Minería antigua

Mining in European HistorySpecial Conference of the SFB HiMAT:

Historical Mining Activities in the Tyrol and Adjacent Areas: Impact on Environment and Human Societies

Herausgeber:

Peter AnreiterGert Goldenberg

Klaus HankeRüdiger Krause

Walter LeitnerFranz Mathis

Kurt NicolussiKlaus Oeggl

Ernst PernickaJörg Schibler

Ingo SchneiderHarald Stadler

Thomas StöllnerGerhard Tomedi

Peter Tropper

© innsbruck university press, 2009Universität Innsbruck, Vizerektorat für Forschung1. AuflageAlle Rechte vorbehalten.

Bearbeitung: Mag. Barbara ViehweiderProduktion: Fred Steiner, Rinn

www.uibk.ac.at/iup

ISBN 978-3-902719-33-1

Content

Preface 9

General Information 11

Sponsors 14

Program 15

Abstracts 23

Talks Session I: Societies and Landscape in Prehistory 25

Talks Session IV: From Ore to Trade 33

Talks Session III: The Palaeo-Ecology of Prehistoric Ore Mining 41

Talks Session V: Subsistence and Nutrition in Mining Areas 51

Talks Session VI: Prehistoric Mining – Primary Production and Reflection in Landscape 67

Talks Session IX: Documentation of Archaeological Excavations and GIS-supported Integrative Data Management 81

Talks Session II: Mining and Settlement in Pre-Modern Times 93

Talks Session VIII: Language and Culture 101

Talks Session VII: Mining Archaeology: The Early History to Early Modern Mining 107

Posters: Session I – Session IX 113

8 Content

Book Presentation 153

Public Talks 157

Excursion 161

Program of the Excursion on Sunday, Nov. 15, 2009 163

‘Second Life as Heritage’. An Introduction to the Show Mine of Schwaz 165

The Project „Indexing of the library and the mining archive of the Montanwerke Brixlegg “ 168

Prehistoric and Early Modern Age Fahlore Mining near Radfeld, Lower Inn Valley. 171

Innsbruck 173

List of Participants & Authors 177

Preface

Dear Participants of the 1. Mining in European History Conference!

On behalf of the Special Research Project HiMAT and the University of Innsbruck I would like to welcome you in Innsbruck. We are glad to host an international assemblage of scientists from a broad variety of disciplines, all united by their interest in mining.

An ambitious program with 60 talks and 22 posters lies ahead of us now. The aim of the meet-ing is to gain new insights into the complex interactions between mining activities and settle-ment, trade, culture and environment; insights, which benefit from the interdisciplinary ap-proach. We expect that the presentation of recent results and the discussion between the disci-plines will open a new perspective on various aspects of mining, and that new research objec-tives will result from this meeting. By temporal and spatial comparison of mining and mining-related activities throughout European history, commonalities and differences shall become visible, allowing the recognition of patterns.

For the first time, the Mining in European History-Conference provides the frame for a such-like interdisciplinary discussion in the field of mining history in an international scale. We hope you will have the chance to cultivate old contacts and to establish new contacts, espe-cially across the borders of your discipline. We would like to wish you a fruitful outcome of the meeting and that you will depart with new knowledge and new ideas.

Thank you for your attendance to our meeting. We hope you will enjoy the conference and you will enjoy Innsbruck, and we are looking forward to see you again!

A. Univ.-Prof. Prof. Dr. Klaus Oeggl Speaker of the SFB HiMAT

Abstracts

Talks Session I:

Societies and Landscape in Prehistory

Session I: Societies and Landscape in Prehistory 27

Late Neolithic and Early Chalcolithic settlement patterns in Southeast Europe Johannes Müller1 (Keynote Talk) 1University of Kiel, Department of Pre- and Protohistory

Economic organisation and ideological preferences influence the social organisation of Neo-lithic and Chalcolithic societies. Within the process of Neolithic adaptations to regional envi-ronments different solutions for prevailing demographic, functional and ecological conditions are found. A comparison between the spatial settlement organisation in the Balkans describe different levels of spatial solutions to social organisation.

Some information within this framework is given by the results of fieldwork which goes on in Bosnia since 2002. In a joint project with the National Museum of Sarajevo geophysical sur-veys as well as small excavations took place at the tell Okolište and other settlement mounds of the Visoko basin. The Bosnian domestic mode of production contrasts with further case stud-ies. In this respect spatial organisation in the settlement and of the cultural landscape demon-strate different solutions to environmental and technological demands.

28 Session I: Societies and Landscape in Prehistory

Copper mining, settlement and society in the Early Bronze Age of southeast Spain Dirk Brandherm1 & Alexander Maass2 1University of Belfast, School of Geography, Archaeology and Palaeoecology 2Freiburg, Germany

While the Los Millares and El Argar cultures of southeast Spain are characterized by rather distinctive metalwork traditions, it has proven difficult to identify the copper deposits provid-ing the raw material for the respective industries.

A number of possible sources have been suggested, none of which so far has produced direct evidence for prehistoric mining activities. Current models trying to explain the role of mining and metals in the local Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age economies thus remain largely based on hypothetical assumptions. Nevertheless, the notion of metallurgy acting as a catalyst for the development of complex societies during the 3rd and earlier 2nd millennium BC in the area is rarely questioned.

Recent research in the Lower Segura valley has produced some of the most promising evidence so far for prehistoric copper mining in southest Spain. Although any traces of early ore extrac-tion here would have been heavily disturbed by modern mining operations, the copper deposits in the Lower Segura valley currently seem the most likely source for Early Bronze Age copper in the south-eastern part of the Iberian Peninsula.

While direct evidence for Chalcolithic of Bronze Age copper mining is still lacking, hammer stones as well as scatters of Bronze Age and possibily also Chalcolithic pottery are found in the immediate vicinity and sometimes even on the surface of ancient spoil heaps that in terms of size and structure differ decidedly from the dump heaps left by 19th and 20th century mining operations.

In addition, grooved stone hammers are present as surface finds of the major Bronze Age set-tlements in the area. These settlements are either located in the steeper slopes of the ridges bordering the Segura valley or on isolated hilltops set in front of the main ridges. Little system-atic excavation has been conducted as these sites, but apart from the finds of grooved stone hammers already mentioned at least one of them has produced crucible fragments and other casting residue.

Concerning the spatial relationship between settlements and mines, most known Bronze Age at least in the northern reaches of the valley are located within only a few kilometres of the pre-


sumed prehistoric mining sites, and at the Cabezo de la Mina Bronze Age settlement are found in the immediate vicinity of ancient spoil heaps.

With the settlements on high slopes and hilltops, however, we only capture part of the overall picture. As since the Early Bronze Age a considerable amount of sediment has built up the valley floor, next to nothing is known about settlement and land use on the agriculturally most productive soils in the area. This severely hampers our understanding of Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age economic and social systems, and casts severe doubts on the validity of current models trying to gauge the importance of copper supplies for local Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age economies. Their tendency to look at mining and metallurgy as part of a prestige-goods economy largely detached from subsistence activities may have more to do with the lack of data on the latter than with prehistoric reality. What is needed here clearly is more research not only into prehistoric mining, but also into other aspects of Chalcolithic and Bronze Age economies on the Lower Segura.


Intensification or expansion? Driving forces in the Copper and Bronze Age colonization of the Central Alps Philippe Della Casa1 1University of Zurich, Department of Pre- and Protohistory

The Central Alps, roughly speaking the Alpine massifs between Rhine and Rhone, range among the less known areas of the Alps in terms of archaeological research activity, despite their strategic position within the framework of transalpine connections. Archaeological field surveys of the last two decades, however, have revealed a strong potential of the central Alpine region for the history of both colonization and settlement, and socio-economic evolution of the Alps.

While studies in material culture and chronology are extremely helpful to reconstruct cultural networks and time sequences, they usually do not tell us a lot about the driving forces in the colonization of the Alps. Despite many years of research and investigation, some core ques-tions concerning the early settlement thus still remain unanswered: Which factors originally triggered the colonization of the Alps, both in its early (Copper Age) and later (Bronze Age) phase? Was the process pushed from outside, or pulled by a specific Alpine resource situation, in particular metal ores? Is the colonization process thus to understand in terms of agricultural intensification, or economic expansion?

We are aware that the different regions of the Alps are to be looked at within their specific environmental and economic situation and potential, and that there can't be overall valid an-swers to these questions. The ore-rich Eastern Alps may have followed a substantially different socio-economic evolution than the ore-void regions of the Central Alps, on which the contribu-tion will focus in order to allow for cross-geographical and cross-cultural comparison.

Using examples from the Rhine, Reuss, Mesolcina and Ticino valleys, along with new data from recent archaeological and ecological surveys in different altitudinal zones, ranging from valley bottoms (500 masl) to Alpine meadows (2500 masl), we will discuss evidences for the early settlement phases and human impact, their relation to environmental and climatic situa-tions, the emergence of specific Alpine subsistence strategies, and scenarios of economic ex-pansion in subsequent periods.


Settlement structures and social hierarchies in Bronze Age mining communities in the Alps Rüdiger Krause1 1University of Frankfurt, Institute of Archaeological science, Department of Pre- and Protohistory

Settlement structures and social hierarchies in Bronze Age mining communities in the Alps

The increasing importance of copper for the production of artefacts, weapons and dress acces-sories in society as an expression of prestige and rank led to the intensification in prospecting for copper ores and their exploitation using new techniques such as underground mining and fire-setting. Prestigious objects such as Early Bronze Age halberds and solid-hilted daggers found in the Inn river valley and in areas north of copper ore deposits in the Alpine foothills in southern Bavaria demonstrate the growing need to express differentiated social structure and to indicate the special standing of individuals.

Further manifestations of increased social differentiation are hierarchically structured settle-ments, which ultimately led to the erection of strongly fortified hill forts at the transition of the Early to Middle Bronze Age. This study focuses upon questions pertaining to the beginnings of settlement in an inner Alpine valleys cape, subsistence economy – pasturage, hunting?, gather-ing and agriculture – as well as postulated discriminate activities in mining and the utilisation of the rich deposits of copper and iron ores.

In the centre of our considerations are the copper ore deposits and inner-Alpine settlement chambers located between Grisony (Graubünden, Switzerland) in the west and the Land Salz-burg (Austria) in the east. These observations are based upon various investigations on settle-ments, mining and the chain in metallurgical production, that is, the extent of the steps in-volved in the work of mining and processing metal ores, and how these steps can be attested in archaeological remains. In addition to economic factors, settlements in mining regions and inner Alpine areas contribute important information for reconstructing the social conditions that once existed. Namely, clues about social conditions can be gained from settlement forms and structures, in particular basing on differences in their size and function and whether or not they were fortified. Finally, there is also the question of the presence of specialized settlements in mining districts. Specifically, in the course of the increase and expansion of settlement in the Alps at the transition from the Early to Middle Bronze Age, settlements were built that were strongly fortified.

The relationship between the procurement of copper ores and the emergence of social hierar-chies and differences among settlement forms are the subject of this talk.


Formation of centres during the Older Iron Age in the envi-rons of the Heuneburg on the Upper Danube River Siegfried Kurz1 1University of Tübingen, Department of Pre- and Protohistory and archaeology of the mediaeval

Located on the Upper Danube River the Heuneburg represents an important site for research on the late Hallstatt period. Within this microregion are tumuli cemeteries, situated around the centrally located Heuneburg with extensive settlement areas, which have been investigated archaeologically in a thus far unique expanse. Sources of information were further augmented through intensive prospection, so that in addition to the necropolis of the Heuneburg environs, related rural settlements in the immediate area have been localised as well.

Recent excavations in the immediate vicinity of the Heuneburg have brought forth more evi-dence, which provides information about the structure of the settlement centre and enables a well-founded interpretation concerning the social organisation.

Talks Session IV:

From Ore to Trade

Session IV: From Ore to Trade 35

Tracing the prehistoric copper sources in the Italian Alps: Results and perspectives Gilberto Artioli1, Ilaria Giunti1, Ivana Angelini1, Paolo Omenetto1, Paolo Ni-mis1, Sandro Recchia2, Barbara Giussani2, Marcello Marelli2, Igor Villa3, Ben-no Baumgarten4, ARCA group (Agordo) (Keynote Talk) 1University of Padova, Department of earth science 2University of Insubria, Como 3University of Milan 4South Tyrolean Museum of Nature, Bolzano

An extensive project concerning copper tracing in the Alps was launched a few years ago through a collaboration of four research groups: the mineralogy and mineral deposits group at the University of Padova, the analytical chemistry group at the University of Insubria (Como), the ARCA group in Agordo (www.archeoagordo.it), and the Naturmuseum Südtirol in Bolzano (www.museonatura.it). The Bolzano group initially helped in defining and selecting the slag and ore deposits in Alto Adige, whereas the ARCA group catalysed the research in the Agordo area, which was then used as a test case for the validation of the discriminating and tracing models, since Agordo offers a peculiar case providing evidence of ores, slags, raw metals, and objects produced in ancient times.

The database of the ore deposits has subsequently expanded to include the mineralizations of the Western Alps and Liguria, including several of the mines exploited in prehistoric times, such as Saint Veran (Queyras, France) and Libiola and Monte Loreto (Liguria, Italy).

We here report the strategies used for the database development, and the discrimination models used to distinguish ore types and source areas. Applications and results of provenancing strate-gies will be given concerning slags and metals in the Agordo test area, chalcolithic slags from Südtirol, and bronze objects from the Chiusa Pesio hoard (Cuneo, Italy).

36 Session IV: From Ore to Trade

Caput Adriae and the Eastern Alps: possibilities for metal connections during the transition from the final Late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age Neva Trampuž Orel1 & Rafko Urankar2 1National Museum of Slovenia, Ljubljana 2Mengeš, Slovenia

A systematic Archaeometallurgical research on the 28 Late Bronze Age hoard-finds from Slo-venia provided us with characteristics and differences in the composition of 565 objects and 298 ingots. As Ha A1-2 hoards are characterised by groups of numerous identical objects – tools, arms, jewellery and broken plano-convex ingots, this enables us to correlate them from the chemical and archaeological point of view. It is possible to extent such studies in a broader territory between the western Pannonia and the Friuli-Veneto region where hoards of “mixed composition” were also found revealing similar rules in the religious practice of the time.

An apparently different situation, however, emerged at the transition from the 2nd to the 1st millennium BC. The hoards, composed mainly of metal semiproducts (“raw metal” hoards) appeared. Their densest distribution has been proved so far for the western part of Slovenia and Friuli where they had been deposited during the Ha A2/Ha B1-3 period. New type of ingots cast in moulds, many of them of biconical shape, reminding of pick-shaped mining tools from the eastern Mediterranean, plano-convex ingots and parts of axes were found in them.

ICP-AES spectral analyses of ingots and objects from Ha A hoards have revealed a relatively pure copper type with prevailing low impurity concentrations and arsenic as a dominant impu-rity. The most frequent total impurity content of As, Sb and Ni is not exceeding 2%. As chalkopyrite ores were widespread as a source of copper in the Eastern Alps in the Ha A period we inferred it also for the investigated plano-convex ingots from Slovenia. Interestingly, cop-per in the analysed Ha B ingots shows quite a different impurity pattern, with antimony as the dominant impurity and highly elevated As and Sb, but also Ni and Co, totals extending from 0.5% to almost 70%. Similar impure copper type has been also found in several ingots from Friuli, Croatia and Hungary. Its chemical composition indicates Fahlore and other polymetallic ores as the ore source, characterized by high impurities. Additionally, metallographic analyses of two ingots revealed their metal as speiss, i.e. a complex solid solution of arsenides and anti-monides which is formed as a by-product of smelting polymetallic ore.

Because of their particular impurity composition, HaB ingots from Caput Adriae are quite suitable for considering ore sources and metal distribution of the period. The nearest Fahlore


deposits with a closely matching mineral composition pattern to the Slovene ingots are known for the Eastern Alps, particularly those in the Liezen region (Paltental) where the ancient proc-essing of polymetallic ores has been established.

Accordingly, the chemical composition of Ha B ingots from Caput Adriae will be presented and correlated to the results of the lead isotope analyses of ingots and Slovene ore samples with the aim to establish possible trade routes which likely existed in the Ha B period.


Sinai, Nile Delta and Southern Levant: Ore sources and metal trade A. Hauptmann


A mineralogical and petrological view at early Bronze Age copper slags from the Kiechlberg (North Tyrol, Austria) Matthias Krismer1, Ulrike Töchterle2, Gert Goldenberg2, Franz Vavtar1, Peter Tropper1, Joachim Lutz3 & Ernst Pernicka3,4 1University of Innsbruck, Institute of Mineralogy and Petrography 2University of Innsbruck, Institute of Archaeology 3Curt-Engelhorn-Center for Archaeometry, Mannheim 4University of Tübingen, Institute of Pre- and Protohistory and Archaeology of the Mediaeval

The Kiechlberg is a small hill on the south slope of the Northern Alps at 1040m a.s.l., located a few kilometres to the northeast of the city Innsbruck. Archaeological excavations yield large amounts of pottery fragments and metal artefacts. Some excavation sections crosscut waste dumps with disturbed stratigraphy. However in some cases, metallurgical products such as copper slags, raw copper bars and sulfidic and oxidic ores were found. All these products sug-gest probably primary copper production at this locality. Oldest pottery fragments belong to the Oberpolling culture (3900-3500 BC). The first metallurgical finds could not be exactly dated and do not belong to the oldest strata. In a second excavation campaign rare copper slag arte-facts were discovered just in the oldest strata, dating 3900-3500 BC. However slags and raw copper products are also present in younger strata dating in the early Bronze Age.

