,100 2,300Automobile service advisors . 04.03 10,000 12,500 25.0 300 200 100
Securities salesmen . . . . . . . 04.04 135,000 170,000 24.0 7,400 2,800 4,600Wholesale trade salesworkers . 530.000 695,000 29.5 25,200 13,200 12,000
Craftsmen 10,015,000 12,200.000 21.8 396,000 132,000 214,000
Building trades:Asbestos end insulating
workers 22,000 28,000 27.3 800 500 300Bricklayers .. . . 17.1004 200,000 260,000 30.0 8,400 5,000 3,400Carpenters 17.10b1 869,000 1,075,000 23.7 39,300 17,200 22,100Cement masons (cement and
concrete finishers) 171099 60.000 90,000 50.0 3,600 2,500 1,100Electricians (construction) . . 171092 190,000 270,000 42.1 10,500 6,700 3,800Elevator constructors 17.1099 14,500 18,000 24.1 500 300 200Floor covering installers 171099 37,000 47,000 27.0 1,700 800 900Glaziers 17.1009 9,000 13,000 44.4 500 350 150Lathers 17.1006 30,000 38,000 26.7 1,250 650 600Operating engineers (construc-
tion machinery operators) . 17.100302 285,000 410,000 4.9 14,800 10,400 4,400Painters and paperhangers . . 17.1005 430,000 510,000 18.6 18,200 6,700 11,500Plasterers 171006 40,000 40,000 0.0 700 700Plumbers and pipefitters . . . 17.1007 330,000 475,000 43.9 19,500 12,100 7,400Roofers 17.1010 55,000 80,000 45.5 3,000 2,100 900Sheet-metal workers . . . . . 17.2205 50,000 70,000 40.0 2,500 1,700 800Stonemasons, marble setters,
tile setters, and terrazzoworkers 17,1004 30,000 35,000 16.7 850 350 500
Structural-, ornamental-, andreinforcing-iron workers:riggers: and machine movers 17.1099 75,000 105,000 40.0 3,900 2,500 1,400
Machine occupations:All-round machinists (includes
layout men, instrumentmakers-mechanical) . . .
17.2302,.2303 400,000 450,000 12.5 12,600 4,200 8,400
Setup men (machine tools) . . 17.2302,.2303 70,000 85,000 26.9 2,600 1,500 1,100
Tool and die makers 17.2307 150,000 160,000 6.7 3,700 800 2,900
Mechanics and repairmen:Air-conditioning, refrigeration,
and heating mechanics . . . 17.01 100,000 140,000 40.0 5,000 3,300 1,700Aircraft mechanics 17,0401 135,000 230,000 70.4 9,700 7,900 1,800Appliance servicemen 17.02 205,000 260,000 26.8 8,600 4,600 4,000Automobile body repairmen . 17.0301 100,000 125,000 25.0 3,500 2,100 1,400Automobile mechanics . . . . 17.0302,
.0303,17.12 615,000 745,000 21.1 20,000 11,300 8,750
Bowling-pin machine me-chanics
6,500 6,000 -7.7 50 -50 100
Business machine servicemen , 17.06 115,000 200,000 73.9 8,500 7,100 1,400
771
Table B-1. ContinuedEstimared 1968 einploymei t, projected 1980 requirements, and average annual opening
1968-80, by occupation
Occupation
Voca-tionaleduce-
tioncodes'
Esti-mated
employ-i---iont,1968
Pro-jected
require-meets,1980
Percentchange1968-80
Average annual openings, 1968-80
TotalEmploy-
mentchange
Replace-mentneeds
Craftsmen-ContinuedElectric sign servicemen 6,100 8,200 34.4 300 200 100
Farm equipment mechanics . 40,000 45,000 12.5 1,100 400 700Industrial machinery repair-
men 175,000 220,000 25.7 7,550 3,750 3,800Instrument repairmen 17.21,
.2101 85,000 120,000 41.2 4,600 2,900 1,700
Maintenance electricians 17.1002,17.14 240,000 315,000 31.3 10,800 6,300 4,500
Millwrights 17.1099 75,000 85,000 13.3 2,400 900 1,500
Television and radioservice technicians . . . . . 125,000 145,000 16.0 3,000 1,700 1,300
Truck mechanics and busmechanics 110,000 130,000 18.2 2,900 1,400 1,500
Vending machine mechanics . 16,000 20,000 25.0 650 350 300
Watch repairmen 17.2102 20,000 21,000 5.0 1,400 800 600
Printing (graphic arts) occupationsBookbinders and related
workers ..... . . . . . . 30,000 25,000 -16.7 400 -400 800
