MINISTRY OF WATER AND IRRIGATION .I ; ,: ' .. ,. , .. , THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA -l El 832 VOL. 6 LAKE VICTORIA ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PROJECT Phase Two Integrated Pest Management (IPM) February 2008 Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized
1.4 Background of IPM Study ...................................................................................................................... 17 1.4.1 Social economic disturbances ........................................................................................... 18 1.4.2 Environmental Impacts ...... .,. ........................................................................................... 18 1.4.3 Overstocking ..................................................................................................................... 18 1.4.4 Lack of immunisation of livestock ................................................................................... 19 1.4.5 Cross border grazing ......................................................................................................... 19 1.4.6 Cross border cattle trade and rustling ............................................................................... 19 1.4.7 Wildlife migration ............................................................................................................ 19 1.4.8 Migratory pests such as locusts and armyworms .............................................................. 20
1.5 Socio-economic considerations ....................................................................................................... 20 1.6 Study Area ....................................................................................................................................... 21
1.6.1 Available challenges and management strategies ............................................................. 23 1.7 Tasks and Scope .............................................................................................................................. 25
1.7.1 Domesticated animals ....................................................................................................... 26 1.7.2 Poultry and Aquaculture products .................................................................................... 26 1.7.3 Epidemic and Endemic diseases ....................................................................................... 26 1.7.4 Agricultural patterns ......................................................................................................... 28 1.7.5 Agro-ecological zones ...................................................................................................... 29
2 . MAJOR CROP AND LIVESTOCK PESTS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT ................................... 30 2.1 Common pests in Tanzania ............................................................................................................. 30
2.1.12 Nuisance pests (flies, beetles, cockroaches, ants, ) ............................................................ 31 2.1.13 Outbreaks of new crop diseases ........................................................................................ 32
........................................................................................................... 2.2 Crop production in Tanzania 32 2.3 Livestock production ....................................................................................................................... 33
......................................................................................................................... 2.4 IPM related matters 34 .................................................................... 2.4.1 Reduction in Productivity and Fertiliser Use 35
........................................................................ 2.4.2 Access to Fertilisers and Chemical Inputs 35 2.4.3 Access to land ................................................................................................................... 37 2.4.4 Intensify Irrigation ............................................................................................................ 37
2.4.5 Organic Farming ............................................................................................................... 38 .................................................... 2.4.6 Tree Farming as a Substitute to Food Crop Production 38
............................................................................................... 2.4.7 Support Large Scale Farms 38 ........................................................................................... 2.4.8 Distribution Support Services 38
................................................... 2.4.9 Reinstating Frequent Surveys and monitoring progress 38 ........................................................ 2.4.10 Improve Extension Services to an Advisory Service 38
....................................................................... IMPACT OF THE PESTS CONTROL METHODS 39 2.6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 39
...................................................................................... 2.6.2 Implication of Control measures 40 ....................... 2.6.3 Impacts of empirical plant and animal pests and disease control methods 41
............................................... VULNERABILITY OF THE BASIN TO PEST AND DISEASES 44 ............................................ DEFINITION AND OVERVIEW OF THE PEST MANAGEMENT 50
............................................................................................................ LEGAL ASPECTS OF IPM 53 Governing Policies .......................................................................................................................... 53
............................................................ 4.1 . 1. The National Environmental Policy (NEP, 1997) 54 ................................................................................................. 4.1.2. The National Land Policy 54
.......................................................................................... 4.1.3. Plant Protection Policy (1997) 54 The Legal Framework Supporting IPM ........................................................................................... 54 4.2.1 The Environmental Management Act (2004) ................................................................... 55 4.2.2 Land Legislation ............................................................................................................... 56 4.2.3 Water Utilization and Regulation Act, (No . 42) 1974 ...................................................... 57 4.2.4 The Forest Act, (No . 14), 2002 ......................................................................................... 57 4.2.5 The Wildlife Conservation Act (No . 12), 1974 ................................................................ 58 4.2.6 Occupation Health and Safety Act (No . 5, 2003) ............................................................. 58 4.2.7 The Veterinary Act, 2003 (No 16 of 2003) ...................................................................... 59
. ................................................................ 4.2.8 Animal Disease Act 2003 (No 17 of 2003) 59 Relevant WB safeguard policies ..................................................................................................... 59 4.3.1 Environmental Assessment ............................................................................................... 59 4.3.2 Involuntary Resettlement .................................................................................................. 60 4.3.3 Projects on International Waterways ................................................................................ 60 PROPOSED INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT AND FRAMEWORK ............................. 60
Introduce new research activities and disseminate past research findings ...................................... 61 Replicate ongoing (long term) research activities in other parts to the LVB region ....................... 61 Proposed Pests monitoring and Evaluation System ......................................................................... 62 Other research projects .................................................................................................................... 62 Weed Management .......................................................................................................................... 62
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Common ago-chemicals used in the Lake Victoria catchment ............................ 35 Table 2: List of banned or restricted pesticides in Tanzania ................................................ 36 Table 3: Social and economic activities associated with the presence of pests and vectors .
................................................................................................................................ 40 Table 4: The aetiology, epidemiology. hosts. transmission and sources of vulnerability of
major pests and diseases in Lake Victoria Basin ................................................... 45
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3: Chemicals and pesticides used in cotton production ........................................... 42
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Ministry of Water wishes to thank the World Bank for financial assistance geared to implement activities of this second phase of the Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project. Secondly ministry expresses its gratitude for the good work done and contributions made by various Consultants and selected members of the National Technical Working Group (NTWG) to this important work; such efforts are highly appreciated.
We are also indebted to all those who have participated to finalize this work; and to them we say thank you.
ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS
AR EI A EIS EMA EMC EM0 EMP ESA ESMF LVBC LVBWO LVEMP I & I1 PMO-RALG
VEMO VEO WDC WE0 WEMO
Applied Research Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental Impact Statements Environment Management Act Environmental Management Committee Environmental Management Officer Environmental Management Plan External Support Agencies Environmental and Social Management Framework Lake Victoria Basin Commission Lake Victoria Basin Water OfficeIOfficer Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project, Phase I and 11, Prime Minister's Office - Regional Administration and Local Government Village Environmental Management Officer VillageIMtaa Executive Officers Ward Development Committee Ward Executive Officer Ward Environmental Management Officer
EXECUTlVE SUMMARY
The Government of Tanzania (GOT) has requested a credit from the World Bank for the implementation of the proposed 2nd Phase of Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project (LVEMP 11) to be implemented within the entire Lake Victoria Basin. The Project is geared to enhancing environmentally friendly economic growth in the Basin through knowledge generation for development, socio-economic development, promotion of effective natural resources management framework, and enhancing public participation and communication. The Project will invest in promoting community and private sector involvement in sustainable economic growth and environmental conservation for the benefits of both upstream and downstream communities. The Project will cover all those areas that drain their water resources into the Lake Victoria, in Kagera, Mwanza and Mara regi'ons.
Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project LVEMP 11
Lake Victoria Environment Management Project I1 is based on the lessons learnt of LVEMP I, which was implemented during 1997-2005 period and pro osed a second phased to address P some of the key issues that were identified in the phase one. In addition, LVEMP I1 aims to implement priority interventions of the Strategic Action Programme (SAP), which address key environmental issue identified in the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) for the Lake Victoria basin (LVB).
Higher level objectives to which LVEMP I1 contributes
The LVEMP I1 will contribute towards the achievement of the EAC's Lake Victoria Basin Development Vision and Strategy of having: "A pnosperous population living in a healthy and sustainably managed environment providing equitable .opportunities and benefits to the riparian communities." The Strategy's main development objectives are to achieve: (i) shared economic growth; (ii) poverty eradication; and (iii) a healthy ecosystem. This common vision serves as a shared basis for discussing perspectives, strategies and approaches for sustainable growth and development, and coordinated efforts for addressing key environmental concerns of the Lake Victoria basin.
The Project development/global environmental objectives (PDOIGEO) are to: (i) improve the collaborative management of the transboundary natural resources of the LVB; and (ii) reduce environmental stress in the Lake Victoria basin.
These project PDOIGEOs will be achieved by implementing four components:
Component 1: Strengthening governance of water and$sheries resources
This component will focus on building institutions to improve governance of transboundary natural resources of the Lake Victoria basin. Its objectives are to: (i) foster transparency, accountability, and voice; (ii) improve performance of key regional and national institutions; (iii) develop regional frameworks for the management of key transboundary natural resources - water and fisheries; and (iv) establish mechanisms for resolving disputes over the shared natural resources, and environmental impacts andlor externalities.
Component 2: Investing in pollution control and prevention measures
The main objective of this component is to reduce environmental stress in the LVB. It will finance investments aimed at reducing: (a) point and non-point sources of pollution in priority hotspots and catchments; (b) industrial pollution; and (c) pollution risks prevention in
Lake Victoria. The control of point sources of pollution would focus on major polluting citiesltowns and industries on the lake shores. Similarly, the control of non-point sources of pollution would concentrite on selected sub-catchments of rivers with highest pollution loads, particularly nitrogen, and phosphorus.
Component 3: Raising public awareness and participation
The objective of this component is to increase awareness and participation of various stakeholders, including elected representatives, local communities, and the general public, on the sustainable management of Lake'victoria ecosystem. It will support public education programs and communication.
The outcomes of research and ecosystem monitoring will be made available in languages that decision makers, stakeholders, and resource users can understand. Sharing of information will be done through the GIS-based regional Management Information System (MIS), focal point ministries' websites, interaction with the media, and consultations with local communities.
Component 4: Project coordination and management
This component will provide resources necessary for the effective coordination, and monitoring and evaluation of the project activities. At regional level, these tasks will be carried out by the LVBC, while at the national level they will be the responsibility of the National Project Coordination Team (NPCT). This component will have two sub- component~: project coordination; and monitoring and evaluation.
Integrated Pest Management
The purpose of Integrated Pest Management for the Lake Victoria Basin came because of excessive reliance on insecticides to control pests and diseases in agriculture, animal husbandry and in other application. Besides many known problems intensive use have threaten crop production, sustainability, health and the environment from secondary pest outbreaks, development of!pesticide resistance and the destruction of natural enemies, thereby putting farmers in a vicious pesticide treadmill. In addition, remains of the pesticide normally find their ways into natural drainage systems and finally into Lake Victoria and impact negatively to the water quality and risking aquatic life. Notably, the farmers' low level of literacy and education also account for their overall risk of exposure to pesticides. Successful economical and environmentally friendly control of pests and diseases requires the use of a variety of control methods rather than relying exclusively on a single method of control. The combined pest control method, also referred to as Integrated Pest Management (IPM) give possibilities of using different strategies while engineering various ways and means of controlling pests of the Lake Victoria Basin (LVB) particularly in agriculture and animal husbandry. Principally the IPM strategy relies first and foremost on the application of ecological principles and processes, for example, dealing with pest populations using combined biological control, use of bio-pesticides and cultural techniques before opting to chemical control methods.