The metallurgical products raise questions about the provenance and the type of the ore used as well as a more detailed reconstruction of the smelting processes by means of slag and raw copper mineralogy and petrology. Metallurgical artefacts found at the Kiechlberg have mostly a small size from approximately 1g to 10g though some raw copper products are also heavier. Copper slags from the Kiechlberg are primary made up of a silicate/oxide matrix with various contents of sulfide agglomerations and inclusions of metallic Cu-droplets as well as Cu-Sb intermetallic compounds (±As, ±Ag) and rare arsenides. The silicate phase assemblage consists of olivine, clinopyroxene, åkermanite, spinel, leucite and melt. In nearly all samples olivine, clinopyroxene and magnetite contain up to 2 wt.% Zn, åkermanite is stronger enriched in Zn containing up to 11 wt.%. Interstitial melt contains up to 5 wt.% Zn. While XRF analyses sug-gest low Ba bulk concentrations, the interstitial melt composition of some samples is enriched in Ba and concentrations rage up to 9 wt.%! Some small inclusions of barite were identified by EMPA. Sulfidic agglomerations are characterized by the presence of chalcocite and digenite. Some samples contain bornite, chalcopyrite, digenite, covellite, pyrrhotite and secondary mag-netite-rich spinel, surrounding these agglomerates. Raw copper finds are primary made up of metallic Cu (~2-4 wt.% Sb) intergrown with Cu-Sb alloy (~18-20 wt.% Sb). The alloy contains small amounts of As, Ag and Bi. Sulfidic ore pieces are comprised of a carbonatic host rock


and the sulfide assemblage is Zn-Fe tetrahedrite-tennantite + enargite-famatinite + sphalerite + pyrite + stibnite-chalcostibite. This assemblage is typical for the ore deposits of the mining area Brixlegg, 30 km to the east of the Kiechlberg. The phase assemblage and chemical composition of oxidic slags and raw copper finds suggest that fahlores were used raw materials. Barite in-clusions and Ba concentrations in glassy melt of some slags fit the ore assemblage of Brixlegg, were Zn-Fe tetrahedrite-tennantite, including the above described secondary sulfide phases are intergrown with barite. Cu and Sb were never found as components in oxidic phases, suggest-ing that reducing conditions below the oxidation reaction of Cu and Sb prevailed during smelt-ing. Zn concentrations were originated by Zn-bearing fahlores of the lower Inn valley. Zn is only present as component in oxidic phases, so that reducing condition were above the Zn oxidation reaction, though small amounts of ZnS were detected in raw copper products. Ther-modynamic calculations indicates temperatures >1100°C, logfO2 conditions between -14 and -9 and logfS2 conditions ranging between -6 and -4. These data provide so far important clues about the prehistoric copper production in the Eastern Alps.

Talks Session III:

The Palaeo-Ecology of Prehistoric Ore Mining

Session III: The Palaeo-Ecology of Prehistoric Ore Mining 43

Atmospheric Contamination by Heavy Metals in Antiquity: Comparison of Evidence from Ombrotrophic Peat Bogs in Europe with Arctic Ice from Canada William Shotyk1 (Keynote Talk) 1University of Heidelberg, Institute of Earth Sciences

To understand the effects of human activities on the geochemical cycles of the elements re-quires knowledge of the natural geochemical cycles. Because many trace elements of contem-porary environmental interest such as Pb have been used since Antiquity, archives are needed which can provide records of pre-anthropogenic, atmospheric deposition extending sufficiently far back in time to allow the natural fluxes and sources to be determined, for comparison with modern values. A number of archives have been employed to reconstruct historical records of atmospheric trace elements, but only snow and ice cores, and ombrotrophic peat bogs, provide long-term records of exclusively atmospheric inputs.

Recent studies have shown that peat bogs are faithful archives of atmospheric Pb deposition, leading to the following new findings:

1) Soil dust derived from crustal weathering has been the dominant natural source of atmos-pheric Pb for the past 15,000 years,

2) Anthropogenic Pb inputs have dominated the atmospheric Pb flux in central Europe con-tinuously for 3,000 years,

3) Atmospheric Pb contamination from leaded gasoline use is only the most recent chapter in a long history of anthropogenic emissions,

4) Atmospheric Pb contamination dating from the Roman Period is even recorded by peat bogs in the Faroe Islands, providing unambiguous evidence of the importance of long-range atmos-pheric transport,

5) Atmospheric Pb contamination in Britain pre-dates the Roman invasion, demonstrating the remarkable ability of bogs to preserve records of atmospheric Pb, and the potential for detailed archaeological studies.

With new clean lab facilities and using ICP-SMS, working with the Glaciology Division of the Geological Survey of Canada we have now measured all of the trace elements of contemporary environmental interest as well as the isotopic composition of Pb in an ice core from the Devon


Island ice cap, extending back 17,000 years, including a detailed reconstruction of the past 150 years. The main findings to date are:

1) The natural ratio of Pb to Sc was effectively constant for thousands of years, and compara-ble to the background value from European peat bogs; this supports the hypothesis that natural atmospheric Pb was effectively controlled by soil dust particles supplied by weathering of crustal rocks.

2) Anthropogenic Pb inputs to the arctic are clearly seen in ice layers ca. 3,000 years old, with pronounced Pb enrichments and declines in 206Pb/207Pb ratios in samples from the Roman and Medieval periods.

3) Although Pb enrichments have declined during recent decades, even in the most recent snow samples, the Pb/Sc and Pb isotope data show that 90 to 95% of the Pb is still anthropogenic.

References

Krachler, M.; Zheng, J.; Zdanowicz, C.; Koerner, R.; Fisher, D.; Shotyk, W. (2005): Increasing enrich-ments of antimony in the Arctic atmosphere Journal of Environmental Monitoring 7:1169-1176.

Krachler, M.; Zheng, J.; Fisher, D.; Shotyk, W. (2008): Natural background levels of atmospheric anti-mony, variation with climate change and modern enrichments revealed by age-dated snow and ice samples from Devon Island, Arctic Canada. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 22, GB1015, doi:10.1029/2007/GB002998.

Le Roux, G.; Weiss, D.; Grattan, J.; Givelet, N.; Krachler, M.; Cheburkin, A. K.; Rausch, N.; Kober, B.; Shotyk, W. (2004): Identifying the sources and timing of ancient and medieval atmospheric metal pollution in England by a peat profile. Journal of Environmental Monitoring 6: 502-510.

Shotyk, W.; Goodsite, M. E.; Roos-Barraclough, F.; Heinemeier, J.; Frei, R.; Asmund, G.; Lohse, C.; Stroyer, T. H. (2003): Anthropogenic contributions to atmospheric Hg, Pb, and As deposition record-ed by peat cores from Greenland and Denmark dated using the 14C ams “bomb pulse curve”. Geochi-mica et Cosmochimica Acta 67(21): 3991-4011.

Shotyk, W.; Krachler, M.; Chen, B. (2004): Antimony in recent peat from Switzerland and Scotland: comparison with natural background values (5,320 to 8,020 14C yr BP), correlation with Pb, and im-plications for the global atmospheric Sb cycle. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 18 GB1016, doi:10.1029/2003GB002113.

Shotyk, W.; Zheng, J.; Krachler, M.; Zdanowicz, C.; Koerner, R.; Fisher, D. (2005): Predominance of industrial Pb in recent snow from Devon Island, Arctic Canada. Geophysical Research Letters 32, L21814, doi:10.1029/2005GL023860.

Shotyk, W.; Goodsite, M. E.; Roos-Barraclough, F.; Givelet, N.; Le Roux, G.; Weiss, D.; Cheburkin, A. K.; Knudsen, K.; Heinemeier, J.; van der Knaap, W. O.; Norton, S. A.; Lohse, C. (2005): Accumula-tion rates and predominant atmospheric sources of natural and anthropogenic Hg and Pb on the Faroe Islands. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 69: 1-17.

Zheng, J.; Shotyk, W.; Krachler, M.; Fisher, D. (2007): 15,800 years of atmospheric lead deposition on Devon Ice Cap, Nunavut, Canada: Natural and anthropogenic enrichments, isotopic composition, and predominant sources. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 21, GB2027, doi:10.1029/2006GB002897.


Palaeo-ecological and geochemical evidences of early met-allurgy in Burgundy (Morvan and Nivernais – France) Isabelle Jouffroy-Bapicot1, Fabrice Monna2, Forel Benoit2, Cyril Leuvrey2, C. Petit2, C. Rambeau3 & S. Black3 1University of Franche-Comté, Chrono-environment Lab. 2University of Bourgogne, Archaeology, Land, History and Society (ARTéHIS) 3University of Reading Whiteknights Water, Life and Civilisation Project – School of Human & Envi-ronmental Sciences

Historical mining and smelting activities in the Morvan mountain (France) were recently documented by means of pollen and geochemical analyses (Monna et al. 2004, Jouffroy-Bapicot et al. 2007, Jouffroy-Bapicot et al. 2008). These investigations provided a new set of data for understanding the role of ore-mining and metal-working in the human occupation of Morvan during Metal Ages. Now we propose to compare theses results with new analyses performed in the neighbouring area of the "Nivernais plateau". The aim is to compare spatial and temporal impact of mining and smelting activities especially during Prehistory.

References

Jouffroy-Bapicot, I.; Forel, B.; Monna, F.; Petit, C., (2008): Paléométallurgie dans le Morvan : l’apport des analyses polliniques et géochimiques. In: H. Richard et D. Garcia (eds.), "Peuplement de l'Arc al-pin". Tradition et innovation. 131ème congrès national des Sociétés historiques et scientifiques, Gre-noble, 24-29 avril 2006, Paris: CTHS, 323-334.

Jouffroy-Bapicot, I.; Pulido, M.; Baron, S.; Galop, D.; Monna, F.; Lavoie, M.; Petit, C.; de Beaulieu, J.-L.; Richard, H. (2007): Environmental impact of early palaeometallurgy: pollen and geochemical analysis. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 16: 251-258.

Monna, F.; Petit, C.; Guillaumet, J.-P.; Jouffroy-Bapicot, I.; Blanchot, C.; Dominik, J.; Losno, R.; Ri-chard, H.; Lévêque, J.; Château, C. (2004): History and environmental impact of mining activity in Celtic Aeduan territory recorded in a peat-bog (Morvan – France). Environmental Science & Tech-nology, 38 (3): 665-673.


Five thousand years of metallurgical activities recorded in peat bogs from the western Pyrenees (France) Didier Galop1, Fabrice Monna2, Argitxu Beyrie3, Eric Kammentaler3 & Da-mien Rius4 1University Toulouse 2, Laboratory GEODE 2University of Bourgogne, Archaeology, Land, History and Society (ARTéHIS) 3Iker Archeologie, Saint-Martin-d’Arrossa 4Laboratory Chrono-Environnement, Besançon

Interdisciplinary research combining palynology and lead isotopic geochemistry were per-formed in two peat records from the western Pyrenees (Quinto Real, Basque country and Gabarn peat bog , Ossau valley), in two valley recognized by archaeological or historical stud-ies as being old metallurgical centres. These various analyses make it possible to reconstruct mining and metallurgical activities and to assess the impact on forest of the last five millennia. Several phases are attested between Late Neolithic and Modern Times (Middle Bronze age, Late Bronze Age, Antiquity, Medieval Period and finally modern times). Locally, most of these phases are clearly related to forest exploitation. However it arises that the most important impact on forest ecosystems peaks at the beginning of the 15th-16th centuries.


Ancient pollution and vegetation change in the mining ar-eas of the British Isles Tim Mighall1, Simon Timberlake2, Surgit Singh3, Eva Krupp4, Ian Foster5 1University of Aberdeen, Department of Geography and Environment, School of Geosciences 2 University of Cambridge, Department of Archaeology, Early Mines Research Group 3University of Leeds 4University of Aberdeen 5University of Westminster

This paper presents records of metal deposition and vegetation change as preserved by a peat-land which has accumulated in the lowland coastal zone at Borth, near Aberystwyth, Ceredi-gion, mid-Wales, U.K. The research objective was to explore the origins and history of metal mining and (or) metallurgy by reconstructing a geochemical record of copper, lead and zinc pollution for the last four millennia. Two cores were extracted from Borth Bog, one from the raised ombrotrophic part of the bog and another from a minerotrophic part of Borth Bog close to the ancient copper workings at Llancynfelin. Although peat stratigraphy and nutrient status have influenced the geochemical record, the results suggest that an early phase of copper and lead pollution occurred at Llancynfelin whilst lead enrichment occurred in the peat core taken close to the centre of Borth Bog during the Bronze Age and the Roman occupation. Epiosdes of woodland clearance coincide with phases of pollution most likely caused by a dual economy of mining and (or) metallurgy and agriculture. Therefore the origins of copper and lead mining and metallurgy possibly extend back to the Bronze Age but intensified by Roman times in central Wales. In contrast to other former copper and lead mining areas, no record of historical pollution exists at either site.


The environmental impact of ancient mining evidenced by a multi-proxy analysis Elisabeth Breitenlecher1, Marina Hilber2, Joachim Lutz3, Yvonne Kathrein4, Alois Unterkircher2 & Klaus Oeggl1 1University of Innsbruck, Institute of Botany 2University of Innsbruck, Institute of History and Ethnology 3Curt-Engelhorn-Centre for Archaeometry, Mannheim 4University of Innsbruck, Institute of German Language and Literature

In the last 5000 years Tyrol has been an important source of natural resources like metal and salt. The landscape in the Inn-valley was shaped by the impact of ore exploitation in addition to general agricultural activities. Metallurgical activities caused a huge demand on raw materials (water, timber) as well as a significant environmental pollution (heavy metals). The last dec-ade’s technical advances in pollen analysis enable a detailed reconstruction of past vegetation and its agricultural utilization, but the palaeoecology of mining is still poorly known, although its impact shaped the Alpine landscape for thousands of years. The difficulty of palynology in mining areas is that mining activities produce a similar pollen signal as agricultural activities do. The crucial point is to implicate the evidence of changes in the pollen diagram with mining activities. This implication is achieved by a combination of different proxies.

Detailed pollen, micro-charcoal and geochemical analyses of terrestrial archives in the vicinity of ancient mining areas reflect significant changes in the vegetation, intensive fire activities and heavy metal pollution. The palaeoecological record of land use is corroborated by histori-cal data concerning settlement and agricultural activity as well as ore exploitation and smelting operations within the hydrological catchment of the archive. Archaeological data about mean-ingful findings (tools, premises) of past metallurgical activities complete the palaeoecological record. All this knowledge about the palaeoecology of mining is used as a calibration set to evaluate prehistoric mining activities in Tyrol displayed in pollen diagrams. The potential of this multi-proxy approach combining palynology, charcoal, geochemical analyses as well as historical and archaeological data to evaluate past anthropogenic changes of the environment by the impact of historic and prehistoric mining is discussed.


Early atmospheric pollution recorded in the sediments of high mountain lakes in the vicinity of mining areas Karin A. Koinig1, Roland Psenner2 & Richard Tessadri3 1University of Innsbruck, Institute of Ecology 2University of Innsbruck, Institute of Ecology 3University of Innsbruck, Institute of Mineralogy and Petrography

Historic changes in metals were investigated in sediment cores covering the last 200 to 500 years of four high alpine lakes in North Tyrol, Austria. The catchment areas of the lakes are located above timberline and consist of a high amount of bare rocks and fine grained scree. As a consequence, the geochemistry of these high alpine lakes is particularly sensitive to climate driven weathering rates. Therefore we distinguished atmospheric metal deposition from local inputs from the catchment area by normalizing trace metal concentrations to changes in con-servative elements (i.e. Ti, Zr, Al). In all lakes, lead increased steadily in the last 100 to 150 years due to enhanced industrialization and usage of leaded gasoline. However, we observed even higher increases in lead in Mutterbergersee between 1570 and 1650 AD. This lake is located 15km northwest form the Schneeberg/Montevene mining area, that has been exploited for lead, copper and zinc with earliest recording in 1237 and the strongest mining activities in the 15th and 16th century. Early atmospheric metal pollution was less distinct in the other lakes that were located in greater distance to minor mining areas: high concentrations in metal con-centrations where observed around 1830 in Gossenköllesee for lead and chrome, and in the second half of the 19th century in Brechsee for arsenic, lead, cadmium, and zinc. The lake located highest showed no distinct metal pollution prior to industrialization.

Talks Session V:

Subsistence and Nutrition in Mining Areas

Session V: Subsistence and Nutrition in Mining Areas 53

Early Mining and Subsistence: Some Theoretical Consid-erations Stephen Shennan1 (Keynote Talk) 1University College London, Institute of Archaeology

The occurrence of early mining and metal production on anything more than a very small scale implies production for the purpose of exchange. This, in turn, raises questions about how sub-sistence needs were met when a large amount of the available local labour was being used in metal production, and what benefits were being gained by the producers from their involve-ment in such production. The fact that in many large-scale state societies and empires mining depended on coerced or slave labour that was effectively regarded as expendable brings out very clearly the arduous and often dangerous nature of the work; on the other hand, the rewards available to those controlling the process but not paying the price of production were often enormous if highly risky.

Within archaeology, and anthropology as well, the usual explanation of why people in pre-capitalist societies exchange things, if not simply to maintain social links, is the substantivist one that they import items and raw materials not locally available and export things to have something to exchange for their imports. This is inadequate to account for a significant com-mitment to production for exchange. The key to explaining this phenomenon is Ricardo’s Law of Comparative Advantage. Ricardo’s Law states that it is not worth producing commodity x yourself if you’re better off producing commodity y and obtaining commodity x in exchange for it, in other words, by specializing. What matters is the exchange value in relation to the costs of production and transport. It follows from Ricardo’s law that specialization can occur which will be to the individual benefit of all, although, in fact, not equally to all, and which will raise the overall production of a region to a level higher than it would otherwise have been; this is the essence of economic growth.

The paper will explore some of the implications of this framework for understanding the eco-nomic decision-making of those involved in metal production and those wishing to obtain the product, with a particular emphasis on non-state societies, and will go onto consider the kinds of research programme necessary to address the questions that the framework raises.

54 Session V: Subsistence and Nutrition in Mining Areas

The natural environment round the Kiechlberg during Early Bronze Age Anton Stefan Schwarz1 1University of Innsbruck, Institute of Botany

This archaeobotanical and anthracological case study from the Kiechlberg at Thaur deals with the human impact on the environment due to mining in the alpine Inn Valley during Early Bronze Age. Studies were conducted on systematically collected soil samples from waste dump layers and from the settlement area at an elevation of 1028m asl. The exposed hilltop camp contained several artefacts as they occur in connection with copper ore melting. Charred remains of cultivated, useful and gathered plants refer to a balanced diet. Cereals, caryopses mainly of barley (Hordeum vulgare) and cultivated emmer (Triticum dicoccum), peas (Pisum sativum) and small amounts of weeds show an input of plants grown at lower altitudes. In con-trast to the cultivated plants the gathered plants such as rowan (Sorbus), black elder (Sambucus nigra), hazelnut (Corylus avellana), strawberry ground cherry (Physalis alkekengi) and also oak (Quercus) were gathered in the surrounding area. Most of these useful plants are present as charcoal too.

Overall the species in the wood charcoal reflect the vegetation of the Kiechlberg´s surround-ings. The heterogeneous spectra of the wood charcoal as well as the diameters and the wood anatomical parameters support the collection of timber from the surrounding woods for camp-fire as cooking and heating fuel. Taxa arranged in order of their ecological requirements show a heterogeneous composition of the local woodland: spruce (Picea) and fir (Abies) represent a coniferous dominated mountain mixed forest (Abieti-Fagetum). Maple (Acer), elm (Ulmus) and oak (Quercus) are species from a ravine forest. Pine (Pinus sylvestris), birch (Betula), hazel (Corylus avellana) and rowan (Sorbus) are light demanding pioneer woody plants from dry habitats and grow on small scaled open areas within the wood. Nowadays the Kichlberg is located at the transition of the Abieti-Fagetum in higher altitudes and the spruce forest (Piceetum) with pine in the lower.