Composing room occupations 1-3,000 180,000 -5.3 3,200 -800 4,000
Electrotypers and stereo-typers 8,000 6,000 -25.0 -25 -175 150
Lithographic occupations 73,000 80,000 9.6 1,800 600 1,200
Photoengravers 18,000 18,000 0.0 300 0 300
Printing pressmen and as-sistants 90,000 105,000 16.7 2.850 1,250 1,600
Telephone industry occupations:Central office crafstmen 17.1501 80,000 92,000 15.8 2,700 1,000 1,700
Central office equipmentinstallers 17.1501 22,000 22,000 0.0 400 0 400
Linemen and cablesplicers 17.1402 40,000 39,000 6.8 600 200 400
Telephone and PBX in-stallers and repairmen 86,000 100,000 16.9 3,000 1,200 1,800
Other crafts occupations:Automobile trimmers and
installation men (auto-mobile upholsterers) 17.35 8,000 10,000 25.0 350 175 175
Blacksmiths 17.2399 15,000 14,000 -6.7 500 -100 600
Boilermaking occupations 17.1099 25,000 30,000 20.0 1,090 400 600
Dispensing opticians andoptical mechanics . . _ . . 7.0601 22,000 23,000 4.5 500 100 400
Foremen 1,444,000 1,730,000 19.8 56,200 24,000 32,200
Furniture upholsterers . . . 17.35 32,000 33,000 3.1 800 100 700
Jewelers and jewelry re-pairmen 25,009 25,000 0.0 200 0 200
Locomotive engineers 35,000 33,000 -5.7 1,350 -150 1,500
Locomotiv't firemen (helpers) 19,000 14,100 -25.8 -290 -400 200
Motion picture pro-jectionists . . . .. 16,000 18,000 12.5 750 150 600
Shoe repairmen 17.3402 30,000 30,000 OD 1,500 0 1,500
Shop trades (railroad) 87,000 85,000 -2.3 2,250 -150 2,400
Stationary engineers 1722 260,000 275,000 5.8 7,050 1,250 5,800
Operatives 13,955,000 15,400,000 10.4 426,009 120,000 306,000
Driving occupationsBusdrivers, intercity 04.19 24,000 28,000 19.5 900 350 550
See footnotes at end of table.
72
Table B- ; . Continued-Estimated 1968 employment projected 1980 re u rnents, and average annual openings,
1968-80, by occupation
Occupation
Voce-tionaleduce-
tioncodes'
Esti-mated
employ-ment,1968
Pro-lectedrequire-ments,1980
Percei -change1968-80
Average annual openings, 1968-60
TotalEmploy-
rnentchange
Replace-mentneeds
Operativ -ContinuedBusdrivers, local
transit 04.19 65,000 56,000 -13.9 500 -800 1,300
Routemen 04.06 235,000 250,000 5.1 3,800 1,000 2,800
Taxidrivers 04.19 B5,000 75,000 -10.7 1,200 -700 1,900
Truckdrivers, local . . . 1,200,000 1,450,000 219 37,000 21,500 15,500
Truckdrivers, over-the-road 640,000 800,000 24.7 21,600 13,200 8,400
Other operative occupationsAssemblers 765,000 850,000 8.4 26,000 5,500 20,500
Automobile painters . 30,000 35,000 25.0 1,200 600 600
Brakemen (railroad) 74,000 70,000 -5.2 1,000 -300 1,300
5 lectroplaters 13,000 15,700 208 600 200 400
Gasoline service stationattendants 04.16 400,000 475,000 15.9 10,900 6,200 4,700
Inspectors (manu-facturing) 585,000 695 Finn a 5 19,200 4,200 15,000
Machine tool op-erators 17.2302
.2303 500,000 520,000 4.0 10,501 1,700 8,800
Meat cutters ..... . 200,000 200,000 2.6 4,500 400 4,100
Photographic labora-tory occupations . . . . 17.0901 30,000 39,000 29.9 1,660 750 850
Power truck operators 163,000 183,000 12.2 4,100 1,500 2,600
Production painters . . . . 160,600 170,000 8.5 4,000 1,100 2,900
Signal department work-ers (railroad) 12,100 11,600 -4.5 -450 -550 100
Stationary firemen(boiler) . . . . _ . 73,000 58.000 -20.6 -600 -1,300 700
Waste water treatmentplant operators . . . . . 17.3203 23,500 40.000 68.9 2,500 1,400 1,100
Welders and oxygenand arc cutters 17.2306 480,000 675,000 40.6 23,000 16,000 7,000
Laborers nonfarm 3,555,000 3,500,000 -1.5 60,000 -4,000 64,000
Bridge and building workers(railroad) 11,200 10,900 -2.7 275 -25 300