Thus IPM strategy is valuable not only as a solution to pesticide-induced problems, but also as a fundamental approach to pest management in general. Human resource development is an essential element of IPM, as it is a knowledge-intensive technology. However farmers and pastoralists' affordability to make it effective and sustainable instead of relying on agrochemicals use to control pests for better incomes is of great concerns. Common food crops in the LVB on Tanzanian side are maize, beans, banana, rice, millet/sorghum, irish and sweet potatoes and cassava; while crops like cotton, coffee, vanilla, mango, pineapple, oranges and horticultural crops are cultivated on commercial basis and
have become reliable income sources for most farmers in the Basin. Besides crop plroduction also animal husbandry is being practiced. Agriculturists and pastoralists have suffered attacks of different types of pests; such as locusts, mites, water hyacinth, viral and bacterial1 diseases e.g. rinderpest, antfirax and black quarter for animals to just mention a few; and IPM as a strategy will provide necessary means and measures to deal with such diseases as also rightly conceived under provided LVEMP I1 interventions.
This study is a literature review study, where by the data were obtained from several reports, from the internet and some few consultation to some of the phase one project actors.
Overall objective The overall objective is IPM study to enhance an integrated pest management in the Lake Victoria basin so as to reduce risks caused by presence of pests, their attacks and associated costs;
Specific objectives The specific objectives of conducting Integrated Pest Management study include among other things: i) To assess the pest and disease status in the LV basin areas; ii) To understand the Basin vulnerability to pest attacks; iii) To propose appropriate Integrated Pest Management strategies so as to reduce risks of
pest attacks and associated damage; iv) To develop an integrated pest management/control strategylregime that uses appropriate
array of complementary methods such as using natural predators and parasites, pest- resistant treelcrop varieties, cultural practices, biological controls and other physical techniques;
v) To assess the capacity to design and implement IPM regimes; vi) To define clear profile of the institutional or partnerships mandates in the
implementation of IPM within the basin; vii) Enhance understanding on the outstanding researchable areas; viii) To provide clear policy recommendations on how to address any risks related to pests
that the project may stimulate, and finally ix) Promote monitoring of pests attacks and the effectiveness of management approaches.
It is concluded from this study that, the Lake Victoria Basin Region like many other parts of Tanzania experiences disturbances from presence of number of pests and anthropogenic control means which require physical, biological and chemical agents. And it was also noted that over time agrochemicals build up resistance and instead of solving they let thje problem complicated than even before thus calling for sufficient research before opting to chemical agents. From the findings then, the study proposes the following integrated pest management principals so that all key stakeholders should follow in odder to mitigate the impacts of pest in all sectors,
(i). A better understanding of the biology, ecology, and population interactions of pests and hosts is needed.
(ii). Minimizing the risks of pests' potential to destroy crops, or transmitting diseases.
(iii). Development of early warning systems in pest management
(iv). Reducing the probabilities of secondary pest outbreaks and pest resurgence
(v). Developing selective control methods which are less destructive to natural competitors or enemies of pests.
(vi). Developing methodologies to manage pests, which do not harm the health of farm crops, animals, humans or the environment.
(vii). Beneficial exploitation of pests
(viii). Survey of potential indigenous bio - control agents in forest.
(ix). TO put strong policies and acts in odder to reduce migration of animals
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Description of the Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project I1
This chapter describes the proposed Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project Phase I1 (LVEMP) including the different components and activities and outcomes expected during the duration of the project. It begins by describing the project objectives, project components, and then the potential subprojects.
1.2 Project Objectives
The LVEMP I1 will contribute towards the achievkxnent okthe EAC's Lake Victoria Basin Development Vision and Strategy of having: "A prosperous population living in a healthy and sustainably managed environmentproviding equitable opportunities and benefits to the riparian communities. " The Strategy's main development objectives are to achieve: (i) shared economic growth; (ii) poverty eradication; and (iii) a healthy ecosystem. This common vision serves as a shared basis for discussing perspectives, strategies and approaches for sustainable growth and development, and coordinated efforts for addressing key environmental concerns of the Lake Victoria basin.
The Project development/global environmental objectives (PDOIGEO) are to: (i) i ~ p r o v e the collaborative management of the transboundary natural resources of the LVB; and (ii) reduce environmental stress in the Lake Victoria basin.
1.3 Project Components
Lake Victoria Environment Management Project I1 is based on the lessons learnt of LVEMP I which was implemented during 1997-2005 period and proposed a second phased to address some of the key issues that were identified in the phase one.' The project has four main components: (i) Strengthening governance of water and fisheries resources; (ii) Investing in pollution control and prevention measures; (iii) Raising public awareness and participation; and (iv) Project coordination and management.
Component 1: Strengthening governance of water and fisheries resources , .
This component will focus on building institutions t6 improve governance of transboundary natural resources of the Lake Victoria basin. Its objectives are to: (i) foster transparency, accountability, and voice; (ii) improve performance of key regional and national institutions; (iii) develop regional frameworks for the management of key transboundary natural resources -water and fisheries; and (iv) establish mechanisms for resolving disputes over the shared natural resources, and environmental impacts andlor externalities. It will have four sub- component~: applied research; ecosystem monitoring; harmonization of policy, regulations, and standards; and institutional development and strengthening.
Sub-component 1.1: Applied research
This sub-component will finance continuation of priority water and fisheries research to fill the knowledge gaps on environmental, social, and economic related aspects; and use outcomes to inform LVB policy and management decisions. Priority will be given to regional research programs, which are focusing on transboundary issues. Multi-disciplinary research
Key lesson learnt from the first phase of LVEMP was that the Lake Victoria program over its entire time horizon has broad and ambitious objectives to enhance sustainable benefits to riparian communities, conserve biodiversity, and provide the riparians with harmonized and shared tools to regulate and manage the lake.
programs, which link physical and biolo'gical sciences to social and economic aspects, would be emphasized. Further, the project will ensure that individual research proposals are collectively producing a cohesive body of knowledge, which addresses a common set of goals and management objectives. Emphasis will also be put on translating scientific research outputs generated under LVEMP I into practical and cost-effective management interventions.
The expected outcome of this component is that LVBC and the LVB countries use scientific and socio-economic knowledge generated to inform policy decisions on the sustainable management of the LVB ecosystem.
Sub-component 1.2: Ecosystem monitoring
This sub-component will finance the strengthening of existing and developing new scientific and socio-economic: (a) data gathering protocols; (b) ecosystem monitoring tools; and (c) data sharing mechanisms. It will also support the monitoring of key environmental parameters, using GEFYs indicators (process, stress reduction, and environmental status) for international waters projects. The results from the ecosystem monitoring will guide the natural resources and environmental management decisions. The ecosystem monitoring tools, would include: (i) Water Information System (WIS) for monitoring surface water, groundwater, and water quality; (ii) Decision Support System (DSS) for the basin water resources; (iii) Atmospheric deposition monitoring network; (iv) GIs-based database for the land use, hydrology, and biodiversity, and related Lake Victoria Dynamic Information Framework (LVDIF); and (v) Regional framework for fish stocks assessment.
The expected outcome of this sub-component is that LVBC and LVB counties use reliable environmental health and natural resources (land, water, and fisheries) data of the Lake Victoria basin ecosystem for planning sustainable management of the LVB resources.
Sub-component 1.3: Harmonization of policies, regulations, and standards
The main objective of this sub-component is to improve the policy and regulatory framework for the management of water and fisheries resources of the LVB. This would reduce conflicts on both the allocation of the basin's resources amongst competing uses (e.g., domestic water supply, irrigation, industrial, environmental flows, energy etc.,), and the utilization of shared transboundary natural resources (water and fisheries). The expected outputs under this sub- component include: (i) national policies governing the utilization of fisheries and water resources are harmonized; (ii) regional regulatory standards for water and fish quality, and their enforcement mechanisms are developed; (iii) regional standards for industrial and municipal effluent discharges into sewerage and river systems are developed and uniformly applied in LVB; and (iv) integrated water and fisheries resources management participatory approaches are mainstreamed in the regional and national programs.
The expected outcome of this sub-component is that the LVB counties have a common policy, legal, and regulatory framework for natural resources and environmental
T : management. . ,
Sub-component 1.4: Institutional development and strengthening
The objective of this sub-component is to improve the management of the shared LVB resources. This sub-component will focus on: (a) strengthening the regional and national institutions mandated to govern transboundary natural resources; (b) developing regional management frameworks; and (c) studying options for establishing sustainable financing mechanisms.
The project will finance the capacity building programs of the regional, national, and local institutions responsible for coordination, research, management of resources, and enforcement of environmental standards. This includes LVBC and LVFO; national L,VB authoritiesloffices, fisheries, and environmental management institutions; and local government authorities. Capacity will be enhanced through long and short term training, technical assistance, provision of office and laboratory equipment, and research/monitoring marine vessels. The main outputs of this component will be: (i) LVBC Secretariat's Office, Communication, and Information Resource Center upgraded to become a regional databaselinformation hub; (ii) Lake Victoria research vessel - RV Jumuiya fully equipped for water quantity and quality monitoring; (iii) water, fisheries, and soil laboratories equipment upgraded; and (iv) Long- and short-term training, Technical Assistance, and study tours provided to staff of various institutions according to the needs assessment.
The project will also finance the development of regional natural resources and environmental management frameworks. The key outputs include: (i) a regional Water Resource Management Plan (WRMP); (ii) an updated Lake Victoria Integrated Fisheries Management Plan (IFMP); and (iii) basin-wide Watershed Management Strategy (WMS). Finally, it will finance the development of sustainable financing mechanisms, including operationalizing the Fish Levy Trust Funds (FLTFs), and studying options for establishing the Lake Victoria Environmental Trust Fund (LVETF).
The expected outcome of this sub-component are: (i) Enhanced national and district level capacity for enforcement of the environmental standards and sustainable management of the natural resources in the LVB; and (ii) LVB countries adopt common transboundary natural resources (water and fisheries) and environmental management frameworks.
Component 2: Investing in pollution control and prevention measures
The main objective of this component is to reduce erivironmental stress in the LVB. It will finance investments aimed at reducing: (a) point and non-point sources of pollution in priority hotspots and catchments; (b) industrial pollution; and (c) pollution risks in Lake Victoria.
The control of point sources of pollution would focus on major polluting citiesltowns and industries on the lake shores in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Similarly, the control of non- point sources of pollution would concentrate on selected sub-catchments of rivers with highest pollution loads, particularly sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus. There will be four sub-components: liquid and solid waste management; watershed rehabilitation; industrial pollution control, and pollution risk prevention.
Sub-component 2.1: Liquid and solid waste management
The objective of this sub-component is to reduce point sources of pollution by supporting public investments, including: (i) rehabilitating selected wastewater treatment plants and connecting them to constructed andlor restored wetlands; (ii) providing ecological sanitary services; and (iii) improving solid waste management. The LVEMP I1 will target highly eutrophic hotspots, including Winam Gulf (Kenya), Murchison Bay (Uganda), Napoleon and Mwanza Gulfs (Tanzania), which together receive 57 percent of the total Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) loads to the Lake Victoria. The project will finance planned rehabinitation of sewerage treatment and solid waste management systems of major urban centers around the Lake Victoria - Kisumu, Homa Bay, Mwanza, Musoma, Bukoba, Entebbe, Jinja, and Kampala. The Pollution Control Plans (PCPs) for hotspot areas will be developed, and used to prioritize specific intervention measures.
Since the majority of population living in the Lake Victoria basin rely on onsite sanitation facilities (pit latrines, septic tanks, and cesspits), the project would support municipal authorities in the collection, treatment, and disposal of sludge in areas not served by the sewerage systems. It would also support the construction of ecological sanitation toilets in poor and underserved pen-urban, beach, and rural communities. Priority would be given to the public institutions' facilities, such as sqhools, health centers, landing beaches, and markets.