Wood supply of the Bronze Age salt mining site at Hall-statt, Austria Michael Grabner1, Andrea Klein2, Hans Reschreiter3 & Fritz-Eckart Barth3 1University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU) 2Holzforschung Austria, Vienna 3Natural History Museum Vienna, Department of Prehistory

Wood always played an important role in the economic life of human beings. The need of wood of a mining site is hard to calculate and strongly depends on the kind of product and the bedrock. In salt mining a smaller amount of wood is necessary. The demand of wood increased dramatically, when solving of rocksalt with water started.

Hallstatt is located within a region of wide forests. Though, the area of wood utilization is limited due to the topography of the “high valley”. The area of prehistoric salt mining is situ-ated at about 900 m a.s.l . and is bordered by a steep slope down to the lake at the east, the timberline at about 1500 m a.s.l. at the west and steep slopes (cliffs) at the south and north. The mining area was just accessible by foot – there were no ox-paths or anything like this. So it was impossible to bring log wood from outside of the site. That means, that the people had to han-dle careful the limited raw-material and they had to have a sustainable forest.

In the Bronze Age wood was used for various purposes and can be found at the mining site: Mining timber (log wood), lighting splints, tool handles and tools, bins, binding material and round wood as material for surface buildings. In the course of dendrochronological analyses wood species as well as diameter of logs and other details were determined.

In the salt mine a not expected high amount of fir wood was found. Few findings from the surface were dominated by larch wood. Mining timber consisted almost equal of fir and spruce. Lighting splints were almost all made of fir wood. Transportation bins and baskets were made out of overgrown fir stumps. Pick-axe handles were produced of beech wood. Just at the Chris-tian-von-Tusch-Werk handles of oak wood were found. As there was no oak growing in Hall-statt, it’s an interesting finding and can be seen as a proof of trading.

To get overgrown stumps from fir, a special forest type is necessary. That’s the reason, why a good hypothesis of bronze-age wood utilization could be drawn. The diameter of mining tim-ber varied between several centimetres up to 25 cm. Lighting chips were split off knot-free bud logs of fir with a diameter of 20 – 30 centimetres. The overgrown fir stumps, which were used for transportation bins and baskets, showed higher diameter (25 – 35 cm). Putting all these data together it’s obvious, that the whole tree – from the stump to the crown – was used. The upper


part (the crown) was used for mining timber, which can be confirmed due to the high amount of big knots. The knot-free bud log was used to split off the lighting splinters. The remaining stump started to overgrow and was used later to produce transportation bins and baskets.

As the overgrowing of stumps only takes place in closed forests, single tree utilization can be stated for the Bronze Age. Sustainable forests can be found at the prehistoric salt mining site of Hallstatt.


Wood and charcoal supply of mining activities in the Eisenerzer Ramsau, Steiermark, Austria Oliver Nelle1 & Susanne Klemm2 1University of Kiel, Ecology Centre 2Austrian Academy of Science (ÖAW), Prehistoric Commission

Archaeological excavations at the Middle Bronze Age Copper Smelting Site S1 in the Eisener-zer Ramsau (1045 m a.s.l.) during the period 1992–2006 produced over 900 of samples for botanical analysis. The site proved to be the largest and most complex site of its type and pe-riod in the Eastern Alps. Since both wood and charcoal were used throughout the metallurgical process, one objective was to describe the type of wood used and to define whether a certain type of wood was selected for smelting copper ore in the Middle Bronze Age. Once the strati-graphic sequence and the chronology of the site are firmly established, we will ask whether different types of wood were used for the different phases of use. So far, the data of around 5700 species-identified wood charcoal fragments from more than 800 samples are available for a detailed stratigraphic analysis in the archaeological context. The copper smelters used stands of mixed montane spruce-fir-beech-maple woodland for ore roasting and smelting. Different contexts – roasting hearths, smelting furnaces, pits and postholes- enable us to tell whether different wood species were used for different technological purposes. The Bronze Age wood species spectra can be compared to those of a medieval charcoal production pit which was operated on top of the prehistoric smelting site, and of early modern times charcoal production sites in the vicinity. Additionally, the charcoal data provide important information on the vege-tation history of the area, together with data from pollen analysis already carried out in the early years of the excavation, and studies on the more recent forest in the Eisenerzer Ramsau valley.


Fuel wood economy of historical mining in the Southern Black Forest (SW Germany) Thomas Ludemann1 1University of Freiburg, Institute of Biology II, Department of Geobotany

For millennia and up to the comprehensive usage of fossil fuel beginning in the 19th century, wood played an important role in the development of human society, culture and economy. Especially past mining activities and archaeometallurgical processes were closely dependent on the availability of timber and fuel wood and on an effective fuel supply based on wood and forest exploitation. A sufficient wood and charcoal supply was an indispensable precondition of historical mining and archaeometallurgy. Remnants of the activities mentioned, especially charcoal fragments, are widespread in the landscape, and contain detailed information on past wood use and historical fuel economy. From charcoal analyses we can find indications about the historical forests and landscapes, the anthropogenic influences thereto and the changes therein. At nearly every mining archaeological excavation well preserved charcoal material could be found. Its anthracological investigation provides a valuable contribution to under-standing the corresponding historical occurrences and processes. Such studies are an essential part of a holistic consideration of historical mining and archaeometallurgy and of the corre-sponding research programs. Example is given by two important historical mining areas of the Southern Black Forest, being at the same time the scientifically best investigated historical mining areas of this region. Unexpected anthracological results could be established. A general preference for distinct tree taxa for fuel wood is not to be found. On the contrary, in the histori-cal charcoal we found nearly all of the tree taxa to be expected for the natural conditions. Moreover, their frequencies also reflect a natural situation. However, considering individual exploitation periods, comprehensive differences in taxon composition can be established. Thereby the temporal development of wood use and species composition of the historical for-ests, inferred from charcoal analyses, clearly seems to be in contrast to the expected usual an-thropogenic degradation processes and tendencies of the forest vegetation, as indicated by an inverse trend of tree species change. This phenomenon might be explained by a spatial expan-sion of the wood exploitation into more remote, less influenced, close-to-nature forest stands.


References

Ludemann, T. (1996): Die Wälder im Sulzbachtal (Südwest-Schwarzwald) und ihre Nutzung durch Berg-bau und Köhlerei. – Mitt. Verein forstl. Standortskunde u. Forstpflanzenzüchtung 38: 87–118.

Ludemann, T. (2008): Natürliches Holzangebot und historische Nutzung – Heutige Vegetation und histo-rische Holzkohle als wertvolle Quellen. – Das Mittelalter. Perspektiven mediävistischer Forschung 13 (2): 39-62.

Ludemann, T.; Nelle, O. (2002): Die Wälder am Schauinsland und ihre Nutzung durch Bergbau und Köhlerei. – Freiburger forstl. Forschung 15: 139 S.

(www.biologie.uni-freiburg.de/data/bio2/geobotanik/ludemann/publikationen.htm)


Remains of charcoal production from the Middle Ages to the Modern Period - New types of archaeological monu-ments in the Eastern Alps Susanne Klemm1 1Austrian Academy of Science (ÖAW), Prehistoric Commission

Charcoal was the main energy source for metal production throughout the Middle Ages and the Modern period in Europe. In the Austrian part of the Eastern Alps charcoal production was carried out on a large scale until around 1900 A.D. and continued in some areas during the 20th century until today but on a very much reduced scale.

In mediaeval times iron ore mining started at the so-called ‘Iron Mountain’ (Steirischer Erz-berg) in Eisenerz in Styria, Austria. A huge amount of charcoal was needed for the smelting of iron ore and the production of iron goods in Eisenerz and in a vast area around the mine in Styria, as well as in Lower and Upper Austria.

Since 1997 archaeological investigations in Eisenerz and in other parts of the Eisenerzer Alps allowed the documentation of several different types of archaeological monuments as remains of charcoal production. The evidence of these types of archaeological monuments had scarcely been registered before in Austria, with some singular exceptions of earlier sites and some de-scriptions of possible charcoal production sites. The four types of charcoal production sites recognized in the Eisenerzer Alps and other areas show special characteristics as field monu-ments. Also, there remains indicate the different construction of the charcoal kilns. The identi-fication of the various types of charcoal kilns is supported by a number of historical documents as well as historical studies on the methods of charcoal production.

Throughout Europe remains of charcoal production have been identified by archaeologists. Scientific research on historical charcoal production sites was also carried out by ar-chaeobotanists who recognized these sites as a most important source of wood remains for describing the history of vegetation.


Modelling the past – A calculation model for the food re-quirement at the Iron-age mining settlement at Dürrnberg near Hallein. Nicole Boenke1 1Archaeological and Archaeobotanical Researches, Blons

The availability of resources is essential for the organization of a complex project like mining. Especially when a large amount of labourers was not applicable anymore for the production and distribution of goods of the daily life, strategies had to be developed to afford a surplus of food and raw material, which could be used by miners and other workers. In contrast to modern societies, people in history at the same time were much more dependant on organic materials and their natural occurrence.

Apart from those more or less common statements the Dürrnberg Mountain on the edge of the Northern Alps offers unique possibilities in order to model prehistoric life. Due to the remark-able preservation circumstances in the iron-age salt mine on one hand and the continuous ar-chaeological activities of the last decades on the other, data from several different archaeologi-cal sides with varying preservation circumstances are available. The following contribution will inquire the supply situation of the miners based on the archaeobotanical material from the site, especially its nutritional aspects. In awareness that a complete reconstruction of the former situation is nearly impossible, different models will be questioned to limit the range of possi-bilities. Therefore common aspects like calorie requirement or area under cultivation should be related with the actual results of the excrement analysis from the ancient salt mine which al-ready offered interesting insights into the nutritional habits of a prehistoric community.


Hallstatt und Dürrnberg - zwei Salzbergewerke, zwei un-terschiedliche Fleischversorgungsstrukturen / Hallstatt and Dürrnberg - two salt-mining sites, two different meat supply strategies Erich Pucher1 1Natural History Museum Vienna, Archaeological-Zoological Collection

A decade ago the well preserved animal bone assemblages from Hallstatt-Salzberg and Dürrnberg-Ramsautal were analysed. Since then some further samples from Dürrnberg and from the Hallstatt salt-mines were studied as well. So the comparison between the meat supply and meat processing strategies of these important salt-mining sites in the Austrian Alps is now based on broad sample sizes.

The Late Bronze Age animal bone assemblage from Hallstatt is dominated by 60 % of pig bones concentrated to body parts with best amount of meat, whilst other parts – mainly scull and trunk – are almost missing. An exception is the baffling abundance of the rather worthless mandibles. The complete absence of butchering marks in most limb bones indicates that they were left articulated until the meat was processed further. Since the bones were discovered in the vicinity and even inside the well known log wall basins recently identified as pickling ba-sins, all facts point to a production of ham in a commercial scale. Environmental conditions in the narrow mountain valley as well as age and sex profiles exclude stock breeding at the site itself. Therefore it seems likely, that the pigs were raised and slaughtered by farmers some-where in the surrounding valleys. Scull, backbone and chest were cut out. Finally the remain-ing body parts were carried up to the mining site probably somehow fixed with their own man-dibles serving as transport hooks.

A recently discovered Late Bronze Age bone sample from Pichl in the Traun valley, probably attributable to a rural settlement, shows also a surprisingly high proportion of pig bones and gives a clue to the location of one of the specialized farming bases in the vicinity of Hallstatt. A similar high percentage of pig bones was previously recorded from the roughly contempo-rary Kelchalpe copper-mining site. It seems likely, that the supply by possibly salted pork was a widespread practice of the elaborate Late Bronze Age mining logistics.

A quite different situation was met in the Late Iron Age bone assemblages from the Dürrnberg containing a strikingly high proportion of cattle bones ranging between 65 and 80 %. Pig bones are far less abundant. The composition of all the yet analysed Dürrnberg samples of consider-able size is rather uniform. Compared to other bone assemblages the skeletal element represen-


tation is not unbalanced and slaughtering marks are omnipresent. So the conclusion seems appropriate that instead of dragging up body parts, cattle were driven up alive to the much better accessible Dürrnberg mining site were the animals were slaughtered and processed. Age and sex profiles support the assumption that cattle were raised in great numbers by the sur-rounding farmers to supply the extensive meat demand of the salt-mining industry, but always in accordance with their own economic interests in maintaining a mixed husbandry strategy.


Modeling a mine

Agentbased Modeling, Systemdynamics and Experimental Archaeology applied to the Bronze Age saltmines of Hall-statt Kerstin Kowarik1, Hans Reschreiter2 & Gabriel Wurzer3 1Natural History Museum Vienna, Prehistoric Department 2Natural History Museum Vienna, Department of Prehistory 3Vienna University of Technology, Institute of Architectural Sciences

Prehistoric as well as historic mining areas must be considered as “centres of consumption” yielding high demands concerning workforce, means of production and means of subsistence. Furthermore prehistoric mining complexes count among the most complex economic systems in prehistory.

This contribution argues for the combined use of computer based modeling techniques and Experimental Archaeology in order to analyse economic systems and consequently tackling questions concerning infrastructure and subsistence strategies. The potential of this approach will be demonstrated through the discussion of the data gained through modeling the bronze age mining complex of Hallstatt. Firstly the application of Agentbased Modeling (ABM) to the bronze age salt mines in Hallstatt and its results will be discussed. Then going one step further it will be demonstrated how those results can be used as a basis for more advanced modeling techniques on a higher scale such as a systems model of the entire salt-mining structure includ-ing its infrastructure network.

The application of ABM to the bronze age saltmines of Hallstatt has already yielded important results. Through ABM a tool allowing for extensive exploratory work with the existent ar-chaeological model has been created. Our results are promising, as we could correlate the out-put rate of the salt mine with the time span of active mining and the size of the work force. The data shows that exhausting the salt deposit took significantly less workforce and time than had been initially supposed. Important insights in the working and producing process have been gained. These results will be correlated with the demands concerning the means of production and means of subsistence.

"Once encoded a computer model can do what our limited imaginations do not permit: follow the implications of our ideas to find where they lead and, often, where they are inconsistent" (PREMO 2005 et al.: 11).


References

Premo, L. S.; Murphy, T. J.; Scholnick, J. B.; Gabler, B. M.; Beaver, J. M. (2005): Making a Case for Agent-Based Modeling. SAS Bulletin Fall. 11-12.

Talks Session VI:

Prehistoric Mining – Primary Production and Reflection in Landscape

Session VI: Prehistoric Mining – Primary Production and Reflection in Landscape 69

Stone axes, copper axes: mining, production and exchange networks in the Chalcolithic of Atlantic Europe William O´Brien1 (Keynote Talk) 1University College of Cork, Department of Archaeology

This paper examines the operation of regional lithic and metal production systems in Britain and Ireland during the third millennium BC, with reference to parallel developments elsewhere in Atlantic Europe. The large-scale supply of axeheads and other products is considered in relation to the use of specific raw material sources in different geological settings. The evi-dence from key mining and quarrying sites allows an understanding of the development of extraction and processing technology in different areas. The impact of metallurgy on estab-lished systems of lithic production is also explored. Finally, the spread of mining and metallur-gical expertise across Atlantic Europe in the mid-third millennium BC is examined, with par-ticular emphasis on the important role of Beaker exchange networks in the transmission of knowledge and the circulation of raw material and finished artifacts.

70 Session VI: Prehistoric Mining – Primary Production and Reflection in Landscape

Early Copper Mining in Western Europe Christian Groer1 1University of Münster, Historical Seminar, Department of Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology

The title „Early Copper Mining in Western Europe“ is a Master Thesis in Prehistoric Archae-ology finished 2006 at the University of Münster (Westphalia). It subsumes the published traces of copper mining from earliest times till the end of Bronze Age in Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, Great Britain and Ireland. First of all, the mining complexes, including the associated production sites and artefacts, were examined for the classical mining-engineering aspects, differentiating between older, simple technologies and younger, more complex ones, as has been emphasized for the technological development in the Mitterberg region. Furthermore, individual mining areas were characterized with regard to theories of mining districts and min-ing regions, concerning the connection of copper mines with contemporaneous archaeological sites and their integration in a regions´ cultural and socio-economic development. Finally, the interregional comparison of West-European copper-production centres showed certain trends in mining technology, organisation and economy. This progression culminated – and perhaps was centralized – in the Late Bronze Age mining district of Mitterberg. The paper will present an exemplified summary of this research.


Grotta della Monace: A Copper and Iron pre-protohistoric mine in the Calabria Region (Italy) Felice Larocca1 1University of Bari, Regional Center of Speleology "Enzo dei Medici"

The Grotta della Monaca is located in northern Tyrrhenian Calabria near an important pass called "Passo dello Scalone" (740 metres above sea level). It is a natural cave 355 metres long and 22 metres deep which developed in the limestones of the Trias. Its existence well-known since the nineteenth-century, the cave has become the subject of systematic archaeological excavations conducted by the Cattedra di Paletnologia (Prof. A. Geniola) of the University of Bari since the year 2000. The investigations carried out both in the so-called "Pregrotta" and in the deepest and farthest sectors from the surface confirm the existence of an ancient mine used for the exploitation of iron (goethite) and copper (malachite and azurite) ore. The intense ex-ploitation of these mineralizations is testified to by numerous lithic tools (in particular mallets and hammer-axe heads of dressed stone), the marks of these tools left on the walls and the presence of dry walls built along the narrowest sections with the aim of creating a wider space for people to work. The evidence of this mining exploitation seems to suggest a chronological timescale stretching between the Early Chalcolithic and the Middle Bronze Age, as the pottery recovered during the excavations and a series of radiocarbon dating attest.


Bronze Age copper mining - landscape conditions and land-use in the Eisenerzer Alps, Styria (Austria) Susanne Klemm1 1Austrian Academy of Science (ÖAW), Prehistoric Commission

In the Eastern Alps the smelting of copper ore was widely practised in the Bronze Age. Copper sulphides as well as fahlore were used for smelting. The Eisenerzer Alps are part of the eastern greywacke zone of the Eastern Alps and are very rich in copper and iron ore deposits which have been exploited since the Bronze Age. This is the only prehistoric copper mining area as yet identified in Styria.

The mountain range of the Eisenerzer Alps is situated between the rather wide valleys of the rivers Palten and Liesing in the south and the narrow valleys of the rivers Enns and Erzbach in the north as well as the valley of the Vordernbergerbach in the northeast. The highest moun-tains show a height between 2100 and over 2300 m above sea level. The geomorphology of the alpine landscape of the Eisenerzer Alps is characterized by Mesozoic and Palaeozoic rock layers. The northern part of the Eisenerzer Alps is part of the southern edge of the Northern Limestone Alps. Three small rivers cut in on the mountain range in this northern part: the Johnsbach (Johnsbach) in the west, the Haselbach and Stubbach (Radmer) in the middle and the Ramsaubach (Eisenerz) in the east, all three valleys showing a quite different landscape. The southern part of the mountain range of the Eisenerzer Alps, and with it several streams and rivers such as the Flitzenbach and the Teichenbach open to the wider valleys of the rivers Pal-ten and Liesing to the south.