Track workers (railroad) . 57,000 55,000 -3.7 1,300 -200 1,500
Construction laborers andhod carriers 750,000 925,000 23.3 29,000 15,000 14,000
iervice occupations 9,381,000 13,100,000 39.6 752,000 310,000 442,000
Barbers 17.2601 210,000 260,000 23.8 12,800 4,200 8,600
Bellmen and bell captains(hotels) 04.10 30,000 32,000 10.6 1,100 300 800
Building custodians 17.11 1,100,000 1460,000 32.7 80,000 30,000 50,000
Cooks and chefs 670,000 900,000 33.2 48,000 19.000 29,000
Cosmetologists 17.2602 475,000 685,000 42.9 38,000 17,000 21,000
FBI special agents 6,600 .. - - -
Firefighters 17.2801 180,000 245,000 34.0 7,700 5,200 2,500
Licensed practical nurses 7.0302 320,000 600,000 87.5 48,000 23,000 25,000
Hospital attendant 7.0303,oa 800,000 1,500,000 87.5 100,000 58,000 42,000
Housekeepers and assistants(hotels) 04.10 25,000 35,000 27.6 2,400 600 1,800
Police officers (municipal) . 16.0605 285,000 360,000 27.5 15;000 6,500 8500
See footnotes at end of table,
79 73
Table B-1. ContinuedEstimated 1968 employment, projected 1980 requirements, and average annual openings,
1968-80, by occupation
Voca-tional
Es ti-mated
Pro-jected Percent
Average annual openings, 196EB0
Employ- Replace=Occupation educe- employ- require- change
thancodes'
ment,1968
men ts,1980
1968-80 Total mentchange
mentneeds
Servizle occupationsContinuedPrivate household workers . . . . 1,700,000 1,980,000 14.8 121,000 21,000 100,000
State police officers 16.0605 35,000 52,000 47,7 2,800 1,700 1,100
Stewardesses (civil aviation) . . . 04.19 25,000 65,000 150.7 - - - . - -
Waiters and waitresses 04.0717.2904 960.000 1,240,000 28.3 67,000 23,000 44,000
Farm workers 3,464,000 2,600,000 33.0 25,000 - - = 25,000
Vocational Education Codes are from Vocational Educationand Occupations, U.S. Department of Health, Education, andWelfare, Offices of Education and U.S. Department of LaborManpower Administration, U.S. Government Printing Office,1968.
Includes an estimated 20,400 replacements for those whotransfer to other occupations. Replacements for the selectedbranches of engineering do not include transfer losses.
3 Includes an estimated 3,800 replacements for those whotransfer to other occupations.
4 Includes an estimated 5,300 replacements for those whotransfer to other occupations.
74
5 Includes an estimated 3,700 replacements for those whotransfer to other occupations.
Includes an estimated 1,400 replacements for those whotransfer to other occupations.
Includes annual replacements of 53,000 who die and retire,38,000 who shift to another profession, and 4,700 who take theplace of sub-standard teachers.
Includes annual replacements of 29,000 who die and retire,58,000 who shift to another profession, and 2,800 who take the
place of sub-standard teachers.NOTE: Percents may not agree with totals because of round-
ing.
Appendix C. Detailed training Statistics
This appendix presents two tables containing allavailable statistics on the numbers of persons completingtraining for occupations for which appendix B presentsprojections. Table C-1 presents statistics for occupationsthat require fewer than 4 years of college; Table C-2presents data on occupations for which a college degreeand graduate degrees are required. Data are presented intabular form for use of individuals only needing statisticson training for their specific purpose. These same dataare presented in chapter IV along with the discussion ofthe ways workers get their training in specific occupa-tions and the statistics on projections that are sum-marized in tabular form in appendix B.
