Date post: | 25-Dec-2015 |
Category: |
Documents |
Upload: | margaret-harvey |
View: | 221 times |
Download: | 2 times |
THE STEPS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1. MAKE AN OBSERVATION
2. FORM A HYPOTHESIS
a) A PREDICTION(EDUCATED GUESS?)
3. TEST THE HYPOTHESIS WITH AN EXPERIMENT
a) EXPERIMENTS SHOULD HAVE ONLY 2 VARIABLE
b) INDEPENDENT VARIABLE –the thing that YOU change
c) DEPENDENT VARIABLE- the thing that changes in response
d) A CONTROL IS SOMETHING HELD CONSISTENT FOR ALL
4. COLLECT AND ANALYZE DATA
a) WE USE MATHEMATICAL-QUANTITATIVE DATA
I. GRAPHS, TABLES AND MEASURES LIKE AVERAGES, MEDIANS..
5. FORM A CONCLUSION
a) DOES THE DATA SUPPPORT YOUR HYPOTHESIS
6. SHARE YOUR DATA*
a) EXPERIMENTAL DATA SHOULD BE REPLICABLE
3 LEVELS OF SCIENTIFIC CERTAINTY
1. A HYPOTHESIS IS THE LOWEST LEVEL1. A PREDICTION TO EXPLAIN YOUR OBSERVATION (EDUCATED GUESS?)
2. A THEORY IS A CONSENSUS WITHIN THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY
1. A GENERAL EXPLANATION FOR A BROAD RANGE OF DATA
2. USES DATA FROM A VARIETY OF SOURCES FOR SUPPORT
3. EXAMPLE –THE EXTINCTION OF DINOSAURS
3. A LAW HAS NO SIGNIFICANT DATA TO OPPOSE IT1. DOES THE DATA SUPPPORT YOUR HYPOTHESIS
2. EXAMPLE – E = mc2
THE BRACHES OF BIOLOGY –BIOLOGY IS THE THE STUDY OF ORGANISMS
FOR EACH BRANCH OF BIOLOGY WE STUDY HOW ORGANISMS..
1. ECOLOGY – INTERRACT WITH THE ENVIRONMENT
2. CELL BIOLOGY- CELLS AND THEIR STRUCTURES
3. GENETICS – HOW TRAITS ARE INHERITED OR HEREDITY
4. BIOCHEMISTRY- CHEMISTRYOF LIFE OR METABOLIC PROCESSES
5. EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY –HOW LIFE EVOLVES
6. MICROBIOLOGY – MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS
7. BOTANY - PLANTS
8. ZOOLOGY – ANIMALS
9. PHYSIOLOGY – HUMAN BODY
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFEAN ORGANISM:
IS A LIVING THING CAPABLE OF CARRYING ON ALL THE PROCESS OF LIFE
ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING TRAITS…
1. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
2. HOMEOSTASIS
3. HEREDITY
4. RESPONSIVENESS
5. REPRODUCTION
6. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
7. METABOLISM
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING
TRAITS…
1. CELLULAR ORGANIZATIONa) ORGANISMS ARE EITHER UNICELLULAR OF
MULTICELLULARI. UNICELLULAR -1 CELLED
II. MULTICELLULAR – MORE THAN 1 CELL
b) THEY ARE PROKARYOTIC OR EUKARYOTICI. PROKARYOTIC –LACK A NUCLEUS OR
ORGANELLES
II. EUKARYOTIC – HAVE NULCEUS AND ORGANELLES
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING
TRAITS…
1.HOMEOSTASIS
1. THE ABILITY TO MAINTAIN A STABLE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
2. EXAMPLE –THERMOREGULATION, BLOOD PRESSURE, BLOOD GLUCOSE
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE–ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING
TRAITS…1. HEREDITY
1. ORGANISMS PASS THEIR TRAITS TO THEIR OFFSPRING1. THEY USE THE MOLECULE DNA ORGANIZED IN
CHROMOSOMES
2. THESE INHERITED TRAITS CHANGE OVER TIME – EVOLVE1. SPECIES TRAITS ARE ENCODED IN DNA WHICH CHANGES
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE–ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING
TRAITS…
1. RESPONSIVENESS
1. ORGANISMS RESPOND TO THE ENVIRONMENT
1. INDIVIDUALS RESPOND WITH BEHAVIORS
2. SPECIES RESPOND BY EVOLVING
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE–ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING
TRAITS…
1. REPRODUCTION
a. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1) THE EXCHANGE AND COMBINATION OF DNA
2) SEX CELLS (GAMETES)COMBINE TO FORM NEW INDIVIDUALS
3) HIGH LEVEL OF VARIATIONS
b. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1) THE REPLICATION OF PARENTS TO FORM DAUGHTER CELL
2) OFFSPRING IDENTICAL TO PARENTS
3) EXAMPLE –BINARY FISSION
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE–ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING
TRAITS…
1. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
a) ORGANISM GROW BY MITOSIS
b) ORGANISMS DEVELOP THROUGH CELLULAR
DIFFERENTIATION
THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE–ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING
TRAITS…
1. METABOLISM
1. THE SUM OF ALL CHEMICAL REACTIONS
2. IN LIVING SYSTEMS THE CARBON CYCLE IS THE
FUNDAMENTAL PROCESS
a) PHOTOSYNTHESIS
I. CO2 + H2O --- C6H12O6 + O2
b) CELL RESPIRATION
I. C6H12O6 + O2 --- CO2 + H2O
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
1. TAXONOMY -THE SCIENCE OF CLASSIFYING ORGANISMS
a) CARL LINNAEUS-THE FATHER OF MODERN TAXONOMY
b) BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE –SCIENTIFIC NAMEI. A 2 NAME SYSTEM
II. Genus species or Genus species
III. SCIENTIFIC NAMES ARE GIVEN IN LATIN
c) CLADISTICS IS THE ORGANIZATION OF ORGANISMS ON THE BASIS OF SHARED TRAITS
I. WE CAN USE A CLADOGRAM TO LINK RELATED ORGANISMS
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
1.TAXONOMY -THE 3 DOMAIN SYSTEM
a) ORGANISMS ARE IDENTIFIED BY CHARACTERISTICSI. ARCHAEBACTERIA- ANCIENT BACTERIA-
EXTREMOPHILES
II. BACTERIA- STREPTOCOCCUS, STAPHYLOCOCCOUS
III. EUKARYA- PROTISTA, FUNGI, PLANTAE, ANIMALIA
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
1.7 LEVELS OF THE MODERN TAXONOMYa) DOMAIN
b) KINGDOM
c) PHYLUM
d) CLASS
e) ORDER
f) FAMILY
g) GENUS
h) SPECIES
THE CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
1.THE HUMAN CLASSIFICATIONa) DOMAIN – EUKARYA
b) KINGDOM - ANIMALIA
c) PHYLUM - CHORDATA
d) CLASS - MAMMALIA
e) ORDER - PRIMATE
f) FAMILY - HOMINIDAE
g) GENUS - HOMO
h) SPECIES - SAPIENS
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
1. MATTER-IS COMPOSED OF ATOMS
a) ATOMS ARE COMPOSED OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLESI. PROTON
a) FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS
b) POSITVE CHARGE +1
c) MASS IS 1 ATOMIC MASS UNIT (AMU)
II. NEUTRONa) FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS
b) NEUTRAL CHARGE
c) MASS IS 1.01 ATOMIC MASS UNIT (AMU)
III. ELECTRONa) FOUND IN THE ORBITAL ENERGY SHELLS
b) NEGATIVE CHARGE -1
c) MASS IS 0.01 ATOMIC MASS UNIT (AMU)
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
1. AN ELEMENT IS A TYPE OF ATOM
a) AN ELEMENT IS SUBSTANCE MADE UP OF THE SAME TYPE OF ATOMSI. ELEMENTS OF THE SAME SUBSTANCE HAVE THE
SAME NUMBER OF PROTONS GIVEN BY THE ATOMIC NUMBERa) CARBON 6
b) OXYGEN 8
c) HYDROGEN 1
II. SOME ATOMES OF THE SAME SUBSTANCE MAY HAVE DIFFERENT NUMBERS OF NEUTRONa) CARBON12 -6 PROTONS 6 NEUTRON
b) CARBON14 -6 PROTONS 8 NEUTRON
c) THEY ARE CALLED ISOTOPES OF CARBON
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
1. THE PERIODIC TABLE ORGANIZES ALL ATOMS ITS CONTAINS THE FOLLOWING FOR EACH ELEMENT
a) CHEMICAL SYMBOL I. AN ABBREVIATION OF AN ATOMS NAME
a) C-CARBON, H-HYDROGEN
b) SOME ARE UNUSUAL Na- Sodium, K-Potassium