Since the late 197ies archaeological research has discovered a number of potential prehistoric copper mining sites as well as more than 100 prehistoric copper smelting sites. Most of these sites were found in the northern and central area of the mountain range, at Johnsbach, Radmer and Eisenerz, a smaller number of sites are known from the Liesing and the Palten valleys. Permanent prehistoric settlements have only been discovered in the Palten valley and to the east and west of the mountain range.

Size and location of the archaeological sites, the various possibilities of access to the mining areas in the Eisenerzer Alps, and the possible connections between the settlements and the mining areas will be discussed.


Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Gold Mining in the Eastern Rhodopes (Bulgaria) Albrecht Jockenhövel1 & Hristo Popov2 1University of Münster, Historical Seminar, Department of Pre- and Protohistorical Archaeology 2Bulgarian Academy of Science, Institute of Archaeology, Department of Thracian Archaeology

The abundance of gold in prehistoric Bulgaria and adjacent regions is mostly associated with the numerous golden artefacts from the Early Copper Age cemetery of Varna. Gold finds from periods later, like Dăbene, Persinări (Romania), Vălčitran, Belene and Kazičene. Are given less attention. In ancient sources the wealth of gold of Old Tharce is depicted, archaeologically represented by numerous Iron Age grave goods. However, up until now we have not any hints of local gold extraction in that crucial area, neither of placer mining nor of mining on primary deposits. Therefore in 2008 a Bulgarian-German joint project started systematic researches on mining archaeology and archaeometallurgy. The field work took place in the eastern Rhodopes of southern Bulgaria in the district of Krumovgrad, where an ancient gold mine had been dis-covered on the hilltop of Ada Tepe only a few years ago. The excavations and prospections provided evidence of a large opencast and underground mining on the deposit at Ada Tepe with an exceptionally abundant gold content. Furthermore, in the vicinity new traces of ancient mining on gold and iron ore have been located. According to the datable finds the mining lasted from about 1500 B.C. to the Hellenistic Period (4th – 3rd century B.C.). The ongoing researches are intended to fix the chronology, to reconstruct the metallurgical “chaine opéra-toire” and to give us information about the cultural backgrounds and external contacts (espe-cially to the Aegean region) of this mining region. At present, Ada Tepe provides the oldest gold mining on primary deposits in Europe.


New evidence of archaeometallurgical activities during the Bronze Age in Trentino Franco Nicolis1 1Soprintendenza per i Beni Librari e Archeologici della Provincia Autonoma di Trento

In this paper we will present new evidence of archaeometallurgical activities coming from new research and excavations conducted by the Archaeological Service of the Autonomous Prov-ince of Trento during the last ten years.

It is well known that between the seventies and nineties of the last century, the research con-ducted by the Archaeological Service of the Autonomous Province of Trento, in cooperation with the Bergbaumuseum of Bochum (D) brought to light evidence of two phases of exploita-tion of the local copper ores (chalcopyrite) in prehistory, the first in the mid 3rd millennium BC, the second between 14th and 11th century BC.

The total lack of evidence of mining activities during the central part of the 2nd millennium BC is now debated after the recent discoveries in the settlement and cult area (burial mounds) of Gardolo di Mezzo in the Adige Valley.

Other research and excavations have been conducted on smelting sites, some of them are partly already known, located in mountain areas in the eastern part of the Trentino region and dated to the Late Bronze Age: Luserna – Pletz von Mozze, Segonzano and Transacqua.

Moreover, systematic quantitative and qualitative analyses on slag have been activated in co-operation with the Geosciences Department of the University of Padua, as well as an experi-mental research.


Changing subsistence structures and the origins of mining in the Ligurian Apennine mountains Roberto Maggi1 & Mark Pearce2 1Regional Directorate of Archaeology and Landscape of Liguria 2University of Nottingham, Department of Archaeology

The final Neolithic (early fourth millennium cal BC) sees a number of major changes in the subsistence economy of Liguria, north-west Italy: the mountains in fact are quite literally opened up – through forest clearance – for resource use. Upland pastures are created for short-range, summer, transhumance but this change in subsistence strategy also leads to the discov-ery and exploitation of new mineral resources: the quarrying of chert (Valle Lagorara, Mais-sana (SP)) and the mining of copper ore (Libiola, Sestri Levante (GE) and Monte Loreto, Cas-tiglione Chiavarese (GE)). These resources are located away from the settled coastal strip, in the mountainous interior.

We shall argue that the pastoralists of Chassey, moving east in search of new resources, ex-plored the uplands of Liguria for new pastures. This activity led to the discovery of new min-eral resources in the mountainous interior and the more productive pastoral economy permitted the exploitation of the copper ore and chert resources

The link between metallurgy and pastoralists is a topos of the archaeological literature, but Gordon Childe’s classic model may in fact offer an explanation for the beginnings of metal-lurgy, at least in the north west of Italy, in Liguria.


The discovery and exploitation of metal ores within upland areas of Western Britain during the Bronze Age – some lessons learnt from fieldwork, archaeological excavation, and experimental archaeometallurgy Simon Timberlake1

1University of Cambridge, Department of Archaeology, Early Mines Research Group

A better understanding of why some mineral vein outcrops were being exploited, and others not, can only be gained through knowledge of the ores being sought, and any changes in this practice over time. For example, the transition from an oxide to sulphide metallurgy might well have been the inadvertent result of the earliest miners working down through the surface zones of weathered and oxidised galena-chalcopyrite ore bodies. Such a phenomenon might also be linked to the first use of leaded bronze.

Compositional analysis of the mine spoil and finely divided crushed detritus associated with anvil stones recovered during excavation can inform us what minerals were being extracted, and sometimes also from what geological horizon or location within the early mine workings these residues came. Undertaking experimental archaeometallurgy on these same ores provides a further insight into the sort of metal - producing pathway followed, and perhaps also the probable primary composition of metal we should be looking at, prior to re-melting, mixing, alloying, and re-cycling.

An environmentally deterministic model for prospection and mining is suggested, one which is also examined in the context of alluviation and the water and air-borne dispersal of trace heavy metals, the latter picked up in cores taken from ombrotrophic peat mires located close to the areas of mining.


Neolithic and Copper Age flint mining in Europe: its im-pact on the early farming communities and reflection in the landscape Jacek Lech1 1Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology

The systematic exploitation of siliceous rock deposits such as flints, cherts, hornstones, radio-larites, and obsidian played an important role in the culture of Stone and Copper Age commu-nities. Prehistoric mining of these rocks began in the Palaeolithic and in Europe continued into the beginnings of the Iron Age. In the Neolithic and in the Copper Age, together with the rise in populations, development of permanent settlement and early farming economies, it attained its most spectacular forms. The demand for long blades and flint axe-heads stimulated the development of mining. Often there was a demand for artifacts made from a particular sili-ceous rock deposit. The largest mining fields, the deepest shafts, the most extensive workings underground and chipping floors on the surface, as well as the most developed systems of distribution of raw materials arose in those times.

Flint mining in the Stone and Copper Ages took various forms, ranging from the systematic gathering of nodules from coastal beaches (Denmark and the British Isles), to the exploitation of weathering and moraine clays (shallow pits and open shafts running several metres deep), to shafts sunk through Cretaceous or calcareous rocks to underground seams of raw material. Underground mining was known since the early Neolithic in Italy – the Defensola A mine from the Gargano Promontory. Some of the shafts at Spiennes (Belgium) were dug down to a depth of 15-16 meters. They were narrow, at most 1-1.5 meters wide. The area of underground ex-ploitation is estimated to have been 40-50 sqaure meters. The shafts at Grimes Graves (East England) reached a depth of up to 13 meters and widths of 10 meters. The flint was mined from the gallery floors; the longest of them running 16 meters. At Krzemionki Opatowskie (central Poland), some of the deposits were exploited using an advanced chamber method, unknown at other European mines.

An analysis of the production debris from two chipping-floors at the flint mine at Sąspów near Cracow has shown that some 3500-4000 flint blades – around 100 kg of flint – were taken away from each workshop. The largest chipping-floor studied so far at the Grimes Graves mine evidenced 250,000 waste flint fragments, flakes and chips weighing 1220 kg, and proved to be the outcome of producing several hundred axe and adze blades, and discoidal knives. The flint so obtained, usually in processed form, was an attractive commodity exchanged between set-tlements and regions, sometimes in multiple directions and covering long distances of up to


several hundred kilometers. The mines were located at various distances from the settlements of the communities which exploited them. Some settlements dealt with processing of siliceous rocks (settlements of producers), most of them were settlements of users. They reflect division of labour among communities in the process of siliceous rock supply. In some cases it is possi-ble to confirm an independent supply for particular settlements, when expeditions were organ-ized to the mines for flint extraction. But the most important mechanism in the distribution was that of exchange. The exchange had always a social context, but often was also important eco-nomically. In some places in Europe, such as Grimes Graves, Rijckholt-St. Geertruid in the Netherlands, and Krzemionki Opatowskie, changes in the primeval landscape caused by Neo-lithic and Copper Age flint mining are still evident today, several thousand years after mining ceased there.


Early chert mining in the middle Danubian Area Gerhard Trnka1 1University of Vienna, Institute of Pre- and Protohistory


Copper and Salt – Mining communities in the Alpine Metal Ages Thomas Stöllner1,2 1German Mining-Museum (DBM), Bochum 2University of Bochum (RUB), Institute of Archaeological Science

The ongoing research of the last fifty years has revealed a lot of substantial results that allow us to conclude the organisational and economical pattern of the Alpine Mining communities in the 2nd and the 1st millennium BC. The whole development now can be understood us a techno-logical and economical longue durèe in the sense of F. Braudel. From the 17th century BC onwards we have evidence for the ongoing settling of small groups getting continuously spe-cialized on mining as the backbone of their substance strategies. While in the period of the late third and the beginning of second millennium mining was carried out most probably on the basis of seasonal expeditions, then a higher efficiency and stability can be observed (settle-ments, local and regional relations to ore deposits). During time these mining communities have gained a higher stability that allowed the establishment of larger settlements and the in-clusion even of peripheral ore districts into the production mode. During the 14th till the 10th century the large mining districts in the Tyrol and Salzburg did reach substantial depths in underground workings and a high technological and organisational standard. It is therefore not by mere chance that these communities also started to mine the most complicate salt deposits in Hallstatt. New results show us that salt exploitation may have had also its forerunners in salt brine manufacturing (Hall, Unken), but in the light of recent results in Hallstatt it seems to be a planed and large scale enterprise from the beginning. Salt and copper reached therefore a high level of production in the older Urnfield period. Not so clear is the continuation of this produc-tion level till the Early Iron Age: While the Copper mining has fallen back to a more regional scale production and have been nearly ceased in the second half of the 1st mill. BC, we see the opposite with the salt production in Hallstatt and Hallein. Although there had been ongoing problems with land-slides and smaller production’s reductions there is no doubt that salt had become the economic leading product in the Iron Age phases of the Eastern Alpine mining.

Talks Session IX:

Documentation of Archaeological Excavations and GIS-supported Integrative Data Management

Session IX: Documentation of Archaeological Excavations and GIS-supported Integrative Data Management 83

What Is the Use of Ontologies Concerning Organizing Data in Multidisciplinary Projects? Andrew Frank1 (Keynote Talk) 1Tecnical University of Vienna, Institute of Geoinformation

Ontologies are formal descriptions of concepts that occur when using computers. Ontologies describe things and operations that can be applied to ontologies. They can help to connect people and their perceptions of reality with each other through organized concepts of the com-puter.

The presented ontology distinguishes between simple observations and put together objects that the observer models. Operations mediate between different concepts in a traceable way. Second, observed physical objects and social constructed meaning of such objects are differen-tiated in a certain context.

Central task of multidisciplinary projects is to explain and declare concepts and the connec-tions of concepts of different disciplines. Ontologies and their according tools can clarify and interpret the differences between words in context of multidisciplinary use but in a cursory familiar context such words appear to have the same meaning. The configuration of the central database in which results of disciplines are allocated follows in a reusable way from the formal ontology.

Session IX: Documentation of Archaeological Excavations and 84 GIS-supported Integrative Data Management

The CIDOC CRM: a standard for integration in multi-disciplinary archaeological projects Stephen Stead1,2 1Paveprime Ltd and CIDOC CRM Special Interest Group

This presentation will introduce the audience to the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model, a core ontology and ISO standard (ISO 21127) for the semantic integration of cultural informa-tion with library, archive and other information. The CIDOC CRM concentrates on the defini-tion of relationships, rather than classes, in order to capture the underlying semantics of multi-ple data and meta-data structures. This leads to a compact model of 86 classes and 137 rela-tionships, that is easy to comprehend and suitable to serve as a basis for mediation of cultural and other information and thereby provide the semantic 'glue' needed to transform today’s disparate, localized information sources into a coherent and valuable global resource. It com-prises the concepts characteristically found in most museum, archive and library documenta-tion.

The presentation introduces the basic principles of the CRM. From this it should be possible to understand the potential of applying the CRM. The CRM allows information integration by employing a core ontology of relationships, in contrast to the prescription of a common data format. This approach is particularly applicable to multi-disciplinary projects where different common practices make a common data format a practical impossibility.


GIS supported implementation of ontology based data management for multidisciplinary research Gerald Hiebel1 & Klaus Hanke1 1University of Innsbruck, Surveying and Geoinformation Unit

Within the multidisciplinary project HiMAT ten disciplines from both humanities and natural sciences are working on the common goal to increase the knowledge on mining in historic and prehistoric times. Organized in 14 project parts, four of which are archeological, there is a diversity of concepts, scientific methods and heterogeneous data. With the help of a formal Ontology the concepts of different disciplines can be integrated. On the one hand very basic concepts to model reality are needed, but on the other hand there has to be the possibility for differentiation and complexity within the model. An object orientated, semantic data model is one of the modern approaches to handle this dilemma. In our case the CIDOC CRM (ISO stan-dard since 2006) was chosen as appropriate ontology. It has been developed for knowledge representation in the domain of cultural heritage, provides the core concepts to deal with the scope of this project and is extensible to deal with the special needs of every project part.

Out of the CIDOC CRM ten classes with subclasses and relevant properties were selected to represent the information that should be exchanged within the project HiMAT. An eleventh class is employed to represent a common list of terms to be used within HiMAT, organized in a hierarchical thesaurus. The upper levels in the hierarchy of terms are the ten HiMAT main classes. The thesaurus is expected to be extended as the project develops and represents the extension of the CIDOC CRM for the special needs of the HiMAT project.

The implementation of this ontology based data structure consists of content management system(CMS), a database and a GIS.

The CMS is used to store all kinds of digital resources (PDFs, images, audio files,…) and makes these information objects accessible to all project parts. Another purpose of the CMS is the coordination of research activities and meetings through calendar functionalities. Informa-tion objects and research activities can be related to places, people, physical things or terms of the thesaurus and exported to a database that contains places with their spatial coordinates. Within the database the data that has been entered in the CMS is stored in a structure that cor-responds to the data model of the ontology. This data structure is not suitable for direct presen-tation to a user and has to be put in a format that can be used in tabular views or GIS maps. Geobasedata as topographical maps, historical maps, ortho images or digital terrain models can be used as background layers either in a desktop GIS or a Web GIS. Web map services provide


these layers. GIS is used for visualization, spatial data entry or editing, geographical data analysis and map production.

CMS, database and GIS are available through Web interfaces and work with centrally stored data. This infrastructure provides a powerful tool for multidisciplinary research and presenta-tion of results of this research.


Close range terrestrial laser scanning and photogrammetry for the 3D-documentation of the Bronze Age cave “Les Fraux” in Perigord (France) Pierre Grussenmeyer1, B. Cazalet1, A. Burens2 & L. Carozza3 1Graduate School of Science and Technology (INSA), Photogrammetry and Geomatics Group, Strasbourg 2University of Montpellier, Archaeology of the Mediterranean area 3Laboratory of Geography and Environment, Toulouse

The Bronze Age cave “Les Fraux” at Saint-Martin-de-Fressengeas (Dordogne, France) has been discovered in 1989. This site made of a network of galleries of several hundred meters is a field of investigation for several researchers. This paper will focus on three-dimensional contact free measurement techniques for a full 3D-documentation of the whole structural ele-ments of the cave with some focus on cave art details. Most of the art is etched in the clayey and follows linear, schematic and geometric designs. There are indeed several manmade depic-tions on the walls and other valuable remains of activity all around the cave.

For the archaeologists, the documentation and recording started in 2008 should:

- contribute in the accurate indexing of the surveys and images of the remains, collections as well as structural elements and sculptures;

- guaranty the indexing compatibility of the data between the different groups of researchers involved in the excavation;

- ensure the georeferencing of any type of object in the different parts of the cave

Different techniques based on Terrestrial Laser Scanning (FARO Photon 80), Digital Photo-grammetry (CANON Eos 5D images), Spatial Imaging System (Trimble VX) have been used and will be compared in the paper. The aim of the documentation work is to generate a geomet-ric and photorealistic 3D model from the combination of point clouds and photogrammetric images for both visualization and accurate documentation purposes. The underground tunnels of the cave are linked to the above terrain with surveying techniques allowing accurate geo-referencing. The workflow from the raw data to the final PDF-3D model will be discussed. Emphasis will be given to the deliverables as the huge amount of data is not directly usable by the archaeologists.


3D Laser Scanner Documentation of prehistoric tunnels at Hallstatt – Grünerwerk Erich Nau1, Wolfgang Neubauer1 & Hans Reschreiter2 1University of Vienna, VIAS-Vienna Institute for Archaeological Science 2Natural History Museum Vienna, Department of Prehistory

During the 1980s and 90s the Bronze Age salt mining site of Hallstatt – Grünerwerk was the main focus of excavations of the Natural History Museum Vienna. Important results concern-ing the construction of Bronze Age salt mines and the mining technique could be achieved. The site Grünerwerk is part of the oldest prehistoric mine at Hallstatt. Large areas of the original prehistoric mining surfaces with preserved tool marks have been uncovered. The excavations were finished in the 1990s, but still the Grünerwerk is one of the most important sites at Hall-statt. By the reason of the pressure of the mountain and by safety reasons only parts of the excavation area can be preserved for future generations. To acquire as many data as possible, before important features become deformed or even destroyed, the whole site should be docu-mented very accurately using latest techniques.

For this project we used a terrestrial 3D Laser Scanner RIEGL LMS Z420i. The hybrid sensor combines a laser scanner and a calibrated and orientated digital camera (Nikon D100) and provides scan and image data. This data can be automatically or semi-automatically processed in RISCAN PRO to generate products such as coloured point clouds, DTM´s, textured triangu-lated surfaces or orthophotos with depth information. Due to the fact that in the mine artificial light had to be used, the illumination of the images differed in every single scan position. Thus image acquisition has been carried out using an external digital camera (Nikon D200) as well, external images have to be registered separately using RISCAN PRO. The entire data acquisi-tion at Hallstatt – Grünerwerk was done during 3 days by taking scans and images from 31 different scanner positions and about 250 external photographs. The scan data was registered in a common coordinate system and geo-referenced to the national coordinate system. Thus it was necessary to set up an array of control points (retro-reflective cylinders and discs) for the regis-tering of the total-station in the national coordinate system, which have been measured using a Leica TPS1200. Main problems using the laser scanner in the mines were the lack of space and the use of artificial light.