Data in table C-1 are not comparable because differentprograms cover different time periods (fiscal years,academic years, calendar years). Some refer to enroll-ments which are used as a proxy for completionsalthough all individuals enrolled in a specific program donot complete the required training. Nevertheless, theinformation is valuable if used as recommended in thebody of this bulletin. The table emphasizes the frag-mentary and inconsistent nature of the data on thissubject and the need for its improvement. Footnotes areused extensively to indicate data limitations. (Seediscussion on p. 2).
Table C-1. Known training in occupations which generally require less than a college degree and for which projec-tions of manpower requirements have been prepared
Occupation
Juniorcollege
graduatesacademic year
1966-69
MDTA enrollments,fiscal year 1969
Vocational education corn-pletions, fiscal year 1969
Apprentice-ship
completions1969On-the-job Institutional Secondary Post-secondary
Professional and relatedoccupations
Health service occupations:Dental hygienists 1$56 4 929Dental laboratory
technicians 364 96 246Registered nurses' 8,960 29 6,228Medical laboratory
workers 772 600 1,058Radiological tech-
nologists 570 93 442Medical record libararians .
Other health serviceoccupations . . . . . 1,996 2,600 18,600 3,023 3,618
Forestry aides:
Technicians:Draftsmen 12,853 3,099Engineering and science
technicians 30,018 12,332 30,149Surveyors
.
Other professibnal andrelated occupations:
Broadcast techniciansCommercial artistsPilots and copilots 791
See footnotes at end of table.'
Table C--1. Continued- Known training in occupations which generally require less than a college degree and for
which projections of manpower requirements have been prepared
Occupation
Juniorcollege
graduatesacademic year
1968-69
MDTA iinrollrnents,fiscal year 1969
Vocational education com-pletions, fiscal year 1969
n-the-jOb Institutional Secondary Post-secondary
Clerical and related occupations .
Bank clerksBank tellersBookkeeping workersCashiersClerks (railroad) -
Dental assistantsElectronic computer op-
erating personnelFront office clerks
(hotels) ........ .
Library techniciansMail carriersOffice machine operators .
Postal clerksReceptionistsShipping and receiv-
ing clerksStation agents (rail-
roads)Stenographers and
secretariesTelegraphers, telephoners,
and towermen (railroad) . . .
Telephone operators . .
Traffic agents and clerks(civil aviation)
Typists
Sales occupationsManufacturers' salesmenReal estate salesmen and
brokersRetail trade salesworkersAutomobile parts
countermenAutomobile salesmenAutomobile service
advisorsWholesale trade sales-
workers
17,092
1,307
4,633
134
3,685
226,700
1,500
170
2 1 0,200
6,480
2218,149
1,201
126,782
80,472
3 96,928
39,492
1,952
15,373
7,592
320,595
Service occupations 611,400 414,000 '4,991 248Barbers 139 553Bel (men and bell cap-
tainsBuilding custodians 800 74Cooks and chefs . . 1,800 3,606 1,563 423Cosmetologists 7,126 2,476Firefighters 34 823Licensed practical
nurses 5,564 2,192 19,586Hospital attendants 7,270 3,939Housekeepers and as-
sistants (hotels)Police officers 2,851 5168 '4,846Private household
workersState police officersWaiters and waitresses 6663 6110
76
See footnotes at end of table.
Apprentice-ship
completions,1969
Table C-1. Continued- Known training in occupations which generally require ess than a college degree and forwhich projections of manpower requirements have been prepared
Occupation
JuniorCollege
graduatesacademic yea r
1968-69
MDTA enrollments,fiscal year 1969
Vocational education corn-pietions, fiscal year 1969
Apprentice-ship
corrplations,1969On-the-job Institutional Secondary Post-secondary
Craftsm enBuilding trades:
Asbestos and insulat-ing workers . . . .