Solid waste is a significant polluting source to the Lake Victoria. The project would, therefore, provide technical and financial support to municipal authorities for the management of open dumps and/or landfills. The support would include solid waste collection, transportation, and disposal. Some research and pilot activities for collecting landfill biogas or methane using Active Control and Stabilization Method (ACSM) would also be supported.
The expected outcome of this sub-component is that municipal authorities reduce amounts of point sources of pollution - untreated urban effluents, nutrient loads from leachates, and green house gases emissions.
Sub-component 2.2: Watershed rehabilitation
This sub-component seeks to reduce non-point source pollution (sediment loads, nutrients, and ago-chemicals), by supporting community-driven investments in rehabilitating nine (out of 22) priority degraded sub-catchments of the Lake Victoria. These include catchments of rivers Kagera (shared by Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda); Simiyu, Eastern Shore Streams, and Grumeti in Tanzania; Gucha-Migori, Nyando, and Sondu-Miriu in Kenya; and Bukora and Katonga in Uganda.
The project will provide matching grants to organized communities to promote local partnerships in addressing degradation of the watershed. Community-Driven Development (CDD) approaches will be used to scale up watershed rehabilitation interventions. The latter will comprise two categories: (i) soil and water conservation; and (ii) livelihoods improvement. The soil and water conservation will include interventions that are generating predominantly public goods or benefits, such as protection of steep slope farm land, reforestation and afforestation, sediment retention structures, village infrastructure (drinking water boreholes, access roads, protection of natural springs), catchment or forest protection, water hyacinth control, and rehabilitation of degraded wetlands. These interventions would be implemented largely by communities. The livelihoods improvement interventions include activities that are largely household-based, and with substantial private benefits. These will include terracing and contouring of farms on gentle slopes, horticulture and economic trees, forage and livestock development, irrigation and drainage, rain water harvesting, renewable energy supply, ecological sanitation toilets, integrated pest management practices, aquaculture, small scale fish processing, fish landing sites, and cold storage facilities. These will be financed to provide incentives for communities to participate in the soil and water conservation programs.
The expected outcomes of implementing this sub-component are: (i) increased adoption of sustainable land management practices by farming communities in the targeted sub- catchments; (ii) increased adoption of sustainable fishing practices and hygiene standards by the targeted Lake Victoria fishing communities; and (iii) improved livelihoods of the households in the participating communitiks.
Sub-component 2.3: Industrial pollution control
The objective of this sub-component is to reduce industrial pollution, by pre-treating wastes onsite, and enhancing efficiency in raw material utilization - through sorting, reuse, and recycling activities. The major polluting industries located mainly in Kisumu and Eldoret (Kenya); Mwanza and Bukoba (Tanzania); and Kampala and Jinja (Uganda) will be targeted.
This sub-component will ensure that industries reduce pollution loads from effluents through: (i) adoption of Cleaner Production Technologies and Sustainable Consumption (CPT&SC); (ii) compliance enforcement to effluent standards; and (iii) public education and awareness campaigns. The project will also support the updating of inventory of factories and their pollution loads and posting the information on the public website, to increase public pressure. Annual CPT Awards will be promoted to provide incentives for industries to reduce wastes and treat effluents on site.
The expected outcome of this sub-component is increased adoption of cleaner production technologies and sustainable consumption by industries.
Subcomponent 2.4: Pollution risk prevention
The main objectives of this sub-component are to: (i) prevent marine vessel accidents, which could be major source of pollution, including oil spills; (ii) improve safety of navigation for both passenger and fishing vessels; and (iii) reduce green house gases released into the atmosphere.
This sub-component will therefore finance the survey and mapping of marine transport routes in the Lake Victoria; and installation of navigation equipment and facilities, such as light houses, lighted buoys, radar system, rescue operation equipment, and early warning system. So far, a total of 194 locations to be equipped with aids to navigation have been identified, and out of these, 106 sites are considered as high priority. The project will also finance the installation of the lake-wide communication, emergency response, and early warning systems.
Finally, this sub-component will support the linking of afforestation and reforestation programs with private Carbon Finance (CF) mechanisms. Existing pilots in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda will be scaled up to areas with secure land tenure systems. The municipal councils participating in the pilot ecological landfill and sanitation programs, and collection of methane gas; and industries adopting cleaner production technologies, which reduce green house gases will also be linked to the Cleaner Development Mechanism (CDM) financing.
The expected outcomes of this sub-component are: (i) increased preparedness to respond to pollution problems in the Lake Victoria; and (ii) enhanced security and safety of navigation in the Lake Victoria.
Component 3: Raising public awareness and participation
The objective of this component is to increase awareness and participation of various stakeholders, including elected representatives, local communities, and the general public, on the sustainable management of the Lake Victoria ecosystem. It will support public education programs and communication.
The outcomes of research and ecosystem monitoring will be made available in languages that decision makers, stakeholders, and resource users can understand. Sharing of information will be done through the GIS-based regional Management Information System (MIS), focal point ministries' websites, interaction with the media, and consultations with local communities.
This component will have three sub-components: internal communication; regional and national outreach program; and community awareness and participation program. These sub- components have been designed to address specific information needs of project implementation teams, policy makers, and communities.
Sub-component 3.1: Internal communication
This sub-component will finance the development of communications system for improving sharing of data and information among the implementing agencies. This would enhance sharing of existing technical knowledge and implementation experiences, at the regional, national, local, and community levels. Specifically, the sub-component's outputs will include an: (i) internal communications system to facilitate information sharing; and (ii) information sharing protocol among LVBC, member countries, and implementing agencies.
The main outcome of this sub-component would be an improved project implementation performance at the regional, national, district, and community levels.
Sub-component 3.2: Regional and national outreach program
This sub-component will focus on delivering Lake Victoria's environmental education programs to the policy makers and public at large. Its objectives are to ensure an understanding of the key environmental issues for the sustained public funding commitment to project and long-term sustainability. Therefore, the outreach program would target the East African Legislative Assembly (EALA), national parliamentarians, local politicians, donor community, and the general public. The project will support: (i) development of regional and national public awareness and education materials for the sustainable use of LVB resources; (ii) outreach activities to seek political buy-in of the parliamentarians, and ensure success and sustainability . The main outcome of this sub-component is an established political will to maintain long- term financing commitment for interventions initiated under the project.
Sub-component 3.3: Community awareness and participation program
This sub-component will focus on creating communities' awareness of the key environmental issues of the LVB and the benefits of their participation in the CDD investments for the rehabilitation of the watershed. In particular, the project will organize public awareness meetings for local communities to promote: (a) adoption of non-point pollution mitigation measures, including use of ecological toilets, and soil erosion control; and (b) change of unsustainable natural resources utilization behavior.
The project will support the development of: (i) training modules for teaching environmental and socio-economic impacts of Lake Victoria's watershed degradation; (ii) guidelines for the Preparation and Implementation of Community Sub-projects, translation into local languages, and wide dissemination; (iii) synergies and linkages with existing awareness programs in the LVB; and (iv) mechanisms for resolving communities' conflicts on shared or common resources use.
The expected outcome of this sub-component is enhanced communities' ability to plan, manage, implement, and monitor prioritized watershed rehabilitation investments.
Component 4: Project coordination and management
This component will provide resources necessary for the effective coordination, and monitoring and evaluation of the project activities. At regional level, these tasks will be camed out by the LVBC, while at the national level they will be the responsibility of the
National Project Coordination Teams (NPCTs). This component will have two sub- component~: project coordination; and monitoring and evaluation.
Sub-component 4.1: Project coordination
This sub-component would finance the incremental operating costs of the various committees, including the Regional Policy Steering Committee (RPSC), National Project Steering Committee (NPSC), and the National Technical Advisory Committee (NTAC). In addition, this component would meet the capital and operating costs of the Regional Project Coordination Team (RPCT) to be located in the LVBC Secretariat; and the NPCTs, which will be mainstreamed in the Focal Point Ministries (FPMs). The National Project Coordinators (NPCs) could be employed on competitive basis to coordinate project implementation activities during the first two years. Thissub-component would also strengthen the financial and procurement management functions in the LVBC and NPCTs to enhance project's resources management and accountability. Finally, funds would be available to recruit a few incremental staff, such as secretaries and drivers, under the operational costs category.
Sub-component 4.2: Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E)
This sub-component would provide resources for the establishment of the regional and national GIs-based M&E and Management Information System (MIS); and the collection, analyses, storage, and dissemination of the project's implementation performance, outcomes, and impact data and information. To accomplish the M&E functions, LVBC and each FPM will hire andlor assign a qualified M&E specialist. The project will maintain sets of indicators for M&E, capturing the ILBM governance indicators3, and GEFYs indicators for international waters projects4, and the socio-economic status of participating communities. This sub- component will ensure that monitoring reports, including quarterly and annual project implementation progress, procurement, financial and audit reports are produced regularly.
The expected outcome of this component is that project resources are used efficiently to generate the intended results and achieve its objectives.
1.4 Background of IPM Study
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a proven method of pest control that emphasizes simple, inexpensive prevention practices that cause the least harm to people and the environment. IPM focuses on eliminating the cause of pests by minimizing access to food, water, and hiding places.
According to various studies performed in the LVB areas and as well as revealed by consultancy services during LVEMP I1 preparatory phase; it is apparent that there are many productive sectors of major conccms. The maill leading ones include: land, water, fisheries, forests, wetlands, minerals, pastures, wildlife, energy and cultural sites (BICO, 2006; CRA, 2006; East African Community, 2006; EDA, 2006). I-Iowever according to the Lake Victoria Basin Strategic Actioil Plan (SAP) recognizes agriculture and livestock pests and diseases aillong the 18 Key Transboundary lssues (KT1) as well as policy and institutional weaknesses.
Policies, institutions, stakeholder participation, rules, information, and finances.
Process, stress reduction, and environmental status.
In Tanzania, the ability to be adequately nourished depends entirely on the agricultural sector and animal husbandry. Although subsistence crop production dominates the agricultural economy, the main factor determining poor nourishment is the inability to grow enough food due to over-dependence on variable precipitation, degraded water catchments, soil degradation, low economic entitlements and the problem of pests and diseases.
The animal husbandry apart fiom the problem of drought but also is faced with various pests and diseases that sometimes lead to death of animals and ultimately to catastrophic economic loss. The outbreak of Rift Valley Fever in Tanzania is vivid case but also the threat of Avian flu is another example. The presence of zoonolysis diseases in another threat particularly from tsetse infections for it affects both livestock and humans.
Pest attacks and disease outbreaks are somewhat natural phenomenon but their controls basically require anthropogenic interventions. Generally engineering of pest and diseases control can have or attributes to the following impacts:
1.4.1 Social economic disturbances
The occurrence of pest and diseases'may'create socio-economic problems and disturbances in the LVB region and could be seen in number of ways, but not limited to the following: (i) Low agricultural productivity; (ii) Reduced availability of food; (iii) Increased risks to human health; (iv) Loss of productive manpower; (v) Loss of lives, (vi) Increased costs of human health protection, and (vii) High costs of animal husbandry
1.4.2 Environmental Impacts
Environmental impacts from Project activities done build slowly and would accumulate in those areas over longer time. The accumulation pesticide effects start to reveal after certain time in one of the following ways, mainly: (i) Destruction of non-target species; (ii) Change in biological diversity; and (iii) Water quality deterioration.