As results we can present 3D visualizations using the highly accurate point clouds and triangu-lated and textured surfaces. Data acquired during the excavations in the 1990s using a total-station can be joined with the scan data to complete the model with areas that are not accessible anymore today. Accurately textured surface can be the basis for 3D measurements with resolu-tions and accuracy exceeding the resolution of the scan data.


The Harris Matrix composer – a new tool to manage ar-chaeological stratigraphy Wolfgang Neubauer1 & Christof Traxler2 1University of Vienna, VIAS-Vienna Institute for Archaeological Science 2Vienna University of Technology, ICGA – Institute of Computer Graphics and Algorithms

The Harris Matrix - formulated by Dr. Edward C. Harris in 1973 - is the established way of representing the archaeological stratigraphy of an excavation. The Harris Matrix is a sequential diagram defining relations between stratigraphic units. It is an important method to document the stratification that is destroyed by the excavation process and hence a vital tool for analysis. Although the Harris Matrix has become a quasi standard of archaeological stratigraphy, only a few software tools exist to create and edit these diagrams. An evaluation of these tools showed that they do not completely comply with the theory or suffer from poor usability. Therefore we decided to develop a new application, called Harris Matrix Composer (HMC). Dr. Harris was involved in the evaluation of early prototypes to guarantee compliance with his theory. User tests were undertaken to address usability problems. The HMC provides a graph editor with an intuitive graphical user interface for editing a Harris Matrix throughout the entire excavation process. It supports valid Harris Matrix creation and indicates invalid units and relations. The theory has been extended to allow for temporal relations as well. Furthermore units can be grouped into structural entities called phases and into periods, assigning them to a historical epoch. A powerful interface to the GIS system ArcGIS will be developed to access layers for visualization and analysis by selecting units of the Harris Matrix. In this way the HMC be-comes also a unique tool for the management and retrieval of digital archaeological data.


GIS-based documentation of stratigraphic excavations us-ing terrestrial laser scanners Michael Doneus1 & Wolfgang Neubauer2 1University of Vienna, Institute of Pre- and Protohistory 2University of Vienna, VIAS-Vienna Institute for Archaeological Science

Beside the creation of a stratigraphic sequence (Harris matrix) the stratigraphic excavation method is based on the recording of every single unit of stratification (i.e. deposits and sur-faces) as a primary object in its own right. As GIS provides the ability to store, visualise and analyse graphical information in combination with descriptive information it is a perfect tool for the digital recording of stratigraphic excavations.

To be able to fully reconstruct the part of the site destroyed by excavating, the surfaces of the excavated deposits have to be fully documented in 3D ("single surface planning").During the last years we developed a GIS based procedure for the digital documentation of stratigraphic excavations. Every single surface is photographed using a digital camera and rectified on site. The boundary polygon, the topography and the location of finds are recorded using total sta-tions.

The outstanding importance of 3D single-surface recording for the stratigraphic record encour-ages the use of high resolution 3D laser scanners combined with digital imagery. They provide high detail and accuracy for the documentation of stratigraphic surfaces. All data are imported into a ArcView GIS, where the georeferenced data are immediately available for further on-site analysis. Import, terrain modelling, and contouring, of the surfaces is automated by the devel-oped extension ArcDig 1.1. Further modules of the extension allow to calculate cross sections along arbitrary defined lines and to calculate the volume of any deposit. All additional attribut-able data as descriptions of surfaces and deposits, the find database etc. are integrated in the GIS for further analysis of the data. The creation of the stratigraphic matrix is done using ArchEd so far without interfacing to the GIS.


3D recording at the stratigraphic excavation of Steinabrunn, Austria Petra Schneidhofer1 1University of Vienna, VIAS-Vienna Institute for Archaeological Science

In autumn 2005, a team of the Vienna Institute of Archaeological Science (VIAS) and students of the institute of pre- and protohistory of the University of Vienna excavated a section of the settlement structures that surround the Neolithic ring ditch system of Steinabrunn. The chosen area showed strong magnetic anomalies that seemed to be worthwhile for an archaeological excavation. The research questions referred to the chronological position of the settlement, consequently its connection towards the ring ditch system as well as its preservation status. The excavation itself pursued a stratigraphic and interdisciplinary approach including geophysics, sedimentology, archaeobotany and archaeozoology.

A second focus was laid on the methodological procedures of archaeological fieldwork. The nature of the site offered an ideal testing ground for the use of modern technologies allowing a complete digital single surface documentation using a total station and a 3D laser scanner in combination with a digital camera.

In many cases, an excavation is the only possibility to gain archaeological data significant enough for the extensive understanding of an archaeological site. Thereby, the process of iden-tifying different stratigraphic units, retracing past activities and linking events to a broader sense always means interpretation. But excavating also stands for the intentional destruction of any archaeological stratification. Therefore, documentation methods that allow a future reas-sessment of any interpretation made are of particular importance.

By recording every stratigraphic unit as a 3D volume consistent of single surfaces it becomes possible to reconstruct the complete stratification unit per unit and to visualize it within a Geo-graphic Information System.

This paper gives a short overview about the middle Neolithic site Steinabrunn and presents the preliminary results of the excavation of section 3 by stressing the use of 3D digital single sur-face recording and its entailing procedures. Furthermore, it illustrates the use of GIS-applications during the excavation process as well as part of the post excavation analyses.


imdas pro 4.0 - Presentation of Cultural Data in Modern Design Silvia Russegger1 & Herwig Zeiner1 1Joanneum Research, Institute of Information Systems & Information Management

Archive and collection management systems based on information technologies are nowadays widely in use and have proven to provide valuable support for the management of objects in the cultural heritage domain. After several years of data entry into various databases it is now possible and important for cultural institutions to go ahead and make real use of these data. Using the Internet and the world-wide-web as one of the most important channels to provide access to these objects - next to their physical presentation in museums and archives – is one of the best possibilities to make use of direct connections between the databases holding the sci-entific description of all objects and their public, visitor centred presentation on web sites. To make use of these direct connections offers the opportunity to present background information as well – for instance by publishing ordinary user to manage collection objects together with geographical information and to publish information about objects on the Web.

In this paper, we discuss the technical possibilities and their implications to modern collection management systems provided by modern Web technologies and also how to integrate geo-graphical information to such integrated solutions. Based on a concrete example, we will dem-onstrate how easily it is possible to bring static data to life in imdas pro by using spatial infor-mation. In particular, this paper describes our IMDAS-GIS component. It is a desktop applica-tion for using, visualizing and sharing spatial content. This application lets you easily access and use a various geo-spatial services such as OGC WMS and WFS services, Microsoft Virtual Earth, Google KML/KMZ files, and ESRI shape files. A key feature is that it lets you create and handle your own geospatial notes with text and even geo-tagged pictures. IMDAS-GIS can be seen as a desktop mash-up environment which integrates various geospatial data resources into standardized models of various archives and museums collections. Such geospatial mash-ups on the desktop can dramatically decreases data costs for their applications by using a vari-ety of pre-developed standardized geospatial services and various available Web APIs.

Talks Session II:

Mining and Settlement in Pre-Modern Times

Session II: Mining and Settlement in Pre-Modern Times 95

Good Fortune or Curse: the effect of mining development on host communities Roger Burt1 (Keynote Talk) 1University of Exeter, History Department, School of Humanities and Social Studies

The impact of mining on host communities remains much the same across time and place - it brings benefits and challenges - creates and destroys - produces fundamental changes but offers no permanence. Local economies boom and bust - societies and cultures are transformed with no prospect of restitution. The effects might be ameliorated by careful planning and regulation but the final outcomes are always a transformed economic, social, cultural and natural envi-ronment. The only major variables are the degrees of change and the balance of cost and bene-fits for those that were there at the beginning and the end of the process. This paper will review the principal changes cause by mining development on local demographic structures, agricul-tural and industrial activity, transport system, labour organisation, external economic and social relationships. It will review the consequences of change for environmental health and cultural coherence and consider the wider implications of mineral development for the national econ-omy and the political structure of the state. The focus will be on mining development in pre-industrial societies but will also embrace more recent examples of development.

96 Session II: Mining and Settlement in Pre-Modern Times

Mining, rural settlement and tax system in Roman Spain Almudena Orejas1 & F.-Javier Sánchez-Palencia1 1Center of Human Science and Society, Institute of History – CSIC Spanish National Research Council

Between the end of the 2nd Century BC and the beginning of the 3rd Century AD the Roman State created and maintained a system of mineral resource exploitation. The variety of metals extracted, the different geo-technical conditions and the varying degrees of richness and strate-gic interest of the sites result in a rich panorama which has translated into a multitude of mor-phological and archaeological studies of those mining areas.

Starting in the 1980s more attention has been paid to the historical, chronological and geo-political context of Hispanic mining. Studies of mines have given way to studies of ancient mining areas in which issues –including morphological, technological and geo-morphological ones– are researched within their socio-political context. This implies, on the one hand, a de-tailed knowledge of local communities linked to mining (as workforce, as coordinators, etc.) as well as the characteristics of the pre-existing communities so as to understand the changes brought about by Roman activity. On the other hand, analysing the motivations behind Rome’s interests in mineral resources (taxes, direct control of exploitation, etc.), and how they deter-mined when mines were exploited privately or made public (as ager publicus). The strategy behind this production varied with time and as Late Republican provincial policy was trans-formed into Imperial priorities. In any case, and through a variety of solutions, the benefits of mining exploitation were channelled through the tributary system, which also served to garner and manage the workforce needed.


Mining towns in the Upper-Harz District: Foundation, Structure and Development Christoph Bartels1 1German Mining-Museum (DBM), Bochum

The region of the north-western Harz Mountains, the so-called "Upper Harz", was one of the most important pre-industrial ore-mining districts in Germany. Mining activities started most likely as early as Bronce-Age; a first peak of productive activities was reached in early medi-aeval times. During the 12th and 13th centuries a real boom of European dimension developed, followed by a decline in the first half of the 14th century which ended in a collapse of the min-ing activities around 1360. The mediaeval settlements in the Harz Hills were abandoned for more than 150 years.

New activities did start with the beginning of the 16th century, and were closely connected to the development of early modern territorial states under the command of the high house of the Guelfe dynasty in northern Germany. Mining and metal production now largely based the state's finances. The guelfe-dukes created a district exclusively dedicated to mining and metal production when reactivating this branch of production in their territories. In a systematic proc-ess the seven Upper-Harz mining towns were founded by the dukes and their administration respectively, and from the beginning the overall administration of the whole region was over-taken by the mining administration. Until the middle of the 19th century the town governments did execute a system of privileges in favour of the miners, of the personnel of the smelting factories and of all the handicrafts and branches of production supplying mines and smelting sites with necessary equipment and services. Agriculture, pasturing and forestry were only allowed as far as these branches functioned in supporting mining and metal production. The forestal economy as well as the water resources of the region were exclusively dedicated to the operations of mining and smelting.

Foundation and privileging of the mining settlements and their inhabitants aimed to attract qualified miners and smelters during the European boom of mining of the 16th century. In many European mining districts the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) set an end to the boom, followed by a long period of stagnation. But due to special structures of the Upper Harz depos-its and new technical developments this mining district and its settlements did reach a new and unique period of prosperity: From the 1630ies on the Harz district became a European centre of silver- lead- and copper production, which reached its peak around 1725. The Upper Harz mining towns and their upper classes became wealthy and influential, while the mine workers were exposed to a process of pauperisation and social decline, especially when a new period of decline began around 1730. The introduction of industrial methods and technology after 1750


initiated a new period of prosperity, and in the 19th century the mining towns of the Harz were considered to be on top of European developments and at the same time a sort of independent "mining state" as it was called from the 1770ies on.


„Labour market in mining“ – a useful term in pre-industrial times? Angelika Westermann1 1University of Kiel, Historical Seminar

If labour markets at a special time, in a special region and depending on a special product, are described as places where supply and demand of labour were met on the basis of wage depend-ency, it is obvious that this term can only be used with restriction in pre-industrial times. So far, research on labour-markets in early modern times is still a dead spot in mining-history. There is no doubt that characteristic elements of mining such as the migration of workers in mining and smelting, seasonal and temporary demands for highly specialized labour as well as the enlargement of the workforce since the end of the 15th century – due to the development of large firms in the main mining-centres of Europe – constitute pre-modern labour market condi-tions. A reflection on the term “labour market in mining”, its applicability, and its characteris-tic elements in early modern mining regions shall provide a new basis for more systematic analysis in the future.


Social interrelations in an Early Modern Mining Area: Marriage Patterns in the Greater Schwaz Area Marina Hilber1 1University of Innsbruck, Institute of History and Ethnology

The topic of marriage and social interactions between members of the Schwaz mining commu-nity and the surrounding rural population has so far not been focused on. Due to major archival losses we cannot reconstruct the settlement of Schwaz itself but try to do so for two rural par-ishes in the Greater Schwaz area. The main sources for this historic demographic study are the church records of the parish of St. Margarethen (including the villages Gallzein, Buch, Mau-rach) and the parish of Pill, which document the population movement from the mid-17th cen-tury to the present. Our focus lies on the period from the beginning of records to the ultimate decline in mining activities in the mid-19th century. This paper aims at examining the extent to which, the seemingly separate communities of miners and peasants, intermingled. On the basis of mean age at first marriage; the specific extent of the geographical marriage horizons and analyses regarding social class; occupation and economic status of both bride and groom, we shall discuss whether the mining communities’ marriage patterns differed noticeably from those of their rural counterparts. An in-depth analysis of the listed witnesses of the marriage may also give insight into the social and economic distribution of status in these communities.

Talks Session VIII:

Lenguage and Culture

Session VIII: Language and Culture 103

“Rudnicha”, “Zelesna”, “Ferraires”, “Mons metallicus”, “Arziperge” …. – what else? A cultural-historical survey on toponyms as witnesses of mining activities in Austria Isolde Hausner1 (Keynote Talk) 1Austrian Academy of Science (ÖAW), Institute of Lexicography of Austrian Dialects and Names (DI-NAMLEX)

Austria has a long tradition in mining and in processing minerals, ranging from prehistoric times up to the present. In the Middle Ages mining in our Alpine regions reached worldwide significance, be it the so called “Tauerngold” in the mountain range Hohe Tauern or the silver and copper mines, which were exploited by the Fugger dynasty in Schwaz in Tyrol. Nearly all Provinces of Austria have their own specific history in mining activities. The mining industry has created various denominations for the special working areas and in this respect has handed down its traces in the toponymy of our Alpine regions. Toponyms often pave the way for the knowledge of historic mining sites which have fallen into oblivion or are not more in the memory of the inhabitants. The toponyms enclose village names as well as field names, mountain names and hydronyms, but also family names were coined in connection with mining activities. In this respect these names deserve to be regarded as part of our cultural heritage. Austria hosts a vast number of toponyms composed with the denominating word “Knappen-” (miner), such as Knappenberg (PB Sankt Veit an der Glan, PB Neunkirchen), Knappenböden (PB Reutte), Knappenhof (PB Schwaz; PB Kirchdorf an der Krems), Knappenspitze (PB Lienz), and many more. The village Blahberg in the Enns valley near Admont gives evidence of a Middle Age iron melt (mhg. blâen “ore, iron melting”), and nearby the southern contribu-tor to the Enns is the Knappengraben. The well-known inn Alter Pocher in the valley Kleine Fleiß (PB Spittal an der Drau; mhg. pochen swv. “crush [rocks]“) in the mountain range Hohe Tauern has its roots in a former stamp mill, two left side contributors to the river Klein-fleißbach are the Schwemmbäche. Mountains above are the Goldzechscharte (2857 m) and the Goldzechkopf (3042 m), pointing to a former gold mine in this area. Settlement names Hall (PB Liezen; PB Innsbruck-Land; PB Zell am See), Hallein (PB Hallein) are witnesses of pre-historic salt depots and the farm name Soderbauer near Lofer (PB Zell am See) derives its name from the mhg. sôt which means “salt spring”. The most precious metal is and was gold, the famous castle Goldegg (PB Sankt Johann im Pongau) in the Province of Salzburg bears this etymon. In the 19th century arsenic was used as a stimulans by the hard working miners, in the German language known as (mhg.) hütterauch, which is still preserved in the very rare family name Hüttenrauch.

104 Session VIII: Language and Culture

The language of coal mines in the north of France. Origin and evolution.

A social and cultural approach Béatrice Turpin1 1University of Cergy-Pontoise, Research Center of French text an Language (pôle LaSCoD)

Our study will be about the formation of the language of coal mines in the “Black Crescent” which stretches from the Belgian Hainaut to the Nord / Pas-de-Calais in France. We will show that many words have travelled from east to west with the expansion of coal exploitation and that a number of terms came from rural life and from various activities connected to the mine (building, carpentry, metallurgy, railways). Some of these terms, the oldest ones, in particular those which came from the area of Liege, where the first European exploitation appeared, have now a place in the official French nomenclature. This linguistic unification was allowed by the centralisation of the organisation of mines in France in the middle of the 18th century and by the creation of a mining school at first installed in Paris, then on two sites during the First French Empire (in the Sarre department and at Peisey in Savoie). After the fall of Bonaparte, it was returned to Paris, and has remained there to this day.

Beside this unifying tendency of social “intercourse” communication we find a differenciating tendency of regionalism, with a different way of speaking from region to region, sometimes even from shafts to shafts, influenced by local speech and stemming from the linguistic creativ-ity of workers.

We will show, with examples taken from these lexical creations of the “Black Crescent”, that this is a form of onomasiological creativity, using mainly semantic or phonetic associations rising from a concept. This vocabulary, in which metaphor is prevailing, answers a need for accuracy in the working practice and reflects a social imagination attached to this trade.

We intend more particularly to study this imaginative ability by comparing the representations conveyed by this speech in Belgian Borinage, where the first miners came from, with those expressed in the Nord / Pas-de-Calais. Through similarities and differences, these representa-tions refer less to a process of influence than to a collective social imagination specific to the mine, the study of which could be extended to other mining countries.

Session VIII: Language and Culture 105

Project "BergMannsBilder" - Construction of Work Ethic and Mining Identity in Western Harz Region Ulrich Reiff1 1University of Göttingen, Department for Cultural Anthropology and European Ethnology

While active mining industry in Central Europe is declining, cultural landscapes remain in former mining regions that were characterised over generations by mining and its social envi-ronment. In an enduring process typical mining traditions develop increasingly independent from their actual material basis – the mining. Since the 19th century especially the elder folk-life studies saw in each mining tradition a track to the origin of mining in the Middle Ages or in the early modern period. A social romantic view on the corporative miner became as funda-mental as common for this perspective. It still lives on in modern practices dealing with work ethic and mining identity in museums, festivities or associations. Today "mining culture with-out mining industry" is shifting from traditional miners associations to congregations of mining fans – both with their very special "fan culture".