Bricklayers 4,032 272 71,651Carpenters 3,700 500 7,472 1,080 3,698Cement masons 300Electricians (con-
struction) 5,091Elevator constructorsFloor covering in-
stallersGlaziers 217Lathers 145Operating engineers 103 299Painters and paper-
hangers 405 33 829Plasterers 43 25 228Plumbers and pipe-
fitters 725 162 4,888Roofers 290Sheet-metal workers . 1,385 254 2,544StonemasonsStructural iron
workers 2,006Riggers and machine
movers ..Other construction oc-
cupations 31,295 911,455 1,064 1,063Machine occupations 1016,547 10 3454
All-round machinists . . 1,900 1,800 3,527Setup manTool- and die-makers . . 4,125
Mechanics and repairmen 1124,465 1113,666Air-conditioning, re-
frigeration, andheating mechanics 4,043
Aircraft mechanics 880 1,781Appliance service-
men . 1,098 267Automobile body re-
pairmen 2,000 3,900 4,164 1,586
Automobile mechanics . _ 2,200 9,700 1,017Bowling-pin machine
repairmenBusiness machine ser-
vicernen 349 119Electric sign service-
menFarm equipment
mechanicsIndustrial machinery
repairmenInstrument repairmen 232 211Maintenance electri-
ciansMillwrights .. . - .
TV and radio servicechnicians
See footnotes at end of table.
77
Table C-1. ContinuedKnown training in occupations which generally require less than a college degree and for
which projections of manpower requirements have been prepared
Occupation
Juniorcollege
graduatescademic year'1968-69
MDTA enrollments,fiscal year 1969
Vocational education corn-pletions, fiscal year 1969
Apprentice -ship
completions,1969On-the-job Institutional Secondary Post-secondary
CraftsmenContinuedTruck and bus m
chanicsVending machine me-
chanicsWatch repairmen
Printing (graphic arts)occupations ' 210,2131 ' =1,739
Bookbinders and re-lated workers
315
Composing room oc-cupations
837
Electrotypers andstereotypers
27
Lithographic occu-pations
785
Photoengravers54
Printing pressmen andassistants
826
Other printing occupations99
Telephone industry occu-pations
1 i 396
Central office crafts-men
Central office equip-ment installers
Linemen and cablesplicers
Telephone and PBXinstallers andrepairmen
Other craft occupationsAutomobile trimmers
and installationmen
Blacksmiths . . ... .Boilermaking occupa-
tions180
Dispensing opticiansand optical mechanics .
77
ForemenFurniture upholsterers '41,330 '4332
Jewelers and jewelryrepairmen
Locomotive engineersLocomotive firemen
(helpers)Motion picture pro-
jectionists . . . .Shoe repairmen '5248 1526
Shop trades (rail-road)
Stationary engineers
Operatives '62,400 161,600 1624,465 1 6 4 ,043
Driving occupations . ...Busdrivers, intercity
See footnotes at end of table.
78
Table C-1. ContinuedKnown training in occupations which generally require less than a college degree and forwhich projections of manpower requirements have been prepared
Occupation
Juniorcollege
graduatesacademic year
1968-69
MDTA enrollments,fiscal year 1969
Vocational education corn-pletions, fiscal year 1969
Apprenti i -
shipcompletions,
1969On-the-job Institutional Secondary Post-secondary
OperativesContinuedB:isdrivers, local
transitRouternenTaxi driversTruckdrivers, localTruckdrivers, over-the-road .
Other operative occupations:AssemblersAutomobile paintersBrakemen (railroad)ElectroplatersGasoline service sta-
tion attendantsInspectors (manufacturing )Machine tool operators . . 1,026 156Meat cutters 630 630 107Photographic labora-
tory occupations . . . 711 666Power truck operators . . .
Production paintersStationary firemen
(boiler)Waste water treatment
plant operatorsWelders and oxygen
and arc cutters 1,700 8,800 6,596 4,254
Construction laborers
The total number of registered nurses trained was 33,800 inacademie year 1968-69. In addition to the training sourcesshown, many were trained in hospital programs and some in4-year college programs.
3 Includes training in occupations such as typists, bank tellers,office machine operators, bookkeeping workers, electronic com-puter operating personnel, and railway clerks. The number beingtrained in each occupation cannot be ascertained from theavailable data.
3 Includes all persons who completed distributive educationprograms.
4 Includes kitchen workers, maids and housemen (hotels andrestaurants), Porters and cleaners, and attendants. The numberbeing trained in each occupation cannot be ascertained from theavailable data.
May Include some State police officer training.6 Also includes some steward department occupations in the
Merchant Marine.7 Includes brick, stone, and tile workers.° I ncl udes riveters, construction occupations not classified, and
miscellaneous structural workers. The number in each occupa-tion cannot a ascertained from the available data.