Statistics indicate that disease outbreaks such as East Coast Fever (ECF), Foot and Mouth Diseases (FMD) are common in some parts of our country. The transboundary nature of these diseases is reflected in Table 4.1 ; and detailed causal chain links between the immediate and underlying causes is shown in Figure 4.2. The immediate causes for the outbreaks in the region include: overstocking, lack of immunisation of livestock, cross border cattle trade as well as rustling and wildlife migration.
1.4.3 Overstocking
The livestock population in the Lake Victoria Basin is quite high, totalling about 5,491,778, which is almost 23% of the total livestock population in Tanzania. The influx of immigrant pastoral herds from more drought prone districts in Shinyanga region have, particularly been responsible for the dramatic increase of livestock numbers in the basin, which in turn has led to serious degradation of the grazing areas, including wetlands. The most affected places are
wetlands of Lamadi in Magu and Nyatwali in Bunda Districts respectively rated 5 to 9 times and 2.6 fold overstocked. The eroded bare ground in Lamadi has reached 60 % {Kisoza et al, 2000).
1.4.4 Lack of immunisation of livestock
The majority of pastoralists undertook vaccinatiohs against diseases such as rinderpest, anthrax, and black quarter but some do not vaccinate their stock routinely as recommended by Veterinarians due to high costs of vaccines (Kisoza, et al., 2000). The other limitation is availability of veterinary drugs and acaricides for cattle dipping. According to the National Livestock Policy, pastoralists are supposed to meet all costs for animal health. The high prices and erratic supply of medicines, has, however, made immunisation of livestock difficult. Cattle dips are also inadequate and few available cattle dips have broken down making it difficult for pastoralists to contain common diseases like ECF.
1.4.5 Cross border grazing
There is enormous emigration of pastoralists and cattle to more southerly regions of Tanzania and across the borders of Kenya and Uganda due to serious degradation of the rangelands and persistent droughts in some parts of the basin. There are reported ongoing influxes of livestock movement into Serengeti District from neighbouring Kenya; and also fiom neighbouring countries of Uganda and Rwanda where livestock enter Tanzania and graze in areas of Kituntu, Kaisho, Nkwenda, Bugomola and Bugene wards in Karagwe District (Yanda et al., 2001). There is also a parallel pastoral migration fiom densely populated and severely degraded districts in Shinyanga and Mara regions and encroaching wetland areas in the Lake Victoria Basin. Such high mobility of livestock coupled with lack of availability of veterinary drugs facilitates spread of diseases and accounts for high mortality rate of livestock in surrounding places. I
1.4.6 Cross border cattle trade and rustling
Across the border trade and rustling in livestock between Kenya and Tanzania is present rampant. The trade liberalisation has triggered off a lucrative Tanzania-Kenya cross border cattle trucked trade and Lamadi village has become the main cattle trading and loading centre, the place is expanding and growing faster as a shopping centre and tourist village. Cattle business has attracted a large number of cattle prospectors as well as immigrant pastoralists, who have migrated to the village some, albeit, temporarily, to sell their cattle. The immigrant pastoralists owned the largest proportion of livestock; and cattle rustling are more prominent in Tarime District, which borders with Kenya. Each year thousands of stolen cattle cross the border to and fiom Kenya and accounts for spreading of diseases (Kisoza, et al., 2000).
1.4.7 Wildlife migration
Wildlife migrates fiom one riparian country to another annually; one time animals moves to Kenya fiom Tanzania and vice versa; particularly common in Serengeti and Maasai-Mara National Parks and also Grumeti Game Controlled area. There are also a number of game reserves in Karagwe, Ngara and Biharamulo dist+icts, Migration of wildlife causes also spreading of animal diseases in migrated places.
1.4.8 Migratory pests such as locusts and armyworms
Migratory pests in the LVB areas such as locusts, armyworms necessitate use of large quantities of chemicals to control them. Some of these chemicals may be very toxic and since spraying is normally done from the air, then there are great chance and possibilities of contaminating LVB environments. Occurrence of migratory pests could be regarded as a natural phenomenon. The outbreak of armyworm and Quelea quelea birds, for example, depends on rains. Usually, armyworm move as moths and they can travel long distances from their source areas before they breed during the rains.
1.5 Socio-economic considerations
The apparent effect from presence of pests in some parts of the LVB region is that they may lead into the following socio-economic problems: increased risk to human health, increased costs of human and livestock protection, reduced food availability, loss of agricultural productivity, loss of livelihoods due to high mortality of livestock; and food insecurity.
In Tanzania, forestry plays a major role in the energy and industrial sectors, as serves as the main fuel producer mainly wood, charcoal and crop residues while the construction industry and small scale wood based enterprises play significant economic roles. In Tanzania only 12 % of the population has access to electricity. As the population increases, fuel wood utilization are expected to increase, further constraining fuel supply. This increase in wood fuel demand negatively impacts on biodiversity and other services that forests provide. More so, forest trees are also subject to various pests and diseases that can decimate entire forests. Loss and risks to forest is linked to various environmental services for mankind. For example, the ability to access clean water is a well-being entitlement and is dependent on the ability of ecosystems to provide clean water, and these services are under stress in Tanzania.
The existing situation of natural resources such as mining and quany in Tanzania places it at a very low economic potential with a GDP contribution of about 3% and the Lake Victoria Basin has a poverty index of about 39 % (CBS, 2006). Although agriculture provides 70% of Tanzania's employment, and is the lifeline of 75 % of Tanzania's rural population, it contributes just over 46% to the GDP (390USD per capita). Poverty in Tanzania remains overwhelmingly a rural phenomenon, with an estimated 87% of rural population under the poverty level, with the poor engaged in subsistence agriculture. Given the state of stress of the agricultural industry, this will in future negatively impact on the ability of Tanzanians to earn a living from agriculture.
Statistics provided by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) show that actual losses to pests and diseases are as high as 55%, 49% and 48% for maize, rice and cottonseed respectively, in East Africa . Animal diseases such as ECF have been known to result in up to 80% deaths of infected cases if not treated early.
Whereas pest control within the Lake Victoria Basin may not be affordable to majority of the small-holder farmers, the large scale farmers tend to rely solely on pesticides resulting in build up of resistance by the pests.'Excessive use of pesticides in large scale farming such as sugarcane, tea plantations and paddy also leads to pesticides finding their way into the waterways and eventually into the lake where they impact negatively on the water quality and aquatic life. Control of livestock pests and diseases depends almost exclusively on the use of chemicals. The farmers' low level of knowledge on appropriate crop protection methods in the Basin also increases their overall risk of exposure to pesticides.
To contribute towards poverty alleviation in the Lake Victoria Basin, there is need to promote ecologically sound practices such as Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for the control of pests and diseases. The development and adoption of IPM strategies is dependent on the prevailing conditions of the particular crop/livestock-pest situation, including the country's agricultural policy and other farming and socio-economic factors. This report aims at identifying the major pests and diseases associated with the major agricultural crops, livestock and forest and agro-forestry enterprises, their associated socio-economic impacts and available methods of control. The study will also review the country's pollicy with regards to pest management. Based on the above reviews, the report will attempt to propose feasible IPM strategies for controlling pests and diseases of economic importance, develop a monitoring and evaluation framework for the pests and identify research gaps in pest management.
This attempt is inline with views of the East African Community that national agricultural policies of the Partner States have to largely influence the direction of the development of agriculture within the Lake Victoria Basin (Natural Resource Investment Report, 2007). The overall policy as stated by the EAC report is to attain self-sufficiency in food production, achieve adequate levels of strategic food reserves and generate additional surplus for export. Positive movement in achieving the above policy objectives has the effect of increasing people's incomes and reducing levels of poverty. These achievements would also contribute enormously to the national macroeconomic goals. However, the issue of pests and diseases is not addressed and has remained a major constraint to achieving these targets.
Additionally it is agreed that environmental degradation is another major threat to the Lake ecosystem. There should be developed strategies to reduce and control pollution from land use activities, industrial effluent and waste, and urban sewage and waste getting into Lake Victoria and the various waterways. Pollution arising from untreated sewage from urban centres, agricultural chemical run-off, industrial effluents and atmospheric sources are major pollutants and threat to natural resources and the environment. The current pest management strategy that over-relies on agricultural chemical is therefore a threat to the environment. Even though various constraints that hinder agricultural development have been ndentified, they fall short of recognizing the seriousness of pests and diseases across the wider agro- based economic activities apart from mentioning only post harvest losses.
1.6 Study Area
Lake Victoria is the second largest fresh water lake in the world with an area of about 69,500 km2 and has the largest freshwater sanctuary for fishery in the world. It has a shoreline of about 3,450 km, and its terrestrial catchment covers about 197,500 km2. The catchment and its sub-catchments are indicated in Figure1 and the part of catchment lying in Tanzania is shown in Fig 2. The Lake has a mean depth of 40 m and maximum depth of 73m. The human population of entire Lake Victoria Basin is about 30 million and is increasing at a rate of about 4.5% per annum. The general features of the basin have been summarized in various reports (COWI, 2002; East African Community, 2003; 2006a; World Bank, 2005a; 2005b; GIWA, 2006). The basin area is shared between riparian states of Tanzania (44 %), Kenya (22 %), Uganda (16 %), Burundi (7 %) and Rwanda (1 1 %). The Lake itself is shared between Kenya (6 %), Tanzania (5 1 %) and Uganda (43 %). The area of the lake that lies in Tanzania is 35,720 km2
Figure 1 : Lake Victoria basin Sub-catchments
Lake Victoria is an economically important water resource in the region. It is a major source of water for domestic and industrial purposes and supports a valuable fishery that supplies fish protein to East Africa as well as other parts of the world. It is estimated that the annual landing of the lake fishery is 500,000 metric tones valued at US$600 million locally with exports estimated at US$217 million in 2001. The lake is also an avenue for transport and is increasingly becoming a tourist destination due to sport fishing, scenic beauty and wildlife of the area. The Owen Falls hydroelectric power plant that supplies electricity to Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and Rwanda is located at the lake's outlet to the White Nile.
Figure 2: Lake Victoria Basin Districts on the Tanzania side
1.6.1 Available challenges and management strategies
The lake ecosystem has changed with time due to increasing population and socio-economic activities like agriculture, fisheries, industrial and urban establishment. As a result .they have brought about deforestation and overgrazing, and hence soil erosion, increased domestic and industrial waste discharges, greater use of pesticides and destruction of wetlands. These activities have resulted in pollution and excessive nutrient enrichment in the lake, more scientifically known as eutrophication. Thus, algal blooms (excessive growth of algae) as shown in figure 3 are more pronounced than in 1960's, turbidity of the water is increasing, fish stocks are decreasing and biodiversity is declining. Altogether the lake ecosystem is also being seriously impacted on by the water hyacinth.
Currently, the lake is faced with large scale perturbations leading to species extinction, exotic species invasions, and declining freshwater fishery production. Many ecological and environmental changes taking place in the basin are thought to have been induced by natural factors and elaborated by human activities mainly associated with increasing population, economic growth and governance.
Despite Lake Victoria Basin being a hub of economic activities in the region, it is faced with various environmental problems. Among the key issues are: pollution, declining natural resources, low agricultural productivity, pests and diseases among others. The stuldy area in this report is considered with respect to vulnerability to pests for crops, livestock and forestry with a view to developing Integrated Pest Management Strategies. In the past, pest control within the Lake Victoria Basin tended to rely solely on pesticides resulting in build up of resistance by the pests, environmental pollution and threats on human health and safety.