b) ATOMIC NUMBERI. AN ATOMS PROTON NUMBER
a) CARBON HAS 6 PROTONS –ATOMIC NUMBER 6
b) HYDROGEN HAS 1 PROTON – ATOMIC NUMBER 1
c) ATOMIC MASSI. THE COMBINATION OF THE MASS OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS
a) CARBON – 6 PROTONS + 6 NEUTRON = ATOMIC MASS 12
b) SOME ARE UNUSUAL Na- Sodium, K-Potassium
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE1. CHEMICAL BONDS – ATOMS COMBINE
THERE ARE 3 IMPORTANT BONDS
a) COVALENT BONDI. BASED ON THE SHARING OF ELECTRONS
a) FORM MOLECULES
b) DRIVEN BY THE OCTET RULE- WHICH STATES “MOST ATOMS REQUIRE 8 ELECTRONS IN THE OUTERMOST ORBITAL SHELL-(VALENCE SHELL)
c) EXAMPLES INCLUDE CO2 , C6H12O6, O2
b) IONIC BONDSI. BASED ON THE DONATION OR ACCEPTANCE OF ELECTRONS
a) FORM IONIC COMPOUNDS
b) ATTRACTIONS BETWEEN CHARGED ATOMS CALLED IONS
c) DRIVEN BY THE ELECTRONEGATIVITY OF AN ELEMENT
d) EXAMPLES INCLUDE NaCl, NaOH, HCl
c) HYDROGEN BONDSI. BASED ON ATTRACTIONS BETWEEN H+ ATOMS AND OXYGEN
a) IMPORTANT IN WATER, DNA , & PROTEIN STRUCTURE
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFEWATER - LIFE IS DEPENDENT UPON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
a) WATER IS A POLAR MOLECULEI. IT IS A MOLECULE WITH IONIC CHARACTER
a) OXYGEN IN WATER CARRIES A PARTIAL (-) CHARGE
b) HYDROGENS IN WATER CARRIES A PARTIAL (+) CHARGE
c) ADJACENT MOLECULES ARE ATTRACTED TO ONE ANOTHER
b) LIQUID WATER IS LESS DENSE THAN SOLID WATERI. ICE FLOATS
a) FLOATING ICE PREVENTS LAKES AND OCEANS FROM FREEZING COMPLETELY AND ALLOWS ORGANISMS TO LIVE IN COLD CONDITIONS
b) ATTRACTIONS BETWEEN CHARGED ATOMS CALLED IONS
c) DRIVEN BY THE ELECTRONEGATIVITY OF AN ELEMENT
d) EXAMPLES INCLUDE NaCl, NaOH, HCl
c) WATER IS STICKYI. IT IS BOTH ADHESIVE AND COHESIVE
a) COHESION WATER STICKS TO ITS SELF
b) ADHESIONWATER STICKS TO OTHER POLAR MOLECULES
d) WATER IS THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENTI. IT DISSOLVES POLAR MOLECULES
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
WATER –THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
a) A SOLUTION CONTAINS BOTH A SOLVENT AND SOLUTEI. A SOLUTE IS THE SOLID DISSOLVED IN
SOLUTION
II. THE SOLVENT IS THE LIQUID COMPONENT OF A SOLUTIONa) POLAR SOLVENTS DISSOLVE POLAR COMPOUNDS
a) EXAMPLE WATER AND SUGAR
b) NON-POLAR SOLVENTS DISSOLVE NON-POLAR COMPOUNDS
a) EXAMPLE GASOLINE AND OIL
c) SOLUTIONS WHERE WATER IS THE SOLVENT ARE CALLED AQUAEOUS
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
WATER –THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENTa) ACIDS AND BASES ARE AQUAEOUS SOLUTIONS
b) THE pH scale measures H+ ion concentrationI. ACIDS –LOW pH
a) H+ DONORS
b) EXAMPLES INCLUDE LEMON JUICE, HCl
II. BASES - HIGH pH a) H+ ACCEPTORS
b) EXAMPLES INCLUDE, NaOH, OVEN CLEANER, LYE, AMMONIA
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
BUFFERS – IONIC COMPOUNDS IN LIVING SYSTEMS
a) NEUTRALIZE ACIDS AND BASES
b) AN IMPORTANT EXAMPLE OF HOMEOSTASIS
c) THEY CAN ACT AS H+ DONORS OR ACCEPTORS
d) YOU HAVE BUFFERS IN YOUR BLOOD THAT ALLOW YOU TO MAINTAIN CONSTANT pH
e) ANTACIDS ARE EXAMPLES
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFEBIOCHEMISTRY- THERE ARE 4 MAJOR CLASSES OF BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE MOLECULES
a) CARBOHYDRATES (SUGARS OR SACCHARIDES)I. OFTEN POLYMERS OF GLUCOSE
II. THE MAJOR AND 1ST SOURCE OF ENERGY IN LIVING THINGS