Under the working title "BergMannsBilder" about twenty students of the Department for Cul-tural Anthropology / European Ethnology at Göttingen University examine this subject during two terms in 2008 and 2009. In close cooperation with the World Heritage RAMMELSBERG Mining Museum Goslar their research interest focuses on images of “the miner” and its past and present meaning in language and culture. Manifestations of self-dramatisation of miners belong as well to their subject as the external view on the miner in mass media, tourist market-ing or on the internet. Four research groups examine with socio-historical and ethnographic methods the following range of topics:

1. "Folklore Artists (Heimatkünstler) and Harz Miners"

2. "Mining Festivity and Miners in Folklore Movement (Heimatbewegung)"

3. "Miners Associations and Mining Enthusiasts today"

4. "Public Representations of Mining Culture".

First results of the project suggest the assumption to view on the recurring phases of crisis and transformation not as an extraordinary appearance but as a typical hallmark of both active and former mining areas. Therefore pretended folk memory and especially supposed folk traditions have to be considered with maximum scepticism. Instead of ominous and imagined medieval roots of ancient traditions, cultural anthropology can denominate specific economic, social and cultural moments of change during the last two centuries as determinants for "invented tradi-tions" in mining culture.

Talks Session VII:

Mining Archaeology: The Early History to Early Modern Mining

Session VII: Mining Archaeology: The Early History to Early Modern Mining 109

Mining practice in medieval Muslim Spain Studying networks in cross-ethnical context Constantine Canavas1 (Keynote Talk) 1Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences

Information about mining and metallurgy in medieval Muslim Spain (al-Andalus) is mostly available through Arabic geographies or travelling reports, as well as through Jewish docu-ments on Mediterranean trade. Only scarce or indirect archaeological evidence (e.g. metal objects) is available for comparison with the historical sources.

Major metals extracted and worked-up in al-Andalus according to the historical sources are iron and mercury. The goal of the present study is to compile information concerning Muslim mining activities concerning the above metals with evidence concerning activities at the same places in later times (i.e. after the “reconquista”), eventually including archaeological data. Indeed, in many places there existed continuity in the oar exploitation, sometimes even since the Roman period. In some cases mining practice persisted the changing of dominion between Muslim and Christian sovereigns. The comparative study of the two metals during different historical periods of the Iberian peninsula offers the possibility to relate the processes of min-ing and working-up the metals with such historically determined networks as fuel (e.g. wood) supply, irrigation, and trading. A further issue is concerned with the question whether the min-ing and the subsequent metallurgical practices in medieval Muslim Spain were associated rather to Middle East traditions than to the mining and metallurgical practices in Christian European countries in the same era, or whether the geographical determinant in a cross-ethnical context was stronger than the political one yielding stronger practical relationships among the Muslim and the Christian neighbours.

110 Session VII: Mining Archaeology: The Early History to Early Modern Mining

Towards a social archaeology of the mining region of Nova Lima / MG Brazil Fabiano Lopes de Paula1 & Alastair Richard Threlfall2 1University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD) 2Duo Projetos e Consultoria LTDA, Minas Gerais (Brazil)

Many industrial archaeologists hope not only to chart and sequence the technological develop-ments of industrialization and preserve and restore machinery and structures, but also to con-tribute to socially focused discourses about the industrial past. Such narratives base their inter-pretations on a diverse range of evidence in the form of material culture and where possible documentary sources. As a case study a discussion of the history of the region of Nova Lima, in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil and of archaeological works undertaken at the mining com-plex of Morro Velho will be presented.

The Mine of Morro Velho was first worked by the Freitas family in the 18th century, but was later operated and expanded by subsequent owners. At the time of their acquiring the Morro Velho estate from the heirs of Georges Francis Lyon, in 1834, the British Saint John d'El Rey Mining Company took possession of three inclined mines. With the expansion of the mining works undertaken by the Saint John d'El Rey Mining Company the rural town of Nova Lima was transformed. Congruent with expansion of the city’s infrastructure was the formation of a multiracial and multicultural workforce, overseen by a British managerial elite. The commu-nity thus formed exhibited a fusion of cultural expressions and material adaptations. British engineering and business sensibilities lead to the implementation of many technological inno-vations at the mines and company finance lead to the development of what could be called a company town. However, while the community was unusual in the exact nature and content of cultural diversity, it was typical of Brazilian society as a whole. Its diversity, the combining European colonial interests with slave labor, its adaptations to local environmental resources, its legislative and legal infrastructure and the cultural logic of its inhabitants were all phenom-ena integral to the formation of Brazil. In later periods, the same historical, political, economic and social fluctuations, which have shaped Brazil as a nation, have similarly acted on and within the town.

As yet the archaeological works undertaken at the Morro Velho complex have focused on the identification and recording of surviving sites. There is a need for basic interpretation of forms, functions, and significances of industrial structures which because of the size of the region have tended to be site specific. Pre-existing works lacked broader research aims and are only now being integrated into approaches which might more perceptively consider the integral social factors and relations, which are played out in the region’s social formation, use and de-

Session VII: Mining Archaeology: The Early History to Early Modern Mining 111

velopment. It is intended that the case study of the archaeological works undertaken at Nova Lima demonstrates how industrial archaeological sites and their interpretation can elucidate and communicate evidence applicable to discussions of the social aspects of industrialization.

112 Session VII: Mining Archaeology: The Early History to Early Modern Mining

Medieval silver ore mining in the Southern Black Forest, Germany. Archaeological evidence of structural elements and social aspects. Gert Goldenberg1 1University of Innsbruck, Institute of Archaeology

In 1987 the Institute of Archaeological Sciences at the University of Freiburg (Germany) started to investigate archaeological remains of medieval silver ore mining in the Southern Black Forest. Since that time several interdisciplinary research projects under the leadership of H. Steuer were realized, supported by the Volkswagen Foundation and the German Research Foundation. The aim of this research was mainly to reconstruct the medieval mining landscape in a defined region and in the time period between about 1000 and 1500 AD, including tech-nical, economical, social and environmental aspects.

Starting point for the medieval mining activities in the Black Forest were numerous small-scaled polymetallic sulfide ore deposits of hydrothermal origin, containing silver, copper and lead in economically exploitable amounts. Historical written records which confirm local silver mining are dating back to the early 11th century AD. During the following centuries the local silver ore mining had its time of prosperity. The tradition of mining continued in some valleys from the Middle Ages until the 20th century. The traces of ancient mining can still be observed today quite frequently in the field.

As it was in general not possible to get all information required for a complete reconstruction of a typical medieval mining area by archaeological excavations on only one site, several sites of similar relevance were first prospected and then investigated in order to compare the ob-tained results and to combine them to a scientifically satisfying overall picture. In this way it was possible to demonstrate some of the essential aspects of medieval silver ore mining in the Southern Black Forest, comprising mining and smelting techniques as well as elements of infrastructure, mining settlements and forms of organisation. This paper gives a review of the most significant results.

Posters:

Session I – Session IX

Posters 115

Session I: PI-1

The Neolithic callaïs mines of Gavà (Barcelona): mining activities, societies and exchange networks in the western Mediterranean Ferran Borrell1 & Josep Bosch1 1Gavà Museum, Barcelona

The archaeological site of the Prehistoric Mines of Gavà, was first mentioned and studied dur-ing the mid 70’s, attesting a series of important facts. From then on, it has become well known that the purpose of such mining activities was to obtain a green stone, known as variscite or callaïs, that was used to produce a variety of ornamental pieces. Necklaces and bracelets made of callaïs are found as grave goods in many Neolithic burials concentrated among the noreast-ernest part of the Iberian Peninsula (Catalonia). Secondly, it is proposed that the mining activi-ties took place over an extended period, probably between 4.000 and 3.000 cal BC, throughout the Middle Neolithic, a period also known in noreasternest part of the Iberian Peninsula as Sepulcres de Fossa, because of the important and abundant data avaliable of the funerary prac-tices. Thirdly, the surface area afected by the mining activities is quite large, probably more than a hundred hectares.

Recent research work has included field work in a new sector called Serra de de les Ferreres, which discovered a series of new mines and provided abundant and new data that is now being processed using interdisciplinary studies (archaeology and geology). First results permit a more complete approach to mining activities and their organization, site size, land-use and landscape impact, funerary practices and exchange networks. Some of the recently excavated mines, dated from the beginning of the IVth millennium cal BC, were reused as burial places. The study of the grave goods found with the burials located on this new sector of the site has shed light on the existence of an important exchange network of raw materials, products and ideas in an extended region of the western Mediterranean basin, including callaïs from Gavà, obsidian from Monte Arci (Sardinia), eclogite axes from the Alps, silex blond from the Provence region and vessels with square mouth that can be linked typologically to vasi a bocca quadrata found in northern Italy.

116 Posters

Session II: PII-1

Birth and Death in a Mining-Dominated Region: Popula-tion Movement exemplified by two Villages in the Greater Schwaz Area (17th – 19th century) Alois Unterkircher1 1University of Innsbruck, Institute of History and Ethnology

“Everyone has, even if he has nothing else, their birth and death.” With these words the histori-cal demographer Arthur E. Imhof gets to the heart of the potential which lies in a historical-demographic microstudy. On the basis of a systematic compilation of person-related historical data (birth, marriage and death dates) for all traceable inhabitants of a certain settlement area, individual biographies can be reconstructed. By enriching the biographies with other sources – mainly those of the authoritarian or mining administration – the individual level can be concre-tised and contextualised thus contributing to a more general history of the population and set-tlements in the analysed mining area.

On the one hand the poster tries to outline the long term population development of two vil-lages in the Greater Schwaz Area (Buch, Gallzein) from the 17th to the 19th century. On the other hand, class-specific characteristics within the population will be displayed. Did differ-ences between the rural (peasants/craftsmen) and the mining communities exist and do those differences regarding fertility or mortality become visible in the demographic analysis? Do the village inhabitants show an observable tendency towards migration in certain times? If yes, do those periods correlate with the up- and downswings of mining activities in Schwaz?

In accordance with the microhistorical approach, the facts on population movement will be complemented by individual mining family histories.

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Session II: PII-2

Mining history of Montafon Georg Neuhauser1 1University of Innsbruck, Institute of History and Ethnology

The mining area of Montafon in today’s Austrian province of Vorarlberg was never as impor-tant as the silver city Schwaz in Northern Tyrol. Nevertheless, the valley's history is strongly connected to its mining background and for the watchful observer this area opens up a scenic variety formed by mining related activities. In the course of HIMAT a survey of Montafon's mining history is carried out focussing not only on a chronological overview but also on the social circumstances of the different periods of time. Research questions concerning the living conditions of the miners, equipment and digging techniques in combination with archaeologi-cal finds could be the key to a nearly unknown chapter of Montafon's history.

118 Posters

Session III: PIII-1

Glacial fluctuations and exploitation of copper resources in the high mountain Alps in the late Neolithic and Bronze Age (2500-1500 BC) Laurent Carozza1, Emmanuel Chapron2, Anaelle Simonneau2, Pierre Rostan3, David Bourgarit3, Benoit Mille3, Herve Guyard4, Guillaume Saint Onge4, Marc Desmet2 & Albane Burens5 1University of Toulouse, Institute of Research 2University of Orléans, CNRS/INSU 3Geological Development Department Tethys, Chateauroux-les-Alpes 4University of Quebec at Rimouski, Institute de sciences de la mer (ISMER) 5University of Montpellier, Archaeology of the Mediterranean area

Copper exploitation developed in the southern half of France during the late Neolithic – be-tween the 4th and 3rd millenia before our era – (‘La Capitelle’ in Péret: 3200-2900 BC; Am-bert et al. 2005).On the southern edge of the Massif Central and in the Pyrenees, the mining and metallurgical districts developed low-productivity metal extraction. The production was then diffused thanks to local networks.

This first type of metallurgy is mostly to be found in lower and medium altitude mountainous areas. This model, which could be called the ‘Neolithic system’, was completed in the second half of the third millennium, between the 25th and 24th centuries BC, with the end of the min-ing operations and a modification in metal consumption and supply networks.

In the Alps, the expansion of copper exploitation in high mountain areas from the 24th century BC has been observed. The exploitation of bornite in Saint-Veran (Hautes-Alpes) began around 2350 BC.

The trench pillar – known as the ‘Tranchée des Anciens’, delivered nearly 400 m3 of ore proc-essed in workshops situated at an altitude above 2300 m. The carbon datings show that the whole mining and metallurgical site operated for less than 500 years, between 2400 and 1900 BC, at the end of the Neolithic period and during the early Bronze Age.

Further North, in the Grandes Rousses massif, a large mining area was discovered recently (Bailly-Maître, Gonon, 2008) and the identification of metal pollution (copper and lead) in

Posters 119

proglacial altitude lakes (Lake Bramant, 2500m, Guyard et al., 2008) shows a mass production of copper in the early Bronze Age (2200-1650 BC).The copper resources are” situated at an altitude between 2250 and 2600 m and, unlike in Saint-Veran, are distributed over a very wide area. The exploitation of the mining district seems to have stopped during the 17th century BC, at the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age.

Among the reasons which could account for the intensification of the exploitation of copper resources, the causal link between the complexity of the techniques and mineral processing has long been put forward. Changes in weather conditions – as they imply the conditions of access to copper- can offer an alternative scenario. The core samples taken in the Bramant Lake and the Blanc d’Huez Lake (‘Grandes Rousses’) show fast fluctuations of glacial activity during the Neolithic period and the Bronze Age (Chapron et al., 2008). In the Bramant Lake, the pre-dominance of organic layers-dated from the early Bronze Age to the beginning of the late Bronze Age – reflects declining glacial phases.

Evidence suggests that the favorable climatic conditions which developed at the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millenia BC promoted –to the benefit of glaciers- the exploitation of previously inac-cessible copper resources. A return to less favorable conditions, marked from 1600 BC by newly advanced ice, would signal the disuse of mining sites, to the benefit of resources located at a lower altitude.

120 Posters

Session III: PIII-2

Effects of human activity on the soil – geoarchaeological investigations at Bartholomäberg (Schruns, Montafon, Austria) Astrid Röpke1 1University of Frankfurt, Institute of Archaeological science, Department of Pre- and Protohistory

The Bartholomäberg in the Montafon is a favourable place to settle and cultivate, because the southwest facing slope is shaped by several plane areas. During Bronze Age people already build a hillfort, there (e.g. Krause et al., 2004). One interdisciplinary sub-project of the Aus-trian SFBs HiMAT, co-ordinated by Prof. Dr. R. Krause, investigates the onset of the settle-ment and its motivation in this inneralpine valley. In addition to archaeological, archaeobotani-cal and archaeometallurgical research, geoarchaeological studies are applied within the excava-tions. The soil as keeper of finds and findings is as well analysed by methods from pedology, micromorphology and geomorphology. The study aims at the stratification of the soils and the reconstruction of human-environmental interactions. Evidences of past human activity in the soils are colluvial layers, decapitated and/or buried soils. Colluvial layers consist of mixed soil material formed by a range of processes including sheet wash, tillage and soil creep at slopes. They are the result of soil erosion processes enabled or amplified by forest clearings and land use. Selected soil profiles showing imprints of settlement activity, agricultural activity and mining will be described and interpreted.

Field and laboratory methods: Colluvial layers and soil horizons were identified and described using the Munsell-System (Munsell, 2000), FAO (1998) and AG Boden (2005) instructions. Additionally laboratory analyses like texture analysis, soil organic matter, pH, selected metals were implemented. Samples for thin sections were taken.

This project is supported by the DFG, which I acknowledge gratefully.

References Ad-hoc-AG BODEN (2005): Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung.- 5th edition.: 438 S.; Stuttgart (Schwei-

zerbart). FAO (1998): World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) Krause, R.; Oeggl, K.; Pernicka, E. (2004): Eine befestigte Burgsiedlung der Bronzezeit im Montafon,

Vorarlberg – interdisziplinäre Siedlungsforschung und Montanarchäologie in Bartholomäberg und im Silbertal.- Archäologie Österreichs 15 (1): 4-21; Wien.

Munsell, A. H. (2000): Munsell soil color charts. Gretag MacBeth.

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Session IV: PIV-1

Roman-medieval iron mining and smelting at high altitude in the western Alps : Mercantour and Ubaye mountains (Alpes-Maritimes, Alpes-de-haute-Provence, France) Patrick Rosenthal1 & Denis Morin2 1University of Franche-Comté, Laboratory of Chrono-Environnement 2University of Toulouse – Le Mirail, Laboratory of Archaeological researches of Culture, Spaces and Societies (TRACES)

Recent field investigations carried out throughout the French Mercantour massif (Alpes-Maritimes) and Ubaye massif (Alpes-de-Haute-Provence), threw important new light on the origin of iron metallurgy in the South-western Alps, little-known up to now. The results ob-tained make it possible to draw up a chronological assessment of at least three iron mining and smelting districts on the heights of these two mountains more than 2000 m above sea level.

Mercantour

In the Valdeblore district, the iron ore resources of Col Ferrière are located at an altitude of 2225-2484m. They are associated with mylonitised Palaeozoic gneiss formation affected by multidirectional fracturing: cracks and joints are cemented by ferruginous hematite fillings. Hematite outcrops were mainly exploited in open quarries. They supplied three main areas of metallurgy: In the Millefonts valley, The ore was smelted in furnaces at an altitude ranging from 2010m to 1480m. In the Margès valley, metallurgical remains were found between 2145m and 1785m and in the Mollières valley, slags were discovered at 1675-1670m. Foot-paths connected the mining works to the smelting sites.

In the Saint-Etienne-de-Tinée district, field investigations identified mining works at an alti-tude ranging between 2500 and 2700m. They are related to the primary mineralised lodes in the Palaeozoic micaschists of the Cime du Fer, and a sedimentary breccia in the Triassic cellular dolomite, reworking micaschists and hematite fragments from the lodes. Ore dressing areas are located below the screes. Downstream, charcoal kilns and smelting sites have been identified at an altitude of between 2050 and 2070m, close to settlements and dry stone enclosures.

122 Posters

Charcoals samples for 14C dating were collected on the slag-bearing sites by coring ; 2 sigma calibrated dates gathered by sites, show that metallurgical activity took place between the sec-ond century BC and the seventh century AD in the Valdeblore district; in the Saint-Etienne-de-Tinée district, the ages range between the third and the sixth centuries AD.

Ubaye

In the upper Ubaye valley, the Maurin district contains many levelled and dispersed remains of iron furnaces, with altitudes ranging between 1880 and 2175 m. Charcoals from two smelting places yield 14C medieval (2 sigma) calibrated age between the fifth and the ninth century AD. These first prospections didn’t yet reveal ore occurence which could provide the furnaces.