Tanzania: Major Lakes and Rivers
Figure 3: Map of Tanzania, showing the main drainage rivers systems
The runoff from farm lands containing leaching pesticides residues flows and join existing drainage systems and ultimately ends into available storage water resources as shown in the Fig 3. In order to manage water resources, Tanzania has established 9 Catchments RiverILake Basins as shown in the Fig 4; where the Lake Victoria Basin is one of such Basins offices in the country. Most pollution descend from catchment basin often would contain excrements of agrochemicals as a result of anthropogenic activities.
100 0 100 200 300 400 Kilometers
Figure 4: Map of Tanzania showing 9established LakesIRiver Basins
1.7 Tasks and Scope
The main task and scope of this report has been synthesized into five broad areas so as to give both global overviews of the pest problems in Lake Victoria Basin; and at the same time using pragmatic approach of pest problem in the basin. The tasks and scope include:
1. Identifying the key pests of major crops and livestock in the Lake Victoria Basin 2. Assessing the impact of the pests control methods and vulnerability of the basin to
pest and diseases 3. Analyzing the institutional, policy and legal frameworks for pest control and
management in Tanzania 4. Developing and proposing Integrated Pest Management Strategies and monitoring
Framework for Lake Victoria Basin 5. Identification of researchable areas in pest management through gap analysis
The overall outcome is to enhance Integrated Pest Management,(IPM) within the basin areas so as to reduce risks of pest attacks and associated costs. For each expected output, various
sections were grouped covering main approaches proposed for Integrated Pest Management best practices. The main kategorized ones include:
1.7.1 Domesticated animals
These groups of animals are affected by number of pests, helminthes and multitude of diseases; and wide variety of chemical and techniques could be followed to treat and control them. Most of used chemicals have many impacts both animals and into the environment besides possibility of interfering with food chains.
Fig 5: Common domesticated animals in Tanzania
1.7.2 Poultry and Aquaculture products
Variety of reared poultry and aquaculture practices are also vulnerable to effects of chemicals particularly use of vaccines and chemical. agents to control vermin and other virulence.
Fig 6: Common products from poultry and aquaculture practices.
1.7.3 Epidemic and Endemic diseases
In Tanzania, epidemic diseases are reported immediately and victims treated promptly. Various methods such as instigate quarantines or other suitable mitigation measures depending on the nature of the disease are deployed to comprehend such cases and minimize possibility of diseases to spread and affect larger areas. Figure 7 shows places where Rift Valley Fever (RVF) occurred and areas where such patients and animals deaths were reported. Through advertisement in the circular newspapers and massive educational programs through TV and radio, people were sensitized and warned about the disease and took corrective measures and in so doing the disease was apprehended and brought to stop.
Fig. 7: Reported places with Rift Valley Fever in Tanzania by June 20007
1.7.4 Agricultural patterns
Most irrigated land and cultivated crops in Tanzania consume significant amounts of agrochemicals to control weeds and pests. The distribution of irrigation schemes and potentials areas for cultivation of different crops in Tanzania is shown in the Fig. 8. Extensive use of agrochemicals in irrigated lands and cultivated crops has got repercussions in the long- run.
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Fig 8: Distribution of Imgation schemes in Tanzania
1.7.5 Agro-ecological zones
Tanzania is divided into number of ago-ecological zones as shown in the Fig 9; and these zones tells about land suitability and fitness of certain types of crops in particular places.
Figure 9: Ago-ecological zones for Tanzania
2. MAJOR CROP AND LIVESTOCK PESTS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
2.1 Common pests in Tanzania
The Agriculture Census in 2003 has collected a large amount of data on the following: crop and livestock production, planted areas, input use, agro-processing and storage, marketing, farmer access to support services, natural resources and infrastructure, rural demographics, poverty and livelihood. The analysis of the crop sector focused mainly on production, area under production and productivity. These data were compared with those of previous censuses and surveys at national level in order to identify structural changes between the census periods.
2.1.1 Locusts
Locusts are sporadic pests of cereals and grasses however, when they occur as swarms they do cause serious damages in glantations and forests. In Tanzania, research should focus on the red locust, ~omahacris septemfasciata, which occurs in outbreak proportions in the Rukwa Valley. Various species of grasshoppers (i.e. the elegant grasshopper) may warrant some basic studies to be understood better and be able to stop severe crop damage.
2.1.2 Stalk borers:
Maize stalks borers (Busseola fusca, Sesamia calamistis and Chilo partelus). Stalk borers are the major pests of maize and sorghum, and are widespread in Tanzania even in LVB areas. During the project implementation a better understanding of their life cycles need to be developed for more effective control methods.
2.1.3 American bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera)
The American bollworm is a serious pest of cotton, tomatoes, beans, maize, sorghum, citrus, sunflower and pigeon peas. The management of this pest has largely depended on synthetic insecticides. There is a need to develop alternative control methods, especially those based on materials of botanical origin.
2.1.4 Diamond Back Moth (Plutella maculipennis)
The Diamond Black Moth is the major pest of cabbage, which requires control strategies which are not based on the use of synthetic chemical pesticides. A better understanding of their bionomics is necessary because of the wide range of climatic conditions in which it occurs in Tanzania.
2.1.5 Armyworms (Spodoptera exempta and S. exigua)
Spodoptera exempta is a serious pest of cereals and grasses. The pest occurs in outbreak proportions all over Tanzania and requires monitoring and forecasting to alleviate crop losses. Research is needed towards biological control such as the application of infectious viruses against the larvae. Also research is needed to establish the conditions which will enable the solitary phase of this pest to be transformed into the gregarious swarming phase and the sources of larvae before outbreaks.
2.1.6 Leaf hoppers (Hemiptera) Empoasca Spp. and Circadulina Spp.
Leafhoppers are serious pest in variety of crops. The maize leafhopper (Circadulina Spp) is a vector of maize leaf streak virus. There is need to understand the bionomics
of leafhoppers and to develop crop varieties that are resistant to the leaf strealk virus in the country.
Aphids (Aphididae) The importance of aphids as crop pests is due to their rapid rates of multiplication, ability to transmit viral diseases and the damaging effect of their sucking on the growth of crops and forests. The major pest species include: Sorghum aphids, Aphis sorghi, Cotton aphids, Aphis gossypii, Bean aph'id, Aphis fabae, Groundnut aphid, Aphis cracivora. Because of their role as vectors of viral diseases, knowledge about their bionomics and disease transmission effects are necessary. Selective breeding for resistant crop varieties is an important component of integrated management approach.
2.1.8 Thrips
Various species of thrips occur in the country, affecting crops such as pyrethrum, onions, banana, coffee and tea. There is a need to study their bionomics in order to develop appropriate management strategies.
2.1.9 Termites
Termites are recognized as important pests in Tanzania. Some termites attack sugar cane and sunflower plants. The wood boring species destroy timber and wood structures, whereas the harvester termites are pests of pasture and grazing land. There is a need to refine the taxonomy of the termites that found in Tanzania out of the 400 species described in Africa, including the beneficial termites which break the organic matter, thus adding humus to the soil.
2.1.10 Cassava Mealy Bug (CMB)
The CMB is a serious pest of cassava, thus, elucidation of its population dynamics in Tanzania is necessary. Also it is necessary to evaluate the classical biological control approaches using exotic predators which have been in application under Tanzania farming conditions in recent years. This disease has affected some parts of the LVB regions.
2.1.11 Stored produce pests host-harvest crop pests)
Enormous losses are caused by pests on stored crops. In Lake Victoria areas for example, the larger grain borer (Prostephanus truncatus), and the cosmopolitan stored produce pests, mainly weevils (Sitophilus spp), storage moths (Cocyra cephalonica, Ephestia cautella, Plodia interpunctella), the lesser grain borer (Rhizopertha dominica), and pulse beetles (Callosobruchus spp, Acanthoscelides obt,ectus and Zabrotes sppc). To manage these types of pests using biocontrol means is essential especially the larger grain borer.
There are many nuisance household and environmental pests which passively spread many disease agents (e.g. .Salmonella, chlamydiae). There is a need to develop control techniques based on poisoned baits. However, appropriate management through environmental sanitation need to be researched upon for each of the major nuisance pests of Tanzania
, 1 I
2.1.13 Outbreaks of new crop diseases
Outbreak of new diseases have been reported in Tanzania, such as, white leafspot disease on maize reported in Southern highlands and Black Sigatoka on banana and plantains which has spread almost in all regions. Measures to control new diseases need to be developed and appropriately applied to stop widespread of diseases.
2.2 Crop production in Tanzania
This discussion has three main sections: the first part describes the status of agriculture, the second part touches on the main findings during last agricultural censuses and the last part gives crop production profiles by region.
The crop sector plays an important role in the Tanzania economy providing jobs, sustenance and income to 4,858,810 rural households growing crops (representing 99% of the total number of farming house holds in the rural areas and 95 percent of the total rural households). The total planted area with annual crops was 7,818,620 hectares and 1,234,999 hectares for permanent crops giving a total planted area of 9,053,619 hectares and planted area has more than doubled over the period 1996 to 1998.
There is a wide variety of crops grown in the country (over 95 types); and small holder crop production is very much dominated by maize. Other important food crops are cassava, bananas, paddy, beans and groundnuts. The rest of the crops are grown in small amounts depending on their significant importance and the climate suitability for their production for example tea and coffee. Similarly, in terms of area planted, production and number of farmers that grow cash crops 'like cotton and tobacco, they are of minor importance at national level (occupying only 5% of the total planted area) when compared to other crops, but they are important in the few regions that grow them (e.g. 22% of the planted area of annual crops in Shinyanga is planted with cash crops).
Maize is grown extensively and in every region of the country. With the exception of seed, there is virtually no investment in crop production. With minor amounts of fertilizer being applied and pesticide use virtually absent especially on food crops, crop yields are very low. The average planted area of 1.6 1 hectares per household for annual crops is low to support an average size smallholder household and is insufficient to allow smallholders to move beyond subsistence existence. This is especially true in the less productive areas of Tanzania. It is also important to note that the best crop producing areas in Tanzania have less available land for cultivation. Land ownership through formal titlesldeeds is at a very low level and little change has taken place for many years, most of the land is under customary rights.
Less than fifty percent of the regions in the country receive a significant short rainy season. However the short rainy season is important for some of the regions that receive them. Among the root and tuber crops, cassava is the most important with about a quarter of the crop growing households growing cassava. Beans are also relatively important and are predominantly grown in the long rainy season. Over fifty percent of the oilseeds are planted in Dodoma, Kilimangaro, Arusha and Singida regions. There has been a steady increase in the production of beans and groundnuts in the country.
In most regions cash crops are unimportant. Permanent crops are less important than annual crops as they occupy around once seventh of the total planted area. Cashew nuts and coconuts are important crops in coastal regions whilst coffee and bananas are important in the
highland regions of Tanzania. For most regions trees are not widely planted by smallholders; however they are especially important in Iringa, but also in Mbeya, Kagera and Ruvuma.
Capital investment in smallholder agriculture is virtually absent with only very small areas with the irrigated area being very low and there has been no improvement in the last 10 years. Extension services have a relatively high coverage however this has not resulted in an increase in production. Some of the highest crops producing regions receive less extension than other regions. Hand cultivation is the predominant means of cultivation, however there are also substantial areas cultivated using oxen especially in the high cattle producing regions in the north of Tanzania.