b) LIPIDS (FATS)I. ARE THE MOST DENSE ENERGY STORAGE MOLECULES
II. FORM ALL CELL MEMBRANES
c) PROTEINSI. POLYMERS OF AMINO ACIDS JOINED BY PEPTIDE BONDS
II. ALL ENZYMES ARE PROTEIN
d) NUCLEIC ACIDSI. FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS AS DNA OR RNA
II. POLYMERS OF NUCLEOTIDES
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFECARBOHYDRATES
I. COMMONLY CALLED SUGARS OR SACCHARIDES (-OSEs)
II. CAN BE FOUND AS MONO, DI, OR POLYSACCHARIDESa) MONOSACCHARIDE- GLUCOSE
b) DISACCHARIDE- SUCROSE, LACTOSE
c) POLYSACCHARIDE- STARCH, CELLULOSE, GLYCOGEN
III. THE 1ST SOURCE OF ENERGY IN LIVING THINGS
IV. FORM STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS IN ORGANISM LIKE THE CELL WALLa) WOOD IS CELLULOSE
b) A BUGS SHELL IS MADE OF CHITIN
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
LIPIDSI. POLYMERS OF FATTY ACIDS
II. ARE USED FOR LONG TERM ENERGY STORAGEa) EXAMPLES CHOLESTEROL
III. FORM ALL CELL MEMBRANESa) PHOSPHOLIPID
b) PREVENTS THE MOVEMENT OF H2O IN OR OUT OF THE CELL
IV. ACT AS HORMONESa) TESTOSTERONE & ESTROGEN
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
PROTEINSa) POLYMERS OF AMINO ACIDS
JOINED BY PEPTIDE BONDS
b) ALL ENZYMES ARE PROTEIN
c) PROTEINS HAVE IMPORTANT ROLES AS
I. ENZYMES (-ASEs)I. EXAMPLE AMYLASE,
HYDROLASE, ATPase
II. HORMONES- like INSULIN, SEROTONIN
III. STRUCTUAL ELEMENTS- KERATIN, COLLAGEN
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
NUCLEIC ACIDSI. CARRY HEREDITARY
INFORMATION IN THE FORM OF GENES
II. FOUND IN THE NUCLEUSa) FORMS AN ALPHA DOUBLE HELIX
III. POLYMERS OF NUCLEOTIDESa) CONTAIN A SUGAR –RIBOSE OR
DEOXYRIBOSE
b) NITROGENOUS BASE
c) PHOSPHATE GROUP
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
MATTER AND ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS
1. CHEMICAL REACTIONS ARE SYMBOLIZED IN EQUATIONSREACTANTS------PRODUCTS
A + B -------------- C + D
2. CHEMICAL REACTIONS STORE AND RELEASE ENERGYa) ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS–NEED ENERGY TO PROCEED
b) EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS – GIVE OFF ENERGY AS THEY PROCEED
3. ACTIVATION ENERGY IS REQUIRED FOR A CHEMICAL REACTION TO PROCEED
4. ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS THAT LOWER ACTIVATION ENERGY
a) THIS SPEED CHEMICAL REACTIONS
b) THIS ALLOWS THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS NECESSARY FOR LIFE
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS ACTIVATION ENERGY IS REQUIRED FOR A CHEMICAL REACTION TO PROCEED
ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS THAT LOWER ACTIVATION ENERGY
a) THIS SPEEDS CHEMICAL REACTIONSb) THIS ALLOWS THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS NECESSARY FOR
LIFE
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFEENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS
1. ENZYMES ARE PROTEINS WITH A SPECIFIC 3DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE
2. ENZYMES LOWER ACTIV ATION ENRGY BY BINDING SUBSTRATES AT THEIR ACTIVE SITES
3. ENZYMES CATALYZE REACTIONS WITHOUT BEING CHANGED OR USED UP
4. ENZYME ACTIVITY CAN BE INFLUENCED BY THE ENVRONMENT
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
1. ENZYME ACTIVITY CAN BE INFLUENCED BY THE ENVIRONMENT
a) CHANGES IN pH
b) CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE
c) CHANGES IN ENZYME OR
SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION
ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS
CHAPTER 7 CELLULAR STRUCTURE
THE DISCOVERY OF CELLS
1. (1665) ROBERT HOOK: “CELLS”
2. (1695) ANTON VON LEEUWENHOEK: “ANIMACULES”
3. SCHLIEDEN: PLANTS ARE MADE OF CELLS
4. SCHWANN: ANIMALS ARE MADE OF CELLS
5. VIRCHOW: ALL CELLS COME FROM PREXISTING CELLS
CHAPTER 7 CELLULAR STRUCTURE
THE CELL THEORY1. ALL LIVING THINGS ARE MADE OF ONE OR MORE CELLS”
2. CELLS ARE THE BASIC UNIT OF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
3. ALL CELLS COME FROM PREXISTING CELLS
CELL BIOLOGISTS USE MICROSCOPES
1. THIS IS A COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE
1. COMPOUND DUE TO MULTIPLE LENSES
2. LIGHT MUST PASS THROUGH THE OBJECT BEING OBSERVED
3. THE EYEPIECE OR OCULAR LENS IS ON TOP
4. THE OBJECTIVE LENSES ARE DOWN NEAR THE OBJECT
CELL BIOLOGISTS USE MICROSCOPES
OTHER TYPES OF MICROSCOPES
1. ELECTRON MICROSCOPEa) GIVES EXTREMELY HIGH
MAGNIFICATION AND RESOLUTION
2. SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPE
a) GIVES EXTREMELY HIGH MAGNIFICATION AND 3D IMAGES
1. MAGNIFICATIONa) IS THE ABILITY OF A MICROSCOPE TO
MAGNIFY OR ENLARGE AN OBJECT
2. RESOLUTIONa) IS A MEASURE OF HOW CLEARLY
DETAILS CAN BE SEEN
CELL SIZE AND SHAPE
1. A HIGH SURFACE TO VOLUME RATIO
2. THE GREATER THE SURFACE AREA, MORE STUFF GETS IN AND OUT OF CELL
3. GREATER THE VOLUME, LESS STUFF GETS IN OR OUT; CELL STARVES OR IS POISONED
4. CELL SIZE VARIES WITH FUNCTION
WHAT DETERMINES A CELLS SIZE
Spinal Neuron-Over 3 feet long
Sperm Cell- 25 Micrometers
CELL STRUCTURE
3 Major Parts of Cell1. PLASMA MEMBRANE:
a) CONTROLS PASSAGE OF MATERIALS IN OR OUT OF CELL
2. NUCLEAR REGION:
a) CONTROLS CELLS ACTIVITIES;
b) CONTAINS DNA & RNA
3. CYTOPLASM :
a) ORGANELLES AND CYTOSOL
INTERNAL ORGANIZATION & TYPES OF CELLS
PROKARYOTIC CELLS: CELLS WITHOUT A NUCLEUS OR OTHER ORGANELLES
EUKARYOTIC CELLS: CELLS WITH A NUCLEUS AND OUTER CELL MEMBRANE WHICH ALLOWS MOLECULES TO PASS IN AND OUT
EUKARYOTIC CELLS CONTAIN “LITTLE ORGANS” CALLED ORGANELLES
EACH ORGANELLE PERFORMS SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS
CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
Cells are organized into tissuesNerve Tissue is composed of astrocytes and neurons
Tissues are organized into organs The heart is made of muscle and connective tissue
Organs are organized into organ SystemsThe respiratory system includes the lungs, trachea, nasal passages, diaphragm muscle and blood vessels
Organs Systems are organized into an Organism We are composed of our body systems including;
Cardiovascular, rproductive, digestive, nervous…etc.
PLANT & ANIMAL CELL ORGANELLES1. CYTOPLASM
a) ALL THE AREA BETWEEN THE CELL MEMBRANE AND THE NUCLEUS AND CONTAINS ALL OF THE ORGANELLES WITHIN THE CELL
2. RIBOSOMES
a) MAKE PROTEINS FROM AA; FOUND ON ER OR IN CYTOSOL
b) MADE IN THE NUCLEOLUS OF RRNA
3. ROUGH ER
a) MAKES PROTEINS AND TRANSPORTS THEM TO OTHER PARTS OF THE CELL VIA VESICLES (LITTLE PACKAGES)
PLANT & ANIMAL CELL ORGANELLES4. SMOOTH ER
a) TRANSPORTS PROTEINS
b) SYNTHESIZES LIPIDS
5. GOLGI APPARATUS
c) FOUND CLOSE TO ER.
d) TAKES PROTEIN FROM ER AND MODIFIES THEM TO MAKE THEM WORK;
e) SENDS THEM ON THEIR WAY (MAILROOM OF THE CELL)
PLANT & ANIMAL CELL ORGANELLES
6. MITOCHONDRIONa) POWERHOUSE OF THE CELL. TAKES IN FOOD; CONVERTS
IT TO ATP, WHICH IS BROKEN DOWN FOR ENERGY.