9The number in each occupation cannot be ascertained from
the available data.' " Includes structural iron workers, machinists, machine tool
operators, instrument makers, set up men, inspection occupa-tions, boilermakers, welders, and others. The number in eachoccupation cannot be ascertained from available data.
" Includes many repairmen such as auto, truck, and busmechanics; appliance servicemen; and industrial machine repair-men. The number in each occupation cannot be ascertained fromavailable data.
2 Includes composing room occupations, printing pressmen,electrotypers, and stereotypers. The number in each occupationis not ascertainable from the available data.
Includes linemen, testboardmen, telephone repairmen, andother occupations. The number in each occupation cannot beascertained from the available data.
4 Includes some upholsterers other than furniture.5 Also includes shoe manufacturing occupations.6 Includes trainees in many different industries and occupa-
tions such as punching and shearing occupations, spinningoccupations, wood machining occupations; and occupations inplastics, rubber, machinery (assembly), electronics, and trans-portation equipment.
79
Table C-2. Degrees from institutions of higher education by field of study and level, United States, 1968-69
Major fi eld of studyBachelor's
degrees
Firstprofessional
degrees
Master'sdegrees
Doctoraldegrees
Agriculture 8,044 1,696 605
Architecture 3,331 579 7
Biological sciences 35,308 5,743 3,051
Biology, general 23,305 2,503 363
Botany, general . . . . . ........ . . . , . 576 412 249
Zoology, general 5,488 812 310
Bacteriology, virology, micology, parasitology,microbiology 1,357 430 331
Biochemistry 347 268 471
Biological sciences, all other 4,235 1,318 1,327
Business and commerce 93,561 19,325 533
Accounting 20,032 1,333 40
Business and commerce, all other 73,529 17,992 493
Education 152,257 71,076 4,829
Counseling and guidance 15 9,325 401
Elementary education 80,610 12,753 177
Secondary education 2,285 4,584 143
Education, all other . . . . _ . . . . . . . . 69,347 44,414 4.108
Engineering 41,248 15,240 23,377
English and literature 54,279 8,524 1,151
Fine and allied arts 31,588 7,413 684
Foreign ianguages and literature 21,685 5,034 749
Forestry 1,921 374 94
Geography 3,333 563 124
Health professions 19,825 13,673 4,067 283
Dentistry (D.D.S. and D.M.D.) 3,408
Medical technology 2,811 28
Medicine (M.0 ) 8,025Nursing and/or public health nursing 10,328 1,385 3
Pharmacy 4,073 232 74
Veterinary medicine (D V.M ) 1,146
Health professions, all other 2,613 1,094 2,422 177
Home economics 8,979 1,149 102
Journalism :1%197 785 22
Law (LL.B., J.D., or Higher degrees ) . . . . 415 17,053 830 15:(
Library science 1.000 6,932
Mathematical subjects 27,209 5,713 1,097
Mathematics . , . . . . .. . . . . . . - . - . - . 26,905 6,217 956
Statistics (including actuarial science) 304 496 141
Military science 1,895Philosophy 6,100 694 286
Physical sciences 21,480 5,895 3,859
Chemistry 11,702 2,023 1,895
Geology 1.973 620 288
Physics 5,578 2,252 1,296
Physical sciences, all other 2,287 1,000 380
Psychology 29,332 4,011 1,551
Religion 5,276 4,338 2,884 346
Social sciences 140,960 22,649 3,150
Economics 16,867 2,108 634
History 40,939 5,271 826
Political science or government 23,789 2,107 467
Sociology 26,219 "1,656 430
Seciai work, administration, welfare 3,367 5,037 90
Social sciences, all other 29,779 6,470 703
See foo n
80
nd of table.
Table C-2. ContinuedDegrees from institutions of higher education by field of study and level, United States,1968-69
Major field of studyBachelor's
degrees
Pirqtp iional
uegrees
276
Master'sdegrees
129
2,439
Doctoraldegrees
14
175
Trade and industrial trainingOther broad general curriculums and miscellaneous
fields
4,269
9,420
Sourue: NCES, Digest of Educational Statistics, 1970, p. 89, table 117.
87
81*EL S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1971 0 - 457-211 041