There is practically no credit facilities and most households purchase implements through the sale of crop products. Large scale farms provide very little services to smallholders whilst most storage is unprotected smallholders only reported a small storage loss, possibly due to the short storage period. Apart from the price of produce, accesses to marketsltransport costs are the main marketing problems reported by smallholders. Agro-processing is mainly done by neighbours' machines and to a lesser extent on farm by hand. The sale of processed products is almost non existent with most products being consumed by the household.
The majority of crop growing households in Tanzania are subsistent farmers and are at the low end of moving to self supporting, profit making entities. A large amount of support is required to transform these subsistence farms into profit making entities and the following section presents some of the key constraints to poverty alleviation for smallholders in the crop production sector in Tanzania.
2.3 Livestock production
The livestock sector plays a significant role in Tanzania economy providing jobs and income to an estimated 1,745,776 households raising livestock (representing 36% of the total number of farming households).
The total Livestock population reared by smallholders in Tanzania (both Mainland and Zanzibar) was 33,728,717 of which 16, 999,793 were cattle, 11,808,851 goats, 2,945,566 sheep and 974,507 pigs. Smallholder ruminant production in Tanzania is characterized by most livestock keeping households having less than 10 head. However a relatively high percent of the livestock population are reared by a small number of farmers. Ruminant livestock production is concentrated in the northern regions of the country and declines steadily towards the South of the country.
The livestock population has increased for all types of livestock but at slower growth rate in the last four years. The trend of improved beef has shown a sharp decline thought to be mostly due to the dismantling of state managed ranches which previously supplied improved breeds to small holders. The improved cattle trend has shown a different path with increasing numbers. However the positive growth has declined in the last five years after the high growth rate experienced during 1995 to 1999 period. This is probably due to the lack of infrastructure, increasing feed cost, and marketing problems.
Human population growth is increasing at a higher rate than the growth than the livestock sub-sector which indicates that Tanzania is increasingly unable to meet the internal demand for livestock and this will result in higher imports of livestock products. This is further
compounded by the culture of the retention of large cattle herds as status symbols in some parts of the country.
The improved broiler trend has experienced a sharp decline in its growth rate over the last five years, possibly due to feed cost, diseases and the inadequate supply of day old chicks as well as the import of chickens from other countries. However, the improved layer trend shows a large increase from one census to another probably because layers provide farmers with a regular cash income and are less subject to competition from imports. Further investigations are needed in order to determine the underlying dynamics in improved chicken production and particularly for broilers.
Improved chickens for both layers and broilers is a sub-sector that should be developed and the by products of milling should be investigated to support this industry. The development of this industry is required to support protein needs, in the form of meat and eggs, for the increasing population as well as to provide a source of income for the smallholders. However, policy changes may be required in the form of import price setting and production incentives to enable the smallholders to compete with cheap chicken production in other countries.
Livestock diseases were widespread among all types of livestock and the access to functional veterinary services is a serious issue that needs to be addressed. Improved access to infrastructure, management, proper feed, veterinary services and the production of a price policy to lower feed cost will allow the livestock sector to perform countries.
Fish farming, even though it concerns only a small number of households at this stage, represents an interesting source of protein supply for households and can contribute greatly to household food security. This activity was initially introduced by government institutions and NGOs. However, once established most fish farming enterprises rely less on these institutions and become self sustaining, particularly in the main producing regions where most of the fingerling are produced on farm or purchased from neighbours. Most fish farmers do not sell their fish and it is used mostly for home consumption and thus contributes to household food security.
The availability of Livestock Infrastructure and services varies between the type of service and region. One of the most important finding is that these services and infrastructure are generally more accessible in regions that are more advantaged in relation to their proximity to major urban centres like Dar es Salaam and Pwani. These regions produce a small number of livestock compared to high livestock producing regions (e.g. Shinyanga and Arusha) .However they have less support in infrastructure and services. In regions where farming system is more intensive (e.g. Kilimanjaro) there is a more service support than in other areas. Large Scale Farmers provide practically no extension support to small farmers and an enormous effort is required to realize the policy of privatization of extension services using large scale farmers.
2.4 IPM related matters
. The identified issues, which also related to IPM strategy, are following:
( 9 (ii) (iii) (iv) (v> (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix)
Reduction in productivity and fertilizer use, Access to fertilizers and chemical inputs Access to land, Increase in the number of smallholder households and land consolidation, Irrigation and lack of growth since the last census, Organic farming Tree farming as a substitute to food crop production Support of large scale farms to smallholder agriculture, Distribution of support services
2.4.1 Reduction in Productivity and Fertiliser Use
The large increase in groundnuts was a result of an increase in planted area similar to that of maize due to fact cereals require high levels of nitrogen, whilst pulses and groundnuts their own nitrogen. This is further backed up by the results in the fertilizer section which shows a low level of fertilizer use and a negative time series trend in the use of fertilizers over the same period as the reduction in productivity of cereals. Thus farmers were encouraged to use fertilizers in order to increase the productivity of the crop production in the rural areas.
2.4.2 Access to Fertilisers and Chemical Inputs
Access to chemical inputs varied with some households having easy access and other households not due to cost related constraints that prevent the smallholders from using improved inputs. The cost of inputs does not vary much between regions but was rather low suggesting that the weak extension services among farmers; and subsidy and credit could be limiting factor which affect productivity. In view of that without chemicals, especially inorganic fertilizers, the transformation from subsistence to profit making farms will not take place.
Table 1 shows the list of agrochemicals used in the lake basin catchment, while that of banned chemicals appear in Table 2. The danger is that some of these chemicals which are banned are still being used in the lake basin including DDT and dieldrin, amongst others.
However, pest eradication or the prevention of spreading requires pesticides for a shorter term and in a smaller area than would be employed if the pest were to spread. Therefore, it is important to balance the risk of pesticide use for control at different stages of pest outbreaks against the potential negative impacts.
Table 1: Common agro-chemicals used in the Lake Victoria catchment.
I only for mosquito control in I 1 mosquito breeding grounds, 1
1 Restricted use for seed -I
Chlordane --- Heptachlor Endrin Aldrin
Dieldrin
company
Insecticide
14 15 16
17
2.4.3 Access to land
dressing only Banned
Insecticide
Generally Tanzania has abundant land but smallholders do not have access to it to meet their subsistence needs to produce enough and surplus for income generation. The true observation is that:
Insecticide I Insecticide Banned -- Insecticide Restricted for termite control
in building industry Restricted for termite control
o The average land area per house hold is only 2 hectares. This means that most small holders have access to areas not much larger than 2 hectares.
o The percent of utilized and land compared to available land is high and in some regions all available land is utilized.
Fungicide Insecticide Plant growth regulator for use on fruits ---- Acaricide
There is a need to determine the minimum area of land required for a smallholder household to meet its subsistence needs and the area required to have self sustaining profit making farms in the different ago-ecological zones of the country.
banned for agriculture use Banned -1989 Banned- 1988 Voluntarily withdrawn by the company
Voluntarily withdrawn by the
2.4.4 Intensify Irrigation
Water is the limiting factor to crop production in many areas of Tanzania and without irrigation any other intervention to increase production and productivity is limited in these areas. There is need for the country to consider engaging itself into commercial agriculture; and the only alert is on elevated amounts of agrochemicals inputs.
2.4.5 Organic Farming
Whilst it is important to encourage the use of chemical inputs, Tanzania is still suitable for organic farming, especially in those areas with high levels of livestock, suitable soils, available water (rain fed or irrigated) and access to markets. Research institutions should investigate the potentials of these areas and cany out adaptive research to support this initiative.
2.4.6 Tree Farming as a Substitute to Food Crop Production
The value of trees is growing at an exponential rate, especially for indigenous trees which are declining in numbers through deforestation activities. One of the best ways of conserving this valuable resource and maintain the genetic diversity of tree species in Africa is by promoting tree planting by smallholders. In some parts of LVB trees can totally substitute food crop production. This scheme has many advantages in relation to erosion control, soil water retention, wood for fuel, availability of building material, flora and fauna conservation, eco-tourism and many others.
2.4.7 Support Large calk F & ~ S
There always biases of supporting large scale schemes compared to small scale farmers. Here care must be exercised because the small scales are majority compared to large scale farms. Always remember large scale farms are important in providing services but they are not going to resolve the problems faced by the majority of smallholders in the country.
2.4.8 Distribution Support Services
Apart from extension, services to support smallholder crop production are at a very low level. There is need to revisit issue of technologies and other support services or policies targeting farmers such as access to affordable fertilizer, credit, and others. Subsidieslgrants should be given to help smallholders change from a subsistence base to a profit making economic entities; this arrangement is practiced in other countries and Tanzania has no exception.
2.4.9 Reinstating Frequent Surveys and mo~itoring progress.
There is need of reinstating surveys by using questionnaires for quick surveys and previous used ones could slightly be modified and remain simple to ease analysis work. To track changes at least agriculture surveys should be repeated every two years.
2.4.10 Improve Extension Services to an Advisory Service
There is need to track changes over time and also revamp the extension services to planning and supporting driven system and to be more an advisory service in providing specialist
advice to crop production problems and in the dissemination of new interventions. To attain that goal a database, library and MIS packages are required
2.5 Regional Profiles
The following profiles summarises the status of crop production in each region and are presented in order of importance in relation to the land area in each region. It must be noted that some regions have a higher planted area due to double cropping (in long season and short season) as is the case Tanga which has one of the highest planted areas of maize, yet only a moderate physical land area.
2.5.1 Shinyanga
Shinyanga has the largest area of land under cultivation (over 1,250,000 ha) and has the highest land utilization per household (over 2.6 hectares for annual crops). Virtually no permanent crops are grown and it has the largest area of pasture to support the high population of cattle in the region. The region is not important for cassava, beans and fruit and vegetable production but, it has the third largest planted area of groundnuts in the Tanzania. In term of land Shinyanga has the largest planted area of crops; it has one of the smallest areas of irrigation. It also has the largest planted area cleared by hand but most soil preparation is done by oxen. Most of the planted area is without fertilizer and the small area that has, it is with farm yard manure. Low fertilizer use and lack of irrigation facilities may have contributed to low yields for this region. Although small, it has the largest planted area with insecticide and fungicide application. Over half of the crops stored are in sacks or open drums with the remainder in locally made traditional structures. Crop processing is predominantly done by neighbours' machines and the processed production is for home consumption. The region is also one of the most important crop growing regions but has moderate contact with extension services; and relies more on animal draft than most other regions. This too region has smallest areas of planted trees per household and lowest percent of erosion control facilities in Tanzania.
Other Lake zone regions of Mwanza, Mara and Kagera have also similar features but differ in climate, culture and crops cultivated and outputs from agriculture.
2.6 IMPACT OF THE PESTS CONTROL METHODS
2.6.1 Introduction
An environmental impact is a change in the environment caused by applying or using a certain method of pest or disease control. This will involve a change in the properties of a natural or manmade resource in a way considered important. In this case specific environmental areas of concern will include:' the.; quality of ground and surface water, wetlands and terrestrial communities (flora and faunh),. and aquatic communities including fishery and other animals and soil properties. While the social economic impacts include: the health and personal safety of the people using the various control methods.
The primary goals of any control programme against pests or diseases are, first, to establish the "optimal" level of disease or pest presence to meet a country's goals and, next, to choose the most cost-effective way of achieving that level of control.