b) SOME CELLS HAVE MORE MITOCHONDRIA THAN OTHERSCRISTAE: FOLDS IN THE INNER MEMBRANE OF MITOCHONDRIA TO INCREASE SURFACE AREA
7. NUCLEUS c) CONTROLS AND COORDINATES CELL’S ACTIVITIES.
CONTAINS CHROMATIN (DNA). DNA CONVERTED TO RNA AND STORED IN NUCLEOLUS. RNA SENT OUT TO CELL AS A MESSENGER
d) SURROUNDED BY NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
e) NUCLEAR PORES ALLOW RNA TO LEAVE NUCLEUS
PLANT & ANIMAL CELL ORGANELLES
8. CYTOSKELETON: SCAFFOLDING THAT GIVES CELL SHAPE
a) MICROFILAMENTS: USED FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION
b) MICROTUBULES: THICKER, MOVE ORGANELLES
c) CILIA AND FLAGELLA
I. HELP SOME CELLS MOVE AROUND
II. LINING OF RESPIRATORY TRACT
9. LYSOSOMES:
d) CONTAIN DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
e) BREAKS DOWN GLUCOSE
f) CAN RUPTURE AND KILL CELL
≈
Structure of Plasma MembraneSELECTIVELY PERMEABLE: ALLOWS SOME MOLECULES IN; KEEPS OTHERS OUT
PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER: POLAR HEADS ON OUTSIDE AND INSIDE OF CELL; NONPOLAR TAILS ON INSIDE OF MEMBRANE
POLAR: HYDROPHILIC: WATER LOVING
NONPOLAR:HYDROPHOBIC: WATER HATING
Molecules on the Plasma Membrane
1. GLYCOPROTEINS: ACT AS RECEPTORS; MOLECULES ATTACH TO CELL; TELL IT WHAT TO DO
2. CHOLESTEROL GIVES MEMBRANE SHAPE; RIGIDITY
3. RECEPTOR PROTEINS BIND HORMONES & OTHER SUBSTANCES COMING IN FROM OUTSIDE THE CELL
4. RECOGNITION PROTEINS PROTEINS ON MEMBRANE THAT ARE USED FOR RECOGNITION BY EXTRA-CELLULAR SUBSTANCES
5. ADHESION PROTEINS HELP CELLS OF A CERTAIN TYPE STICK
TOGETHER TO FORM TISSUES
Protein Receptors coming out of plasma membrane
What gets in and out of the cell membrane?
How do some substances pass through the membrane while others stay out?
Materials moves across the membrane in two ways
1. Passive Transport
2. Active Transport
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
DIFFUSION: MOVEMENT OF MOLECULES FROM HIGH TO LOW CONCENTRATION
OXYGEN, CO2, FAT SOLUBLE MOLECULES, AND WATER PASS THROUGH THE MEMBRANE BY SIMPLE DIFFUSION
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
CARRIER FACILITATED DIFFUSION: DIFFUSION OF LARGE MOLECULES VIA TRANSPORT PROTEINS
AQUAPORES: ALLOW WATER TO DIFFUSE
IONIC PORES: ALLOW IONS LIKE Na+ or Cl- to diffuse
CHANNEL PROTEINS: ALLOW SPECIFIC LARGE MOLECULES TO DIFFUSE LIKE GLUCOSE
ACTIVE TRANSPORTACTIVE TRANSPORT: USING ENERGY TO TRANSPORT LARGE
MOLECULES INTO THE CELL AGAINST THEIR CONCENTRATION GRADIENTS
1. CELL MEMBRANE PUMPS CARRIER PROTEINS PUMP IONS AGAINST THEIR CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
2. ENDOCYTOSIS: ENGULFING OF LARGE PARTICLES OR LIQUIDS BY PLASMA MEMBRANE
PINOCYTOSIS: ENDOCYTOSIS OF LIQUID
PHAGOCYTOSIS: ENDOCYTOSIS OF SOLID
CELLS TAKE IN CHOLESTEROL BY ENDOCYTOSIS FROM BLOODSTREAM
3. EXOCYTOSIS:VESICLE CONTENTS EXPELLED BY CELL
PROTEINS ARE TRANSPORTED BY EXOCYTOSIS
OSMOSISOSMOSIS: DIFFUSION OF WATER
ISOTONIC SOLUTION: CELLS ARE AT EQUILIBRIUM; NO NET MOVEMENT OF WATER
