MICROPROCESSOR AND IT`S

ARCHITECTURE

ANKIT SAXENA (PGMSE136013) SHIVENDRA PRATAP RAI(PGMSE136014)

First generation (1939-1954) - Vacuum Tube Second generation (1954-1959) – Transistor Third generation (1959-1971) – Integrated Circuits Fourth generation (1971-present) – Microprocessor

First generation (1939-1954) - vacuum tube

Evolution of computers

IBM 650, 1954

Second generation (1954-1959) - transistor

Third generation (1959-1971) – IC

Remarks :- Thanks to the use of IC PDP-8 was the least expensive general purpose small computer in 1960`s.

PDP-8 DIGITAL EQUIPMENT COOPERATION

Evolution of computers

Fig. Manchester University Experimental Transistor Computer

Fourth generation (1971-present) – Microprocessor In 1971 Intel developed 4-bit 4004 chip for calculator application

EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

ALU

Instructiondecoder

Reg.

Programcounter

I/O Refreshlogic

System bus

Control logic

ROM/RAM buffer Timing Reset

Block diagram of Intel 4004 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

A microprocessor is a stand alone, self contained single chip

microcomputer. It must have as a minimum:

A central processing unit (CPU) Nonvolatile and program memory Input and Output capabilities. A structure that has these, can be programmed in some convenient

programming language Can interact with the outside world through the input/output ports. Other important requirements: Must be relatively simple, Reasonably small . Necessarily limited in most of its features – Memory, Processing power and

Speed, addressing range and, of course in number of I/O devices it can interact with.

The designer must have access to all features of the microprocessor – bus, memory, registers, all I/O ports.

In short, Microprocessors are components with flexible features that the engineer can configure and program to perform task or a series of tasks.

The Microprocessor

Microprocessor-based systems are electrical systems consisting of microprocessors, memories, I/O units, and other peripherals.

Microprocessors are the brains of the systems Microprocessors access memories and other units through buses. The operations of microprocessors are controlled by instructions stored in

memories.

Memory Outputunits

Inputunits

BusMicroprocessor

Controlunit

Datapath

ALU

Reg.

The CPU is the section of the processor which processes the data, fetching instructions from memory, decoding them and executing them.

Features of CPU

CPU

Registers

Program counter

Memory Address

ALU

Accumulator

Status Register

Timing and control

Instruction register

The memory unit stores binary data and takes the form of one or more integrated circuits. The data may be program instruction codes or numbers being operated on. The size of the memory is addressed by the number of wires in the address bus.

The memory elements consist large numbers of storage cells capable of storing either 0 or 1.

The storage cells are grouped in locations with each location capable of storing one word. Each location is identified by a unique address.

The size of memory unit is specified in terms of the number of storage locations available;

1K is 2^10 = 1024 locations and thus a 4K memory has 4096 location.There are a number of forms of memory units CHIP SELECT CHIP SELECT

a) ROMb) PROM

DATA LINES

c) EPROMd) EEPROM ADRESS LINES DATA LINES

e) RAM

READ,CONTROL SIGNAL READ WRITE

MEMORY

ROM CHIP

RAM CHIP

The Input/output Operation Is Defined as the transfer of data between the microprocessor and the external world . The term peripheral devices is used for pieces of equipment that exchange data with a microprocessor system.

In input operations the input devices places the data in the data register of the interface chip; this holds the data until it is read by the microprocessor.

In output operations the microprocessor places the data in the register until it is read by the peripheral.

INPUT/OUTPUT

MPU communicates with Memory and I/O using the System BusAddress bus

UnidirectionalMemory and I/O Addresses

Data busBidirectionalTransfers Binary Data and Instructions

Control linesRead and Write timing signals

Microprocessor architecture

Motorola 6800 architecture

Receives instructions & data from main memory.

Instructions are then sent to the instruction cache, data to the data cache.

Also receives the processed data and sends it to the main memory.

Bus Interface Unit

This unit receives the programming instructions and decodes them into a form that is understandable by the processing units, i.e. the ALU or FPU.

Then, it passes on the decoded instruction to the ALU or FPU.

Instruction Decoder

Also known as the “Integer Unit”.

It performs whole-number math calculations (subtract, multiply, divide, etc) comparisons (is greater than, is smaller than, etc.) and logical operations (NOT, OR, AND, etc).

The new breed of popular microprocessors have not one but two almost identical ALU’s that can do calculations simultaneously, doubling the capability.

Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)

Also known as the “Numeric Unit”. It performs calculations that involve numbers

represented in the scientific notation (also known as floating-point numbers).

This notation can represent extremely small and extremely large numbers in a compact form.

Floating-point calculations are required for doing graphics, engineering and scientific work.

The ALU can do these calculations as well, but will do them very slowly.

Floating-Point Unit (FPU)

Both ALU & FPU have a very small amount of super-fast private memory placed right next to them for their exclusive use. These are called registers.

The ALU & FPU store intermediate and final results from their calculations in these registers.

Processed data goes back to the data cache and then to main memory from these registers.

Registers

8-bit designs

16-bit designs

32-bit designs

64-bit designs in personal computers

Multicore designs

Special-purpose designs Microcontrollers, digital signal processers(DSP) and

graphics processing unit(GPU).

Popular architectures

Intel 4004, 40408080, 80858048, 8051 i860, i960 Itanium

Motorola Motorola 6800 Motorola 6809 Motorola 68000 familyMotoG4, G5

Introduced in December 2001

55 million transistors

32-bit word size

2 ALU’s, each working at 4.4GHz

128-bit FPU

0.13 micron process

Targeted use: PC’s and low-end workstations

Cost: around $600

Currently Popular – Intel Pentium 4 (2.2GHz)

The computing capability of a microprocessor can be enhanced in many different ways:

By increasing the clock frequency.

By increasing the word-width.

By having a more effective caching algorithm and the right cache size.

By adding more functional units (e.g. ALU’s, FPU’s, etc.).

Improving the architecture.

Enhancement of capability

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