The effective control of diseases and pests is pertinent for improved crop and livestock production. Neither single crop nor plant is free from diseases and pests. In the Lake Victoria basin area as already indicated above there are pests and disease of economic importance that require cost effective control for improved productivity. When social, economic and environmental factors are taken in account' and appropriate and effective control method can only be obtained because major social and economic consideration govern selection of presented in the Table 3 below.
Pest control is important to reduce damage on crops in order to avail food and profit to individual, neighbours, country, region and trading partners. As indicated above the understanding of social, economic and environmental factors will be crucial for the effective use of the control measures. An understanding of the institutional and legal frame work is also important in assessing the impacts of the current pests and disease control measures.
Table 3: Social and economic activities associated with the presence of pests and vectors. Pest and vectors 1 Economic Activities ( Social Activities Crop Pests 1 Cash crop Production, subsistence crop I Population movement, s~tting of homes
Air-borne vectors (mosquitoes, tsetse flies, black flies)
Animal-borne vectors (tick and mites)
production, storage of crops, marketing of crops, production movements
Farming, forestry, game hunting, fishing, livestock management, market attendance, population movements
Livestock management, Game hunting
, I
Recreation (water and land), housing, waste disposal;, fetching water, population movements, settlement patterns leisure (siting outside the houses) fi
Water-borne vectors (snails) fetching water recreation (water), waste
disposal, population movements, settlement Datterns
Fishing irrigation, livestock management, market attendance, population movements.
2.6.2 Implication of Control measures
2.6.2.1 Control of plant pests and diseases
The control of pests and diseases raises the most obvious concern of the resulting losses when there is no control, as pests populations can expand quickly from a localized outbreak to critical levels with serious infestations occurring simultaneously in several areas and neighboring regions. The fast initial multiplication may occur unnoticed in remote and unpopulated areas and follow a natural (biologically induced) pathway. Once cropping areas are invaded, there is rarely sufficient time to prevent damage through control operations.
The widespread loss associated with an outbreak of pests and diseases makes it imperative for control measures to be undertaken. In view of major pests and diseases losses occurring in the lake basin, there is added need to prevent impacts on scarce food resources. Normally a control is carried out as a response to the appearance of pests and disease, with the main effort aimed at eradicating them once they appear in significant or levels. The primary
response is widespread pesticide spraying to target pests, manual removal, biological control such as using of preys, use of resistant varieties, etc. All these methods have different effects on the environment, health and safety and general social setting. The rapid identification of early stages of attacks in the lake basin is critically important to minimize the damage to neighboring regions
2.6.2.2 Control of Livestock diseases
Animal diseases are spread either through natural pathways or human intervention. The transmission of certain diseases requires an insect to serve as a vector, dictated by external environmental conditions and possibly appropriate plant hosts to carry out its life cycle. Based on biological reasons, these disease pathways have limited geographical scolpe, which simplifies the task of identifying pathways for disease transmission compared with :plant pest introduction.
In the lake basin movement of livestock and derived products is regulated and controlled to prevent the entry and subsequent spread of exotic disease agents. Furthermore, disease surveillance systems with laboratory diagnostic support are maintained to ensure the early detection of disease outbreaks and contingency plans are in place to respond rapidly to an epidemic. In addition to these there is immense use of pesticides through spraying to control the spread of the disease and the use of acaricides to treat the disease.
The control measures may be associated with risky outcomes in terms of expected profitabilities and is often measured by the variance. The risks may include and not limited to the following: incorrect choice of herbicide, such that non target species are damaged, mistakes in calibration, effectiveness of pesticides which depends on the weather or other factors.
2.6.3 Impacts of empirical plant and animal pests and disease control methods
2.6.3.1 Use of Pesticides
Pesticides are commonly used in the control of diseases, pests and weeds on various crops in the Lake basin including coffee, tea, sugarcane, maize, rice and cotton. For example, in cotton production various chemicals (Fig 3) are used. It is reported that the amount of chemicals/pesticides applied on cotton per acre ranged from 25ml to 5000ml while the frequency of application varied from one to 8 times in a year. Other than crops (food, horticultural and cash) areas where pesticides are used is livestock industry (cattle and poultry) in the control of ticks and for treatment. Pesticides/acaricides are used to control ticks and tick borne diseases as well as viral, helminthes and mycoplasmal diseases of economic importance. Drugs and vaccines are popularly used to control livestock diseases.
All campaigns against invasive species of pests and disease tend to occur over large areas, thereby affecting a significant amount of territory and people. The use of pesticides in an effort to control pests, both introduced and indigenous, can lead to serious health effects in developed and developing countries. Control of animal diseases is far less risky to people and the environment.
It is understood that pesticide use can be dangerous to farmers, nearby exposed populations and the affected environment. It is estimated that there are almost 5 million cases of pesticide poisoning in developing countries each year. World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that there are 3 million severe human pesticide poisonings in the world each year,
with approximately 220,000 deaths. While developed countries use about 80 percent of the world's pesticides, they have less than half of this number of deaths. It is not known how many of these poisonings should be attributed to control measures against plant pests.
The high concentrations of the organochlorine compounds in the soils where they are directly applied signal a potential problem. Other chemical compounds present include pyrethroids, traizines, etc. These compounds are also detected in water and sediments from rivers which drain through the farming areas, and that their concentration in water is influenced by their concentration in soil and sediments. Rain plays a major role in the transportation process through surface run-offs. The presence of compounds in the soil for up to five years since last application shows that the pesticides also persist in tropical soil conditions. High levels of these chemicals become harmful to man and aquatic community as the chemicals are eventually washed as run offs to the lake. The use of pesticides becomes injurious particularly for example as evidenced by the spray drift if the spraying is not well done it affects non-target plants or animals. Concerns remain about worker exposure, residues on food and hann to domestic and non-target wild animals. Fish and invertebrates are frequently vulnerable, especially aquatic arthropods.
Stocks of obsolete pesticides have also become a serious health and environmental problem in many countries of Africa and the Near East. Since pest outbreaks are erratic and difficult to predict, there is a danger that more pesticides than needed will be ordered or that pests will migrate out of the country before the pesticides amve. As a consequence of the need to be prepared for initiating a control campaign at short notice, stockpiles of pesticides can be found in many of the countries affected by migratory pests. Often they are not stored correctly, which has resulted in corroded containers, lost labels and release of the chemicals into the environment.
The pesticide stockpiles pose a very important problem that requires urgent attention, especially for stocks near urban areas where there is a risk of the pesticides contaminating drinking-water, food or the air. However, in general they lack the resources and technology to mount appropriate disposal campaigns. The use of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides may lead to water pollution, given that water is used for drinking and other domestic purposes.
I Pesticidellnsecticide L
Figure 1 : Chemicals and pesticides used in cotton production
2.6.3.2 Use of Biological method
The biological control of pests and diseases entail the use of insects, bacteria or fungi on the host to eliminate the pest or disease. For example in the control of water hyacinth specific weevils spp. are used to destroy the weed. This is one of the known environmentally friendly control methods as compared to other control methods. Unlike other methods biological control is applied carefully and selectively and since no chemicals are used it has no adverse effect on the environment. In comparison to other methods it is cost effective since its application may entail community participation and can be integrated in other control methods. The natural enemies once established may spread to other remote areas as in the case of water hyacinth.
The only criticisms is that the control agents are slow in action and take a longer period to generate results and therefore can not be used in emergency situations. The danger comes in when the host is eliminated if the pest is not host specific then they may attack other plants (crops) or insects and therefore create an imbalance in the ecosystem.
In the case of the control of water hyacinth the use of weevils damage the water hyacinth which then rots and sinks providing a substrate on which other plants thrive on; e.g. Cyperus, papyrus, hippo grass. This phenomenon was observed in L.Kyoga and Victoria when the beetles were successfully used in the control of water hyacinth in the late 1990's. The new plants (ecological succession) which emerge pauses a problem on communication, water supply and fishing in the lake.
The use of resistant clones in the control of diseases and adoption of a fast method of propagating plantings has numerous environmental benefits. For example providing a reliable supply of improved tree seedlings will have important benefits for the environment. By increasing and sustaining the supply of timber, pressure on forests will be reduced on natural forests, helping to preserve valuable natural biodiversitjr and rare habitats. The Tissue culture technology also has the potential to increase biodiversity by replacing the stocks of rare and endangered tree species. The wider environmental benefits of increasing tree cover include improving soil stability, reducing erosion, preventing desertification and stabilizing global and since no chemicals are used there are no dangers and thus the method is generallytfairly safe.
2.6.3.3 Use of Mechanical method
This method involves the use of automated machines and may also be expensive depending what machines are used. For example inter-cultivation in is done using a tractor mounted inter-cultivator to control weeds in crops such as sugarcane and use of boom sprays. This may be friendly or unfriendly to the environment depending on the operation carried out and the disposal technique of the weeds or the wastes. For example when the water hyacinth is chopped mechanically and left to rot and sink at the bottom of the lake, they result into accumulation of water hyacinth debris. These materials impact on biotic communities, the environment and socioeconomic activities. These calls for choosing a method where by the chopped materials are completely removed from the site. The wise operation of the machines and the supporting labour becomes important in the safety and handling.
2.6.3.4 Use of Manual method
The manual control basically consists of the use of labour with simple implements/tools. The major concern is often the high cost involved. For example weeding is particularly expensive before the tea matures and covers the ground completely. It is friendly to the environment as there is no pollution of land, water or air when the method is applied. An example would be the control of mole rats using traps. In the coffee sector, it is safe to ensure that the uprooted weeds are not placed on the tree stumps as this may introduce soil borne diseases into the tree, while in the sugar sector, when smutted stools of sugarcane are uprooted and not buried in the ground they cause more infection on the cane. The danger involved in the manual control includes the risk of bilharzias, snake bites, hippo or crocodile attacks, depending on which plant and where the operation is camed out.
2.6.3.5 Use of Quarantines
Quarantine refers to a period when an animal or person that has or may have a disease is kept away from others in order to prevent the disease from spreading. For plants it is a situation which ensures safe movement, treatment, introduction and destruction of diseasedlinfected plants materials to reduce the risk of exposure of the country's plant resources (environment) to foreign pests, diseases and noxious weeds. This method is fairly safe to the environment as it allows for the control and management of pests and diseases through isolation. Quarantines ensure safe passage of animals and plants by reducing contamination or spread of diseases.
2.7 VULNERABILITY OF THE BASIN TO PEST AND DISEASES
Both plant and animal pests and diseases have similar characteristic in terms of vulnerability of attacks. The vulnerability of Lake Victoria basin to such pests and diseases is based on various factors: i) Environmental conditions that favour the pest or disease ii) Survival of pests, pathogens and vectors iii) Epidemiology of the disease iv) Possible prevention and control measures and v) Resistance
The main characteristics of the pests and diseases in terms of the opportunities for infestation are shown in Table 4. It can be shown that while both endemism, and resistance play an important role in increasing vulnerability to pests and diseases, other important factors include the aquatic landscapes for water borne disease
Table 4: The aetiology, epidemiology, hosts, transmission and sources of vulnerability of major pests and diseases in Lake Victoria Basin
Disease Foot and Mouth Disease
of the family Picornaviridae, genus Aphthovirus with seven immunologically distinct serotypes: A, 0, C, SAT1, SAT2, SAT3, Asial. The virus is resistance to physical and chemical action. It survives in lymph nodes and bone
foot and mouth disease is one of the most contagious animal diseases, with important economic losses. Though it exhibits low mortality rate in adult animals, but often high mortality in young due to myocarditis
Transmission Direct or indirect
Aetiology Caused by a virus
Zebus Sheep Goats Swine All wild ruminants
contact (droplets), animate vectors (humans, etc.), inanimate vectors (vehicles, implements), airborne, especially temperate zones (up to 60 km overland and 300 km by sea).