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION: CELL IS IN A SOLUTION THAT HAS LOTS OF SALTS OR OTHER IONS IN IT; WATER RUSHES OUT OF THE CELL AND THE CELL SHRINKS
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION: CELL IS IN A SOLUTION THAT HAS LITTLE OR NO SALTS OR OTHER IONS IN IT; WATER RUSHES INTO THE CELL AND THE CELL SWELLS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS & CELLULAR RESPIRATIONTHE BASIC EQUATIONS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
+ SUNLIGHT
CO2 + H20 ======> C6H12O6 + O2
OCCURS IN THE CHLOROPLAST OF AUTOTROPHS
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
C6H12O6 + O2 ======> CO2 + H20
+ ATP
OCCURS IN THE MITOCHONDRIA OF ALL CELLS*
PHOTOSYNTHESIS + SUNLIGHT
CO2 + H20 ======> C6H12O6 + O2
OCCURS IN THE CHLOROPLAST OF AUTOTROPHS
HAS BOTH LIGHT AND DARK REACTIONS
The LIGHT Reactions+ SUNLIGHT
CO2 + H20 ======> C6H12O6 + O2
OCCURS IN THE THYLAKOIDS OF CHLOROPLAST
LIGHT REACTIONS- Use light to split H20, make O2, and a Hydrogen Ion gradient which makes ATP and NADPH
Also known as the LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS
The DARK Reactions
CO2 + H20 ======> + ATP + NADPH C6H12O6 + O2
OCCURS IN THE STROMA OF CHLOROPLAST
The Dark Reactions/Calvin Cycle:
Use CO2 , (+ ATP + NADPH) to make C6H12O6 !!!
Also known as the LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTIONS AND OR CALVIN CYCLE!!
CELLULAR RESPIRATION OVERVIEW
C6H12O6 + O2 ======> CO2 + H20 + ATP
OCCURS IN THE MITOCHONDRIA OF ALL CELLS
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Has a few ReactionsGlycolysis
The Krebs/TCA/Citric Acid Cycle
The Electron Transport Chain
OR Fermentation (if there’s no O2 available)
And 2 Major PathwaysAerobic Reactions – use O2
Anaerobic Reactions – Doesn't use O2
CELLULAR RESPIRATION: Glycolysis
GLYCOLYSIS
C6H12O6 + O2 2ATP + H2O + 2Pyruvate
OCCURS IN THE CYTOPLASM!!! NOT MITOCHONDRIA
ANAEROBIC REACTION -Doesn’t Use O2
In Short: Step 1
Glycolysis (glucose-lysis)
C6H12O62Pyruvate + H2O +2ATP
CELLULAR RESPIRATION: THE KREBS CYCLE (*aka. TCA/Citric Acid Cycle)
2 Pyruvate + O2 2ATP + CO2 +2NADH + 2FADH2
OCCURS IN THE MATRIX of MITOCHONDRIA
AEROBIC REACTION –USES O2
In Short: Step 2 The Krebs/TCA Cycle
2 Pyruvate CO2 + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2FADH2
CELLULAR RESPIRATION: The ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
The Electron Transport Chain
2NADH+ 2FADH2 H20 + 32-34 ATP
OCCURS ON THE CRISTAE OF THE MITOCHONDRIA
Uses a Hydrogen Ion gradient to make ATP!
In Short: Step 3
The Electron Transport Chain
2NADH + 2FADH2 H20 + 32-34ATP
CELLULAR RESPIRATION: If there’s no O2 Organisms use Glycolysis then Fermentation!! ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION- AKA- FERMENTATION
2 TYPES
In Animals
2 Pyruvate + 2ATP + Lactic Acid
In Yeast
2 Pyruvate + 2ATP + Ethanol
In Short: Under Anaerobic Conditons
Step 1: Glycolysis
Step 2: Fermentation
WHY DO CELLS DIVIDE?