The distribution of the remains highlights a real strategy. Mining and ore dressing took place directly in the alpine level at an altitude of 2700-2400 m. Sorted and sized ore was transported downstream, beyond the higher limit of the subalpine level, between 2145 and 2000 m. This activity expands between the second century BC and the ninth century AD.

These slag deposits of Mercantour and Ubaye are the highest known and dated iron metallurgy remains in Europe.

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Session IV: PIV-2

Pre-roman mining works in El Molar-Bellmunt-Falset dis-trict (Tarragona, Spain): indirect proofs based on Lead Iso-topes analysis Ignacio Montero-Ruiz1, Nuria Rafel2, Mark Hunt3 & Mercedes Murillo4 1Center of Human Science and Society, Institute of History – CSIC Spanish National Research Council 2University of Lleida 3University of Sevilla 4University of Madrid, Institute of History, CCHS-CSIC

The Molar-Bellmunt- Falset (MBF) mining district was an important resource for lead and silver from medieval times to XX century, as many historical documents show. However, ear-lier works are not documented in the area, but few fragments of Roman pottery recovered in the XX century works. Two field surveys did not give any information about ancient data of exploitation. However some prehistoric sites with some evidences of lead metallurgy are known in the region.

This study, based on Lead Isotopes Analysis (LIA), tries to identify the provenance of lead and silver in archaeological items previous to the Roman conquer of the region. The First Iron Age occupation horizons evidence the exploitation of the lead mineral resources (galena) of the MBF, and their use to obtain metal from them. A significant presence of Phoenician amphoric material, together with the rest of the data, suggests close links between the local mineral ex-ploitation structure and the Phoenician traders.

We also try to check if archaeological material from other parts of the Iberian Peninsula could be related with MBF district to draw the patterns of trade.

For the LIA analysis was used a Finnigan Mat 262 thermal ionization mass spectrometer (TIMS) with 8 Faraday collectors and a SEM, belonging to the Geochronology and Isotopic Geochemical Service of the UPV-EHU (University of the Basque Country).

124 Posters

Session IV: PIV-3

Copper Sourcing in the Alps using Lead Isotope Analysis: Ores from the Valais region and Late Neolithic-Early Bronze Age Artifacts from Western Switzerland Florence Cattin1, Barbara Guenette-Beck2, Igor M. Villa3, Nicolas Meisser4, Stefan Ansermet4 & Marie Besse5 1University of Montréal, Department of Anthropology 2University of Fribourg, Department of Geosciences, Mineralogy and Petrography 3University of Bern, Institute of Geology 4Cantonal Museum of Geology, Lausanne 5University of Genève, Laboratory of prehistoric Archaeology, Department of Anthropology an Ecology

Material provenance studies benefit from increasingly powerful methods in the field of ar-chaeometry. Lead isotope analysis is a meaningful way of sourcing metal artifacts. Lead is present in trace amount in metal ores. Its isotopic composition is controlled by the geological evolution of the ore-bodies, and can therefore provide a characteristic fingerprint of each indi-vidual mining district.

Our doctoral research project (University of Geneva, Switzerland, 2008) was based on copper provenance in the Alps during the Late Neolithic, the Bell Beaker period and the Early Bronze Age. In this context, metallurgic analyses (lead isotope analysis and chemical element compo-sition) was conducted on a set of 141 objects and 73 ore samples from Western Switzerland.

Two main questions have been addressed: 1) the implication of different cultural groups in the adoption, use and diffusion of copper, and, more specifically in regards to mining activities in the Valais region; 2) the geographic origin of artifactual copper as an indicator of social and economic exchange networks.

Up to now, direct indications of prehistoric mines are lacking in the Valais region. A match of metallic compositions between copper ores from the Valais region and artifacts from the sur-rounding area could therefore provide indications of a local supply. This poster aims at com-paring the lead isotope signatures of copper ores from the Valais region with other data from the Alps, in order to qualify their discriminatory potential. This is a crucial preliminary step in order to highlight possible mining activities using lead isotope signatures. Actually, our data on Vallesian copper ores show a scattered field that covers numerous European data.

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We also present copper provenance data for the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age periods that show clear differences in copper supply, even within each of these periods. For example, some Early Bronze Age artifacts from the Valais region can be attributed to a Tuscan origin, for which the lead isotopic field is very specific. Thus, we may balance the influence of the north-eastern influx, through the Únetice culture for the establishment of the Early Bronze Age in Western Switzerland.

126 Posters

Session IV: PIV-4

Relative and absolute chronology of the Later Bronze Age metal production in the south-eastern Alps Erio Valzolgher1 & Franco Marzatico2 1Archaeological Researches, Bressanone 2Castle of Buonconsiglio, Monuments and Collections of the Province, Trento

The archaeometallurgical and mining research undertaken over a period of about 15 years by the Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum together with the Archaeological Office of the Autonomous Province of Trento in the mountains of the Brenta river basin, Trentino, Northern Italy, has notably enriched our knowledge of copper exploitation in the south-eastern Alpine region at the end of the Bronze Age. Among the results of this research project, which notori-ously include the identification of a battery of nine smelting furnaces at Acqua Fredda, on the Redebus Pass (1445m asl), numerous radiocarbon dates must be mentioned. These constitute the largest series of radiocarbon determinations so far obtained for Later Bronze Age metallur-gical production in the region. A comparative and critical analysis of these radiocarbon data is extremely interesting, as it does allow, along with the archaeological evidence, to further define the timing of the development of copper mining and smelting activities in the region. Further-more, these absolute chronological data also provide a useful source of evidence with respect to the still open issue of a precise correlation between the stage A of the Luco/Laugen Culture and the sequences of other North Italian cultural groups.

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Session IV: PIV-5

Geochemical characteristics of copper ores from the Grey-wacke Zone in the Austrian Alps and their relevance as a source of copper in prehistoric times Joachim Lutz1, Ernst Pernicka1,2 & Robert Pils3 1Curt-Engelhorn-Center for Archaeometry, Mannheim 2University of Tübingen, Institute of Pre- and Protohistory and Archaeology of the Mediaeval 3Association Montandenkmal Arthurstollen, Bischofshofen

The Greywacke Zone is a belt of Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks in the Austrian Alps between the Northern Calcareous Alps and the Central Eastern Alps. The unit consists of Palaeozoic sediments (turbidites, greywackes and limestones) of Ordovician to Devonian age and of mafic volcanic rocks of Ordovician age. Numerous copper deposits occur in this sedimentary unit, related to the mafic volcanism. The primary ore assemblage consists mostly of chalcopyrite and pyrite. In the Bronze Age, especially in the Middle and Late Bronze Age, these ore depos-its were mined on a large scale.

The basis for provenance studies of prehistoric metal finds are the geochemical characteristics of the ore deposits that have been exploited in ancient times. A large number of ore samples from the well known prehistoric mining district Mitterberg south of Salzburg and from the Kelchalm near Kitzbühel were analyzed chemically. Furthermore, the lead isotopic composi-tion was determined in some of the samples. The geochemical data – compared with analyses of Middle and Late Bronze Age metal finds – underlines the importance of this region as a source of copper in prehistoric times.

128 Posters

Session IV: PIV-6

Copper- and silex-daggers in Chalcolithic Italy: The corre-spondence of shape, raw material, production technique and distribution Daniel Steiniger1 1State Office of preservation of ancient monuments and Archaeology Sachsen-Anhalt

Daggers are one of the most important artefacts in the study of Chalcolithic Italy. They play a central role in many archaeological models. In Italy silex-daggers show partially the same distribution than those of copper. Both occur together in many Chalcolithic cemeteries and in a few cases even in the same grave. It is important that daggers from graves show no traces of everyday use. They have a remarkable typological variety over Italy, but there is a common feature on daggers of both materials, the form and measure of the cutting-edge. A gradually change in its shape from a wide-triangular and short to a slim-triangular and very long form is visible, on the way from North to South, while in Central Italy daggers display medium values of width and length. An interesting point amongst the copper-daggers is that in Central Italy the largest variety in the combination of different typological features and overlaps of their re-gional distributions can be found. As parts of this area were called „Colline Metallifere“ since Antiquity, one is forced to suppose a connection between copper-daggers and regional ores. The fact that in the Colline Metallifere itself no silex- but many copper-daggers were deposited in chalcolithic graves supports this hypothesis but unfortunately no direct evidence of chalco-lithic copper-mining is known there yet. Trace-elements can give further hints: Most North Italian copper-daggers are rich in As but contain only a very few Sb. Against this the central Italian daggers have beside As also a remarkable Sb content. Sb is a common metal in the Colline Metallifere and native Sb was used for beads deposited in Chalcolithic graves of that region. South Italian daggers have a trace-element pattern which is characterized by the exclu-sive occurrence of As and Ag. Therefore it is likely, that in different regions various ores and different production techniques were used and blacksmith’s crafts are reflected in the typologi-cal features of the daggers, especially the heels, while the overall shape of the dagger’s edge only gradually changed from North to South. Concerning the silex-daggers a correspondence between raw material and dagger-shape can be attested also. Most silex-daggers of North Italy are made of raw material from the Monti Lessini. They are oval-shaped and bifacially worked. The daggers from the South are but much longer and monofacial, because they were produced by the so called „livre de beurre-technique“ known from the famous Grand-Pressigny-blades. This technique requires very big silex nodules, a raw material not found in the North. As the slim and long silex- and copper-daggers are found in the South, but the wide-triangular and

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shorter in the north, it is likely that the copper-daggers were made in the same general shape as the silex-blades and not contrary! The widespread hypothesis that silex-daggers are only low-valued imitations of copper ones is therefore questionable in this case.

130 Posters

Session V: PV-1

Kiln site anthracology and fuel wood ecology in Central Europe Thomas Ludemann1 1University of Freiburg, Institute of Biology II, Department of Geobotany

Selected anthracological studies in Central Europe are highlighted, with special regard to his-torical sites of charcoal burning. The main topic is how analyses of archaeological macrochar-coals from kiln sites (kiln site anthracology) can provide answers to questions of vegetation history and vegetation ecology at the landscape level (fuel wood ecology). In Central Europe remnants of traditional charcoal burning are widespread. Thousands of kiln sites are known. Their analysis offers us unique possibilities to gain results with fine spatial resolution (regional to local), providing new and unexpected results for vegetation science. Examples are given of a diversified pilot area, with special regard to the natural diversity of growth conditions and forest vegetation. It includes the Black Forest, the Vosges and neighbouring regions. Generally, no selection of distinct wood species was made for charcoal production. All of the tree taxa to be expected for the natural conditions were exploited in the past and the frequencies of the taxa exploited often reflect a natural situation. The tree species of the climax vegetation were mainly used and all other species were quantitatively unimportant. The individual kiln sites show considerable differences in tree taxa composition and frequency, from which regular spatial patterns of the past tree species distribution have been inferred. These patterns can be explained by regional and local differences in the ecological site conditions of the exploited forests. A pronounced dependency of the fuel wood use on the natural distribution of the tree species is discernible. The local natural offering of wood and the restricted possibilities of wood transport were important criteria for past fuel wood exploitation.

References

Ludemann, T. (2003): Large-scale reconstruction of ancient forest vegetation by anthracology – a contri-bution from the Black Forest. – Phytocoenologia 33 (4): 645-666.

Ludemann, T. (2006): Anthracological analysis of recent charcoal-burning in the Black Forest, SW Ger-many. - British Archaeological Reports. Internat. Series 1483: 61-70.

Ludemann, T. (2007): Das Abbild der natürlichen Vegetation in der historischen Holznutzung. Synthese anthrakologischer Studien im Mittelgebirgsraum Zentraleuropas. - Ber. d. Reinh.-Tüxen-Ges. 19: 7-22.

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Ludemann, T. (2008): Experimental charcoal-burning with special regard to anthracological wood diame-ter analysis. - British Archaeological Reports. Internat. Series 1807: 147-157.

Ludemann, T.; Michielis, H.-G.; Nölken, W. (2004): Spatial patterns of past wood exploitation, natural wood supply and growth conditions: indications of natural tree species distribution by anthracological studies of charcoal-burning remains. – Eur. J. Forest Res. 123: 283-292.

(pdfs: www.biologie.uni-freiburg.de/data/bio2/geobotanik/ludemann/publikationen.htm)

132 Posters

Session V: PV-2

How to merge Bronze aged settlement sites and sacrifice sites Heidemarie Hüster Plogmann1, Sabine Deschler-Erb1, Jörg Schibler1 & Barbara Stopp1 1University of Basel, Institute of Prehistory and Archaeology of Natural Science (IPNA/IPAS)

The sacrifice site “Stadlerhof” close to Weer (Tirol), dated to the early and middle Bronze age, brought about 100’000 fragments of burned animal bone to light. More than 60’000 where looked at up to now. The question arose: What was sacrificed to the gods? Was it ordinary food from a settlement nearby? Or where special, out of the ordinary animals offered? To find out the given animals will be compared to those from other kinds of settlements.

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Session V: PV-3

Subsistence strategies in the Neolithic and Early Bronze age hill settlement of Thaur-Kiechlberg/Tirol: the example of the animal bones Sabine Deschler-Erb1 1University of Basel, Institute of Prehistory and Archaeology of Natural Science (IPNA/IPAS)

The poster presents first results of the archaeozoological analysis with regard to subsistence strategies and special consideration of the bone and antler artefacts.

134 Posters

Session V: PV-4

Dendrochronological analysis and dating of wooden arte-facts from the prehistoric copper mine Kelchalm/Kitzbühel (Austria) Thomas Pichler1, Kurt Nicolussi1, Michael Klaunzer2 & Gert Goldenberg2 1University of Innsbruck, Institute of Geography 2University of Innsbruck, Institute of Archaeology

The potential of dendrochronological analysis of wood found in prehistoric and historic mining areas in Tyrol has remained unattended for a long time. Due to new research activities within the HiMAT research program we can present systematically analysed wooden artefacts from a prehistoric mining area in Tyrol (Kelchalm near Kitzbühel).

The investigated artefacts, related to mining and everyday life, were found in the course of archaeological excavations, which were carried out between 1932 and 1953 by Richard Pittioni and Ernst Preuschen. Taking an adequate number of tree rings and well preserved wood wane into account, 21 pieces of mining timber were pre-selected for a dendrochronological analysis. The identified wood species are spruce (Picea abies, n=18) and fir (Abies alba, n=3). The length of the established tree-ring series ranges from 13 to 145. We cross-dated the tree-ring series of seven wooden artefacts among each other, which resulted in a spruce-fir tree-ring record of 153 values (Kelchalm mean curve). The last tree ring measured of the Kelchalm spruce-fir mean curve dates back to 1237 BC. This accurate dendro-result dates the Bronze Age mining activities at the Kelchalm to about two centuries earlier than the long lasting as-sumption proposed by Richard Pittioni. His assumption was based on the typology of ceramic and metal artefacts.

The new dendro-date for the Bronze Age mine at the Kelchalm matches with available 14C-results from other important copper mining areas in the north-eastern Alps (NE Alps). The activities at these other sites are dated between the 17th and 6th century BC. Furthermore, the radiocarbon dates as well as the dendro-result from the Kelchalm suggest a transition from earlier mined copper-ore deposits in the eastern areas of the NE Alps, to the later mined ore deposits in the western section. This has led to both parallel and sequential mining activities in several ore districts during the last two millennia BC in the NE Alps

Posters 135

Session V: PV-5

Dendrochronological dating of charcoal originate from an Early Iron Age fire-set pit in the mining area of Schwaz / Brixlegg (Tyrol, Austria) Thomas Pichler1, Andrea Thurner1 & Kurt Nicolussi1 1University of Innsbruck, Institute of Geography

The rich copper-ore deposits in the area of Schwaz / Brixlegg (Tyrol, Austria) were already exploited in prehistoric times. Numerous pits give evidence of these mining activities using the fire-setting technique. Charcoal remains of several fire-set pits were dated by the 14C-method. The results suggest ages at the transition from Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age and lie partly within the well-known Hallstatt 14C Plateau. The 14C-method therefore is not adequate to ob-tain accurate dating results. In 2007 and 2008 archaeological excavations in the fire-set pit MaukE (N 47°26’14’’, E 11°57’12’’; 997 m a.s.l.) were carried out by the Innsbruck HiMAT archaeology group. A large number of charcoal fragments could be retrieved for dendrological and dendrochronological analysis. Radiocarbon dating was used to obtain the age of some pieces of charcoal from MaukE additionally.

Out of 114 dendrochronological analysed charcoal samples 94% were spruce (Picea abies), 3% were either spruce or larch (Larix decidua), 2% were larch and one charcoal piece was alder (Alnus spp.). Of these, 60 samples, which contain between 25 and 138 rings were cross dated with each other and finally composed to a 149 long tree-ring record. This charcoal mean curve did cross-date with several chronologies from low and high altitudes, which are based on fir (Abies alba), spruce or stone pine (Pinus cembra) samples. The last measured tree-ring of the charcoal mean curve marks the year 707 BC and matches perfectly with the wiggle matching results of two 14C dates.

The results of the 114 charcoal samples analysed suggest, with few exceptions that only spruce was used in the Early Iron Age fire-set pit MaukE. This is consistent with the results from other investigations on charcoal samples which originate from five ore-processing sites in the vicin-ity of MaukE (Heiss and Oeggl 2008). The wood species used as fuel wood there indicate also a clear preference for softwood.

136 Posters

Session V: PV-6

The wooden remains from the prehistoric ore processing site Schwarzenbergmoos near Radfeld/Brixlegg (Tyrol) Kurt Nicolussi1, Andrea Thurner1 & Thomas Pichler1 1University of Innsbruck, Institute of Geography

Mining on copper took already place in the lower Inn valley (Tyrol) during the Bronze and Iron Age. However, archaeological investigations of mining and ore processing sites in this area are still limited. Here we present results of dendrochronological analysis and dating of wooden remains found by new archaeological excavations at the ore processing site Schwarzenberg-moos near Radfeld/Brixlegg. The site is located in the centre of a peat bog called Schwarzen-bergmoos (11°56’18’’, 47°25’47’’;1130 m a.s.l.). At that place ore was crushed and the ob-tained material was washed. Due to the wet conditions in this peat bog a huge amount of wooden artefacts used for these activities was preserved and found by the archaeological exca-vations. These were done by the Innsbruck HiMAT archaeology group (G. Goldenberg and co-workers) during the summers 2007 and 2008.

The identification of wood species and tree-ring width measurements were carried out on 100 wooden artefacts. The material was dominated by spruce (Picea abies, 63% of the samples) and other conifer species (Abies alba, 13%; Larix decidua, 3%), the other artefacts were made of six different species of deciduous trees. The sample tree-ring series established are between 7 and 225 rings long. However, the median value of 52 indicates the dominance of samples with relatively few tree rings. A splitting of the samples into different typs of wooden artefacts (e.g. boards, beams, posts, tools) does not show any strong selection according to wood species with the only exception that hardwood was mainly used for posts.

