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Chapter 1Fundamentals of

Microprocessor

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A little History

What is a computer?[Merriam-Webster Dictionary] one that computes;specifically : programmable electronic deice that

can store! retriee! and process data"#Wi$ipedia] A computer is a machine thatmanipulates data according to a list of instructions"Classification of Computers %po&er and price'(ersonal computersMainframes)upercomputersDedicated controllers * +mbedded controllers

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Mainframes

Massie amounts of memory,se large data &ords./ bits or greaterMostly used for military defense and large

business data processing+0amples 23M /451! Honey&ell D()5

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(ersonal Computers

Any general-purpose computerintended to be operated directly by an end user6ange from small microcomputers that &or$ &ith /-bit &ords to (Cs&or$ing &ith 47-bit &ords or more8hey contain a Processor- called different names

Microprocessor * built using 9ery-:arge-)cale2ntegration technology; the entire circuit is on a single

chipCentral (rocessing ,nit %C(,'Microprocessor ,nit %M(,' * similar to C(,

httpen"&i$ipedia"org&i$i(ersonal

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)upercomputers

Fastest and most po&erful mainframesContain multiple central processors %C(,',sed for scientific applications! and number crunching=o& hae teraflops performanceFLoating Point Operations Per Second%F:>()',sed to measure the speed of the computer

+0amples of special-purpose supercomputers3elle! Deep 3lue! and Hydra! for playing chess6econfigurable computingmachines or parts of machines

?6A(+! for astrophysics and molecular dynamicsDeep Crac$! for brea$ing the D+)cipherMD?6A(+-4! for protein structure computation

httpen"&i$ipedia"org&i$i)upercomputer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle_(chess_machine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle_(chess_machine)

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+olution

First came transistors2ntegrated circuits))2 %)mall-)cale 2ntegration' to ,:)2

9ery :arge )cale 2ntegration circuits %9:)2'1- Microprocessors %M(,'Microcomputers %&ith C(, being a microprocessor'Components Memory! C(,! (eripherals %2>'+0ample (ersonal computers7- Microcontroller %MC,'Microcomputers %&ith C(, being a microprocessor'Many special function peripheral are integrated on a single circuit8ypes ?eneral (urpose or +mbedded )ystem %&ith special functionalities'

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Microprocessor-based )ystems

Microprocessor8he microprocessor %M(,' is a computing and logic

deice that e0ecutes binary instructions in a se@uence

stored in memory"

Characteristics?eneral purpose central processor unit %C(,'

3inary

6egister-basedCloc$-drien

(rogrammable

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Microprocessor-based )ystemsMicroprocessor

the brainsB of the computerits job is to fetch instructions, decode

them, and then execute them

8/16/32/etc bit (how it moves the data

contains

rithmetic

!o"ic

#nit

$e"ister

rra%s

&ontro' #nit

!#erforms comutin" tas)s maniu'ates the data/ erforms numerica' and 'o"ica'

comutations

$e"isters are used for tem* stora"e

&ontro' unit is used for timin" and other contro''in" functions contains a ro"ram counter (next

instruction+s address and status re"ister

-%stem software. "rou of ro"rams that monitors the functions of the entire s%stem

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rithmetic

!o"ic#nit

$e"isterrra%s

&ontro' #nit

?(-

C(,C: 6eg

M(,

C(,

Microprocessor-3ased )ystems

Central (rocessing ,nit %C(,'

Memory

2nput>utput %2>' circuitry

3uses

* Address bus

* Data bus

* Control bus

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Microprocessor-3ased )ystem &ith

3uses Address! Data! and Control

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8ransistors

9acuum 8ubes A deise to control! modify!and amplify electric signals8hen can transistors

Designed by Eohn 3ardeen! William)hoc$ley! and Walter 3rattain! scientists atthe 3ell 8elephone :aboratories in MurrayHill! =e& Eersey - 1/G2n 1. Eac$ ilby and 6obert =oycedesigned the first integrated circuit %2C'Fairchild company manufactured logic gates

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2ntegrated Circuits

Adances in manufacturingallo&ed pac$ing moretransistors on a single chip

8ransistors and 2ntegratedCircuits from ))2 %)mall-)cale2ntegration' to ,:)23irth of a microprocessor andits reolutionary impact

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Microprocessors

=oyce and ?ordon Moorestarted 2ntel2ntel designed he firstcalculator2ntel designed the firstprogrammable calculator2ntel designed the firstmicroprocessor in 1G1Model ///-bit; 74 transistors! ./bytes of memory! 15 HIcloc$ speed

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First (rocessors

2ntel released the 55.! a 1.-bit microprocessor! in1G5Motorola follo&ed &ith the MC.5 as their 1.-bit

processor8he 1.-bit processor &or$s &ith 1. bit &ords! ratherthan 5 bit &ords2nstructions are e0ecuted faster

(roide single instructions for more comple0instructions such as multiply and diide1. bit processors eoled into 47 bit processors2ntel released the 545.

Motorola released the MC.57

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+olution of C(,s

2n 1.J! ?ordon Moore! co-founder of 2ntel! indicated that the number of transistors per s@uareinch on integrated circuits had

doubled eery yearsince the integrated circuit &as inented" Moore predicted that this trend &ould continue for theforeseeable future"

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+olution of C(,s

8u$&ila

WorldKs First 7-3illion 8ransistor Microprocessor -

=e0t-generation 2ntelL 2taniumL processors%codenamed 8u$&ila'

http&&&"intel"comtechnologyarchitecture-silicon7billion"htm

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Memory Interface to Microprocessors

Memory Types

Read Only memory (ROM)

Programmable ROM (PROM)

Erasable PROM (EPROM)

Electrical Erasable PROM (E2PROM)

Random Access Semiconductor Memories

Memory typesStatic and ynamic

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