THEY HAVE GROWN TOO LARGE SO…. THE SURFACE AREA/VOLUME RATIO IS TOO SMALL
TO ALLOW AN ORGANISM TO GROW AND INCREASE ITS SIZE
CELLS HAVE DIED AND NEED TO BE REPLACED
DNA IN THE CELL
INSIDE THE NUCLEUS DNA CONDENSES TO FORM CHROMOSOMES
CHROMOSOMES ARE MADE FROM PROTEINS CALLED HISTONES AND DNA TOGETHER KNOWN AS CHROMATIN
CHROMATIN ALLOWS DNA TO COIL INTO NUCLEOSOMES
EACH CHROMOSOME CONSISTS OF IDENTICAL HALVES CALLED SISTER CHROMATIDS
SISTER CHROMATIDS ARE JOINED TOGETHER AT THE CENTROMERE
NUMBER & TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES
SEX CHROMOSOMES DETERMINE THE GENDER OF AN ORGANISM
XX = FEMALE XY = MALE
DIPLOID CELLS: CELLS WITH 2 COPIES OF EACH CHROMOSOME
THE NORMAL BODY CELLS ARE CALLED SOMATIC CELLS, AND THEY ARE ALL DIPLOID
CELL DIVISION IN PROKARYOTES
PROKARYOTIC ORGANISMS: a) UNICELLULAR BACTERIA WITH NO NUCLEUS
OR MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES
b) THEIR DNA IS FOUND AS ONE CIRCULAR CHROMOSOME
c) THEIR CELLS REPRODUCE THROUGH BINARY FISSION DNA IS REPLICATED, CELL DOUBLES IN SIZE AND SPLITS
STAGES OF MITOSIS 1. PROPHASE
a) CHROMATIN CONDENSES & NUCLEUS DISAPPEARS
b) SPINDLE FIBERS (MICROTUBULES) FORM & MOVE CHROMOSOMES
c) CENTROSOMES BEGIN TO MIGRATE
2. METAPHASEa) SPINDLES ALIGN CHROMOSOMES IN THE MIDDLE OF THE CELL AKA
METAPHASE PLATE
3. ANAPHASEa) CENTROMERES ARE PULLED APART BY SPINDLE FIBERS AND SISTER
CHROMATIDS SPLIT
b) CHROMATIDS MOVE TOWARD OPPOSITE POLES
4. TELOPHASEa) CHROMOSOMES ARRIVE AT OPPOSITE ENDS OF CELL
b) NUCLEUS REAPPEARS
c) SPINDLE DISAPPEARS
5. CYTOKINESIS a) CELL SPLITS TO FORM 2 NEW DAUGHTER CELLS
STAGES OF MITOSISCYTOKINESIS - PLANT VS. ANIMAL CELLS
IN ANIMAL CELLS: A CLEAVAGE FURROW PINCHES ONE CELL INTO 2 CELLS
MEIOSIS
GETTING FROM DIPLOID TO HAPLOID CELLS: MEIOSIS
WHERE DOES IT OCCUR IN HUMANS?MALES: TESTES
FEMALES: OVARIES
MEIOSIS OVERVIEW
MEIOSIS I
1 DIPLOID * CELL SPLITS INTO 2 HAPLOID CELLS
MEIOSIS II
2HAPLOID DAUGHTER CELLS UNDERGO MITOSIS
FFORMS 4 HAPLOID SEX CELLS
SSAME AS MITOSIS
MEIOSIS IPROPHASE I
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES PAIR TOGETHER A PROCESS CALLED SYNAPSIS
EACH HOMOLOGOUS PAIR OF CHROMOSOMES IS CALLED A TETRAD
PORTIONS OF CHROMATIDS BREAK OFF AND ATTACH TO ADJACENT HOMOLOGOUS CHROMATIDS THIS PROCESS IS KNOWN AS CROSSING OVER
CROSSING OVER CREATES NEW GENE COMBINATIONS – THE CHROMOSOMES OF YOUR SEX CELLS ARE COMBINATIONS OF BOTH YOUR MOM AND DADS!!!
METAPHASE I
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES LINE UP IN THE MIDDLE OF THE CELL
ANAPHASE I
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES MOVE TO OPPOSITE POLES OF THE CELL
RANDOM SEPARATION OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES IS CALLED INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
TELOPHASE I
CHROMOSOMES REACH OPPOSITE POLES OF THE CELL
CYTOKINESIS BEGINS
MEIOSIS II 2 HAPLOID CELLS GO THROUGH THE PROCESS OF MITOSIS & CELL DIVISION
THE RESULT OF MEIOSIS II IS 4 HAPLOID CELLS
GAMETE FORMATIONIN MALES MEIOSIS CREATES 4 SPERM CELLS (CALLED SPERMATIDS)
IN FEMALES THE CYTOPLASM IS UNEVENLY DIVIDED SO THAT ONLY 1 BIG CELL THE OVUM IS FORMED, ALONG WITH 3 OTHER CELLS KNOWN AS POLAR BODIES
MEIOSIS VOCABULARYDIPLOID CELLS: CELLS WITH 2 OF EACH TYPE
OF CHROMOSOME
(1 FROM MOM AND 1 FROM DAD)
N= NUMBER OF PAIRS OF CHROMOSOMES
DIPLOID CELLS: 2N
ZYGOTE: FERTILIZED EGG
GAMETES: HAPLOID SEX CELLS
FERTILIZATION: UNION OF EGG AND SPERM
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: PARENTS GENERATE
SPECIALIZED SEX CELLS