Nearly half of the tree-ring series were cross-dated and a local tree-ring width chronology covering 247 tree rings was established. The absolute dating of the Schwarzenbergmoos Chro-nology (1116 – 870 BC) was possible by using reference series mainly from the foothills of the Alps. The wiggle matching results of five 14C dates obtained from cross-dated wooden artefacts is in perfect agreement with the dendro-date. The analysis of the felling dates of the absolutely dated wooden artefacts documents ore processing activities at the site Schwarzenbergmoos for a period of about 30 years: from c. 900 to 869 BC. Two activity phases (c. 900 to 887 BC and 874 to 869 BC) are separated by a period (886 and 873 BC) without any documented workings at that site.

Posters 137

Session V: PV-7

Transhumance as potential subsistence strategy in the Alps during prehistory Daniela Festi1 & Klaus Oeggl1 1University of Innsbruck, Institute of Botany

This poster considers the potential economical, climatic and ecological causes that triggered the onset of transhumance and alpine summer farming, as well as the hypothesis that this prac-tice began in connection with mining activity. An interdisciplinary methodological approach to the topic is hereby proposed, presenting a study case from the Italian-Austrian Inner Alps. Indeed, palynological analyses conducted in the vicinity of the Iceman discovery site, gave a first indication of possible pasture activity during the Neolithic (4500 yr cal BP), which sug-gests that the Iceman was involved in a local kind of transhumance between the Vinschgau valley bottom (his site of origin) and the high altitudes north of the main Alpine ridge. In order to investigate this hypothesis a multi-proxy study comprehensive of archaeobotanical and ar-cheaozoological analyses, as well as of archaeological excavations, has been developed. The aim is to reconstruct the environmental and anthropic situation in the valley, in order to under-stand the possible causes triggering the onset of this agro-pastoral system in the Alps.

138 Posters

Session VI: PVI-1

First Early Bronze Age copper mines in the north-western Alps (Oisans, France) in their chrono-cultural and eco-nomic context J. Vital, M.-C. Bailly-Maître, E. Thirault, B. Moulin

Posters 139

Session VI: PVI-2

A Bronze Age minerary district in the Idice river Valley (Bologna, Italy)? Manuela Secondo1, Vittorio Cavani1 & Vanessa Poli1 1University of Bologna, Department of Archaeology

The Idice river valley, located in the eastern slope of Bolognese Apennine, is characterized by the presence of varied clays, locally definied “argille scagliose”. Many outcrops of ophilitic stones, or serpentine, diabase and ophilitic breccia surface from these clays.

The modern exploitation of these deposits is known since the 17th century, especially at Sas-sonero, Gurlano and Bisano, rich in erubescite, chalcopyrite and calcocite.

At present state of research, it is not completely ascertained if these ore resource were ex-ploited since prehistoric Age. Although, some indications allow us to hypothesize the existence of an incipient settlement designed to exploit local mineral resources. In fact, it is possible that at least three sites in the Idice river valley (Castel de' Britti, Monterenzio Vecchia, Monte Bi-bele) refer to the exploitation of the aforementioned clays. As know from recent publications, this is also the case of the Dragone river valley near Modena during the beginning of the Late Bronze Age (13th cent. BC).

Regarding the Idice River valley future investigations could link the finding of metal artefacts to local outcrops.

The Bolognese Apennine is scattered with numerous hoards of metal objects (Rocca di Badolo, Camugnano, Cinghione) dating within the early Bronze Age. This may also be a piece of evi-dence for an early exploitation of these mines.

140 Posters

Session VI: PVI-3

Stone-tools and prehistoric mining exploitation in Calabria (Italy) Sara Marino1 1University of Bari, Regional Center of Speleology "Enzo dei Medici"

Calabria is (with Tuscany, Liguria and Sardinia) one of richest Italian regions as for resources, metallic mineral ores (iron, copper, silver, sulphur and zinc) and salt-mines.

In the last decades the development of the archaeological research about mining exploitation (in the whole European and Mediterranean area) showed an extensive use of stone-tools in ancient mining activities. Very often they bear the only archaeological witness of these remote cultivations, being an evidence of many ores structures that have been destroyed by more re-cent activities. Moreover, the presence of the stone-tools in Calabria is attested since the end of the 19th century. Some researchers privately collected these lithic artefacts and later they of-fered them to several Museums.

The recent discovery of the Grotta della Monaca mine (located in the northern Tyrrhenian area of Calabria) has definitely confirmed the existence of a close relation between these artefacts and the exploitation of mineral resources in this region. Actually, from this site come 40 stone-tools most likely used in metallic mineral mining since the end of the Neolithic era.

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Session VI: PVI-4

The copper mines of the Cabrières-Péret district (Southern France) between the 3rd and 1st millennium BC Paul Ambert1, Jean-Louis Guendon2, Valentina Figueroa-Larre3 & Diego Sala-zar4 1University of Toulouse – Le Mirail, Laboratory of Archaeological researches of Culture, Spaces and Societies (TRACES) 2University of Provence, Institute of Economy, Societies and prehistoric environmental (ESEP) 3University of Paris – Pantheon Sorbonne, Institute of American Archaeology 4University of Chile, Department of Anthropology

The small mining district of Cabrières-Péret (4 kms2) can be divided into three geographic zones: the Bellarade plateau (Les Neuf-Bouches, Le Petit-Bois), Pioch-Farrus and La Rous-signole, in the south. They provided archeological record (hammerstones, pottery sherds) and ancient work areas (mines and spoils) dated between the IIIrd and Ist millennium BC. The ancient very rich ores, contained in the Devonian dolomites, have been reduced in most of the cases to narrow veins in the present.

Although, in the past, more important resources could have existed (larger veins, cave depos-its), as had been showed by the XXth century works and the big pits revealed by the pumping of the La Roussignole area. The older exploitations are of modest dimensions, mainly when those are forced into the silicified dolomites (Pioch-Farrus IV, La Roussignole 2), extremely resistant, which needed a fire setting technique, the most ancient known in France. In Pioch-Farrus IV, the debris breccias on the ovoid niches, very characteristic of this rock extraction technique, have been dated by AMS in de 3830 ± 40 BP, so 2340-2130 cal BC, and 3900 ± 40 BP, so 2480-2200 cal BC.

On the Bellarade plateau, the stratified dolomites are smoother, and even if there are Bronze Age remains of fire setting (3360± 40 BP, so 1740-1530 cal BC and 3010± 40 BP, 1390 – 1120 cal BC), a great part of the exploitations could have been made manually with hammerstones. The south spoils of Neuf-Bouches, formed at the end of the Bronze Age (2610 ± 40 BP, so 850-740 cal BC), during the exploitation of the mine 6, have altered the top of the older activi-ties remains dated in 4030 ± 40 BP (2630-2470 cal BC). Near of this, a survey pit made in the spoil of the Petit-Bois, have revealed the remains of the mining activity (produced in part with fire) and a mound of numerous hammerstones mostly in quartzite (250 tools recollected in only a few square meters), in different stages of use. They came from the near mine exploitations of

142 Posters

Bellarade 4, but could be also used for a crushing phase in situ of the copper ores. The numer-ous quartzite flakes show a local preparation of these tools, which are manufactured from the numerous quartz veins nearby. These spoils have given the dates of 4065 ± 35 BP (2700-2480 cal BC) and 4000 ± 35 BP (2620-2480 cal BC), which in addition to the precedents, emphasize the intensity of the mining exploitations of the Cabrières-Péret district at the half of the IIIrd millennium BC.

In the same way that this dates show the beginnings of the copper exploitation in France, the mining indicators at the end of the IIIrd millennium multiplies. After Bouco-Payrol in the Aveyron, the alpines areas (Saint-Véran, mines of the Oisans massif) or Pyrenees (Aldudes massif) are the ones that put in light the importance of the exploitation, at the end of Neolithic, particularly in the sectors of the over forested mountain prairies.

Posters 143

Session VI: PVI-5

Prehispanic Hammerstones from the Atacama desert (An-tofagasta Region, north of Chile) Valentina Figueroa-Larre1, Hernán W. Salinas2, Diego Salazar2, Germán Man-ríquez3 1University of Paris – Pantheon Sorbonne, Institute of American Archaeology 2University of Chile, Department of Anthropology 3University of Chile, Faculty of Medicine

The north of Chile was, in prehispanic times, one of the greatest producers of copper in South America. The first copper exploitations date from the Late Archaic Period (3500 BC- 1500 BC) and present a continuity until the Inca period, and even beyond Colonial times. Numerous mines, spoils and artifacts from different archaeological sites of the Atacama Desert are evi-dence of this ancient technology that has survived until the present.

The current Antofagasta Region has yielded the most significant and abundant archaeological evidences of prehistoric copper mining. This is not surprising since the region highlights for its great mineral richness, essentially characterized by the presence of enormous deposits of cop-per ores, being the Chuquicamata district the best-known of all. Precisely, it is in this mining district that in 1903 the French Scientific Mission lead by Georges de Créqui-Monfort, found the mummy of a miner covered by a poncho, with assembled braids and also with different artifacts characteristic of the tool-set of a miner, such as hammerstones hafted with wood and leather, hammers heads, a rawhide bag – capacho – and a basket. These artifacts are kept in the musée du Quai Branly in Paris and will be presented for the first time in this work. This will be the second mummy of a miner from Chuquicamata to be studied. The other one is the well-known Copper Man, kept in the American Museum of Natural History of New York, whose mummy was also found with a series of mining elements.

The hafted hammerstones of both mummies in addition with two other hafted hammers from the Thompson collection (Santiago, Chile) -all coming from Chuquicamata- are important in the understanding of the productive systems and also allow recognizing the fundamental vari-ables related with the use and the specific function of these tools. This is especially relevant given that the hafting systems are usually absent from the hundreds of hammers founded in the mines and spoils of South America and even worldwide, basically for lack of conservation of the wood and rawhide used in the handle and the hafting materials. We have studied before with different technical analyses (petrography, use-wears, morphometrics) over 500 ham-

144 Posters

merstones coming from San José del Abra (distant about 50 km north of Chuquicamata) corre-sponding to three mining operations linked with three periods of Northern Chilean prehistory: the Formative period in a late phase; the Late Intermediate period and the Late period charac-terized by the irruption of the Inca influence in all the Andean zone.

The systematic analysis of the hafted specimens from the Musée du Quai Branly and from the Thompson collection in Chile complements our current knowledge of mining technologies in the prehistory of the Atacama Desert. Given its unique preservation, they also provide useful comparative information for the archaeological study of mining technologies in other parts of the world, including Alpean Europe.

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Session VI: PVI-6

Mining tools from the Chalcolithic cooper mines at Fayet (Aveyron, France) Bernard Lechelon1 1University of Toulouse – Le Mirail, Laboratory of Archaeological researches of Culture, Spaces and Societies (TRACES)

146 Posters

Session VI: PVI-7

Earliest mining activities in South America: extraction of iron oxides in Late Holocene contexts in coastal northern Chile. Diego S. Salazar1, Hernán W. Salinas1, Jean Louis Guendón2 & Valentina Fi-gueroa3 1University of Chile, Department of Anthropology 2University of Provence, Institute of Economy, Societies and prehistoric environmental (ESEP) 3University of Paris – Pantheon Sorbonne, Institute of American Archaeology

Archaeological studies of mining have been very scarce in South America. Undoubtedly, this is in part due to the fact that Colonial and Modern mining has obliterated ancient evidences. In fact, in her extensive survey during the 1970's, Dr. Heather Lechtman could not identify a single certain prehispanic mine in the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes. Later studies have been able to locate prehistoric mines but unfortunately these have not yet been published in detail. In Chile prehispanic mines have also been found at least since the late 1960's, but also have not been studied systematically to this day. These two facts demonstrate that the archaeology of mining has not been developed also as an outcome of research design bias that have not fo-cused on this aspect of the chaine operatoire that ended with the production of metales, lapi-dary works and/or pigments.

In spite of the aforementioned, the study of finished objects and by-products of the production processes demonstrate that mining was a very important activity for prehistoric populations in the Andes, central to understand settlement patterns and interaction without much of its prehis-tory. We now know that iron oxides (i.e. hematite) and manganese were exploited at least since the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene transition, and that during Late Archaic Period (ca. 3500 BC) the mining of copper for lapidary activities begun. Unfortunately, due to the lack of re-search at present we know almost nothing about how mining was carried out and how it changed during time in the Andes.

Recent discoveries as part of an ongoing research in the coast of northern Chile (Taltal) is providing the earliest evidences yet published of prehispanic mining in South America, and thus will become a major contribution to our understanding of the origins and subsequent transformation of this technology. The site San Ramon 15 is an ancient iron oxide mine ex-ploited during Early Holocene (ca. 10500 BP) and Late Holocene (ca. 4500 BP) times. The

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ores extracted were processed to produce pigments used by local populations in a variety of settings including body-paint, rock art, funerary offerings, amongst others. The mine is a 35 x 3 meters trench, with a depth of more than 3 meters. Tailing, hammerstones, hammer flakes and different molluscs make up the main archaeological contexts associated with the mining activi-ties. Our paper will include technological analysis of the lithic technology (identification of raw materials, morphometric analysis, analysis of active edge shape and size and use-wear studies), as well as a reconstruction of the spatial organization of the mining operation (extrac-tion areas, first and secondary crushing areas) and the overall analysis of the archaeological context.

The evidences provide very interesting insights into the earliest mining technology of South America, its transformations through time and its association with a hunting-gathering-fishing coastal economy.

148 Posters

Session VIII: PVIII-1

Family Names as Indicators for Beginning Mining Activi-ties in Schwaz Yvonne Kathrein1 1University of Innsbruck, Institute of German Language and Literature

While mining activities in the 15th and 16th century in Schwaz have been well investigated, the beginnings of late Medieval mining are – due to insufficient significant archival material for this period – still subject to speculations; however, anthroponomastic research seems to open up new perspectives to illuminate first exposures in the region around Schwaz. The poster illustrates the results of the analysis of by- and family names from tax lists resp. a list of sub-jects from the years 1312 and 1424.

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Session VIII: PVIII-2

The Library and the Mining Archives of the “Montanwerke Brixlegg” (Tyrol) Gebhard Bendler1, Reinhard Bodner1 & Gerhard Rampl1 1University of Innsbruck, Institute of History and Ethnology

The project “Erschließung der Bibliothek und des Bergbauarchivs der Montanwerke Brixlegg“ (“Indexing of the Library and the Mining Archives of the Montanwerke Brixlegg ”) is a com-plementary project to the special research area “History of Mining in Tyrol” at the Leopold Franzens University Innsbruck.

The aim of the project is to preserve, arrange systematically, and make accessible the library stock and mining-archives of the “Montanwerke Brixlegg”, which is an Austrian company with a long history. The first extant record of the Brixlegg copper and silver refinery is a document dated 1463. Since that date at least, copper and noble metals have been produced in Brixlegg. Due to the increase in use of electricity, as early as 1885 very pure copper was produced through the introduction of electrolysis. After a strong decline in copper and silver mining in Tyrol, the continued existence of the refinery, which belonged to the state, was guaranteed at the beginning of the 20th century through a change in production to the recycling of copper from scrap metals.

The library collection includes some very important and unique sources of history of the Tyro-lean mining and metallurgy from the 17th century to the present, which are of high scientific and social interest. In the library we find about 400 records, 70 learned journals, over 2500 monographs, encyclopaedias and collected editions on mining engineering and copper-metallurgy, in addition to literature on the business environment of a copper producing compa-ny.

The core of the mining-archives is five chests containing 1800 mine and construction plans, engineering drawings, and geological maps from the late 18th century to the 20th century. The focus lies on the mining areas around Schwaz, Kitzbühel and Brixlegg and of high importance are the overview plans (“Hauptkarten”) of the mines “Falkenstein” and “Ringenwechsel” from the beginning of the 19th century.

Since 1957/58 the “Montanwerke Brixlegg” extracted dolomite from the mines in Schwaz, however a rockslide in 1999 temporary halted this work. For this latest phase of Schwazer mining history there is a collection of more than 300 folders with operational documentation in

150 Posters

the mining-archives. These collections offer a wealth of material on the history of a small busi-ness, which employed up to 18 people. Of particular historical value are the materials which are related to the rockslide at the “Eibelschrofen” in 1999. While the major part of the archives documents the history of dolomite mining at Falkenstein, a small stock relates to the mines of “Kogel” in St. Gertraudi: after the extraction of fahlore ceased and the mechanical treatment of barite was introduced in the 1920’s, barite was extracted at this location until the 1960’s.

Posters 151

Session IX: PIX-1

ArcheoInf – WebGIS-based provision of archaeological primary data Stefan Printz1 & Matthias Lang2 1Bochum University of Applied Sciences, Department Surveying and Geoinformatics 2University of Göttingen, Institute of Archaeology

ArcheoInf is an interdisciplinary project conducted by the Institute for Archaeological Science at the Ruhr-Universitaet Bochum, the Department for Computer Science at the Technische Universitaet Dortmund, the Department for Geo Computer Science at the University of Ap-plied Sciences Bochum and the University Libraries Bochum and Dortmund. The German Research Society funds the project.

ArcheoInf aims at merging primary data acquired in different archaeological excavations and field surveys. It will provide one single point of access to primary data from heterogeneous information systems. The autonomy of these different databases will not be affected. Archaeo-logical primary data is linked to geoinformatic data and miscellaneous library services, i.e. an institutional repository. Thus, ArcheoInf will constitute a comprehensive data pool for archaeo-logical research.

ArcheoInf offers a mediator which is capable to search simultaneously in many heterogeneous databases without changing the interface. The mediator is based on a comprehensive thesaurus with a maximum number of archaeology subjects and a semantic web-enabled OWL-based ontology providing a comfortable search in archaeological data. The ontology is consistent with the CIDOC-CRM. The polyhierachic and multilingual thesaurus is based on SKOS.

Furthermore you have access to archaeological pictures and factual information, electronic full text and bibliographic data on an archive server.

A Geo-Server saves the geo information in a standardized form for cartographic representation through the internet. WebGIS is used as client for background maps where various services as Google Maps and World Wind are involved. In this way the user will have comfortably pre-sented sites on the maps with variable scales. Spatial analyses are possible for single or multi-ple projects. ArcheoInf exclusively uses the WGS84 reference system (or ETRS89) to guaran-tee the coherent storage and presentation of all geo data and to be compatible with GPS. Trans-formation algorithms offer automated services for projects using the local geographic system or the current country system.

152 Posters

ArcheoInf sees itself as open structure for archaeological projects. The project cooperates with several partners from different universities and research institutes. Databases in progress are updated by the current project as usual. Completed data collections will be available on the archive server for a long term. Rights management enables ongoing and unpublished projects to limit the access to the involved scientists and to give access to initial results selectively, e.g., in research reports.

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Minería antigua

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