Epidemiology Epidemiologically,
Sources of Vulnerability Resistance to physical and chemical action. (virus persists in the oropharynx for up to 30 months in cattle or and 9 months in sheep FMD is endemic in parts of Asia, Africa, the Middle East and South America Sporadic outbreaks in free areas Survives in lymph nodes and bone marrow at neutral pH.
Hosts Cattle
pH. Caused by virus family Paramyxoviridae, genus Morbillivirus
High morbidity rate, mortality rate is high with virulent strains but variable with mild
I I I marrow at neutral I
I
Lumpy Skin / Virus family
Cattle, zebus. Sheep Goats
I By direct or close I Resistance to physical and
I I
indirect contacts chemical actidn Remains viable for long periods in chilled or frozen tissues
I ) In Africa it has been I I I eradicated from several 1 I ( countries and sub-regions, and I I I is normally absent from the I I ) northern and southern parts of 1
Cattle Transmission may the continen Endemism: LSD was confined
Disease Disease I-- Aetiology
Poxviridae, genus Capripoxvirus
Virus family Bunyaviridae, genus Phlebovirus
Mortality rate very variable
Epidemiology 85%
Zebus, domestic buffaloes)
Hosts BOS taurus
-
High mortality rate in young I Sheep animals High abortion rate in ruminants
Goats Dromedaries Several rodents
Transmission occur via infected saliva in the absence of an insect vector. Though no specific vector has been identified to date, mosquitoes (e.g. Culex mirificens and Aedes natrionus) and flies (e.g. Stomoxys calcitrans and Biomyia fasciata) could play a major role
Haematophagous mosquitoes of many genera (Aedes, Anopheles, Culex, Eretmapodites, Mansonia, etc.) can transmit fever as biological, competent vectors. Mosquitoes (Aedes) are the reservoir host Direct contamination: occurs in humans when handling
Sources of Vulnerability ' : '
to sub-Saharan Africa strict quarantine to avoid introduction of infected animals in to safe herds in cases of outbreaks, isolation and prohibition of animal movements slaughtering of all sick and infected animals (as far as possible) correct disposal of dead animals (e.g. incineration) disinfection of premises and implements vector control in premises and on animals Resistance to physical and chemical action Survives in dried discharges and multiplies in some arthropod vectors. Can survive contact with 0.5% phenol at 4OC for 6 months For animals: wild fauna and vectors For humans: nasal discharge, blood, vaginal secretions after abortion in animals, mosquitoes, and infected meat. Possibly also by aerosols and consum~tion of raw milk
Disease
Sheep Pox and Goat Pox
Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza
-
Aetiology
Virus family Poxviridae, genus Capripoxvirus
Virus family Orthomyxoviridae, genus Influenzavirus A, B. To date, all highly pathogenic
Epidemiology
Morbidity rate: Endemic areas 70- 90% Mortality rate: Endemic areas 5- lo%, although can approach 100% in imported animals
Highly contagious
Hosts
a Sheep and goats (breed- linked predisposition and dependent on strain of capripoxvirus)
Highly pathogenic avian influenza isolates have been obtained primarily from
Transmission infected animals and meat
Direct contact and Indirect transmission by contaminated implements vehicles or products (litter, fodder) Indirect transmission by insects (mechanical vectors) has been established (minor role)
a Contamination by inhalation, intradermal or subcutaneous inoculation, or by respiratory, transcutaneous and transmucosal routes
a Direct contact with secretions from infected birds, especially faeces Contaminated feed, water, equipment and
Sources of Vulnerability RVF has been recognised exclusively in ~ f i i c a n countries, with an underlying association with high rainfall and dense populations of vector mosauitoes
a Resistance to physical and chemical action Survive for many years in dried scabs at ambient temperatures.
a Virus remains viable in wool for 2 months and in premises for as long as 6 months
a Resistance to physical and chemical action
a Remains viable for long periods in tissues, faeces and also in water
a Highly pathogenic viruses
Disease
Newcastle Disease
Aetiology' . isolates have been influenza A viruses of subtypes H5 and H7
Virus family Paramyxoviridae, genus Rubulavirus
Epidemiology
-
Many species of birds, both domestic and wild The mortality and morbidity rates vary among species, and with the strain of virus
Hosts chickens and turkeys It is reasonable to assume all avian species are susceptible to infection
Chickens are the most susceptible poultry, ducks and geese are the least susceptible poultry A carrier state may exist in psittacine and some other wild birds
Transmission -- clothing Clinically normal waterfowl and sea birds may introduce the virus into flocks Broken contaminated eggs may infect chicks in the incubator Direct contact with secretions, especially faeces, from infected birds Contaminated feed, water, implements, premises, human clothing, etc. Sources of virus Respiratory discharges, faeces All parts of the carcass Virus is shed during the incubation period and for a limited period during convalescence Some psittacine birds have been demonstrated to shed ND virus
Sources of Vulnerability --
may remain viable for long periods of time in infected faeces, but also in tissues and water
Survives for long periods at ambient temperature, especially in faeces Strict isolation of outbreaks Destruction of all infected and exposed birds Thorough cleaning and disinfection of premises Proper carcass disposal Pest control in flocks Depopulation followed by 21 days before restocking Avoidance of contact with birds of unknown health status Control of human traffic. One age group per farm ('all in-all out') breeding is recommended Medical prophylaxis Vaccination with live andfor oil emulsion vaccines can markedly reduce the losses in
Sometimes administered intranasally or intraocularly. Healthy chickens may be vaccinated as early as day 1-4 of life, but delaying vaccination until the second or third week increases its efficiency Some other infections (e.g. Mycoplasma) may aggravate the vaccine reaction. Killed virus vaccine should then be used
Disease Aetiolo I Epidemiology Hosts Transmission '*;
intermittently for over 1 year
Sources of Vulnerability 1 poultry flocks Live B 1 and La Sota strains are administrated in drinking water or.as a coarse spray.
3.0 DEFINITION AND OVERVIEW OF THE PEST MANAGEMENT
The term "pest" is generally defined as a harmful or hazardous organism. In the biological fields, pests represent animals or plants which destroy, suppress or compete with desired animals or plants in a given environment. Plant pests are generally referred to as weeds.
. ,. Animal pests which attack crops and pastures can be classified as migratory, e.g. (birds, armyworms, locusts) or semi-migratory/residents (e.g. rodents, vermins, molluscs insects/nymphs and microbial organisms). Rodents and other vermin are also reservoirs and camers of diseases. Some arthropods and particularly some insect species are important animal parasites and disease vectors.
Hazards brought about by plant and animal pests in agriculture, livestock industry, public health, and the environment are of major economic importance and of worldwide concern. These hazards are particularly felt in the developing countries where pest management is relatively more costly to execute due to a generally poor underlying economy.
Pest management activities insTanzania have rarely been supported by thoroughly controlled local studies, instead, most pest management interventions have been camed out in "crisis" and on the basis of data obtained elsewhere, usually from the "developed" countries. Such control activities have often also been planned, financed, and camed out by foreign consultants or under their supervision. Consequently, pest control measures have been erratic, poorly monitored, and have lacked sustainability.
Herbicides
Herbicides are chemicals that adversely affect the physiological activity and development of plants, and are used to control vegetation by causing death or suppressing growth. These compounds, as active ingredients, are incorporated into a wide variety of commercial herbicide formulations, for application to plants and to surrounding soil or water as sprays, granules, and liquid concentrates.
Today, herbicides are the major method of weed control in non-crop situations as well as in agriculture because they are effective, reliable, cost-efficient, safe and easy to use. They are applied in thousands of formulations with a wide variety of equipment, ranging from airplanes to hand sprayers.
Most herbicides do not have as much potential to be toxic to humans and animals as other pesticides, but all must be used with care and with full awareness of the problems they may cause if applied improperly.
Mechanical Techniques
The use of mechanical control procedures, such as hand harvesting, mowers, ha~vesters, etc., represents another viable means for noxious plant control. This technology is in most cases very environmentally compatible and can be used readily by nontechnical personnel.
However, it is often the most expensive technology and can become cost prohibitive very quickly. In addition, the use of large mechanical machinery often fragments the plants, causing them to disperse across larger regions more readily.
Pesticides
Many noxious terrestrial and aquatic plants can cause serious across the country. Problem plants are varied and include the terrestrial species snakeweed, knapweed, leafy spurge, various thistles, seepwillow, silver leaf nightshade, tansy ragwort, etc., and the aquatic plants waterhyacinth, waterlettuce, hydrilla, Eurasian watermilfoil, and water chestnut, among others.
Problems arise mainly because of the growth characteristics of these plants, which enable them to reach large population levels relatively rapidly, thereby displacing and subsequently eliminating native vegetation. This in turn causes significant impacts to native wildlife, including the elimination of endangered species, disruption of delibate ecosystems by the replacement of native vegetation, decreases in land use and value, reduction of recreational uses, hindrance of navigation along waterways, increased water loss, as well as increases in human health hazards associated with expanded mosquito-breeding habitats.
Traditional control procedures mainly involve the use of chemical applications. While in many cases the use of chemical applications offers the only solution available for management, at best this alternative offers only short-term solutions, and the use of chemicals is becoming increasingly more environmentally sensitive. There are now more environmentally acceptable techniques and integrated procedures for noxious plant control. These mainly involve the use of biological control technology and offer environmentally acceptable and, in many cases, long- term answers for plant management.
Biocontrol techniques
Biological control is the introduction by man of any parasite, predator, or pathogenic microorganism into the environment for the suppression of some target plant or animal pest. The
key word in this definition is suppression. That is, the use of biocontrol typically does not mean the complete eradication or elimination of some target from a specific area. Instead, biocontrol operates by reducing a target population to lower, more realistic levels. It represents one of the most environmentally compatible control methodologies.
Several broad types of biocontrol approaches are recognized. These include the classical approach where host-specific organisms from the home range of the target plant are re-introduced with the target plant; the use of native pathogens where opportunistic, native organisms are used in a similar manner as herbicides; and the use of general feeders or non host-specific organisms. An example of a general feeder is the white arnur (grass carp), which is used for the control of all types of submersed aquatic vegetation.
Biocontrol is typically a long-term, environmentally acceptable approach for the control of a target plant species. Unfortunately, observable impact may take upwards of 10 years. Such a long-term control method is best used in low-priority areas, at sites where the use of other control strategies would be cost prohibitive, or in conjunction with control methods with shorter effect times. However, in many cases it may not be feasible to wait such an extended period to effect control. Also, there are many noxious plant species for which biocontrol agents are not available at the present time.
Integrated Approach
Integrated control, simple put, is the use of all available management practices in as compatible a manner as possible. While this may sound simple and obvious, and it is in a majority of cases, integration is the single most important overall management technique available for controlling noxious plant species. By applying all available techniques to a specific noxious plant problem, more cost-efficient, more environmentally compatible, and long-term management is typically achieved.
Unfortunately, many managers choose only those techniques they are familiar with and apply these to their noxious weed problem with no regard to other techniques which may be available. Or, they may choose two totally noncompatible techniques and apply these in conjunction, effectively eliminating the benefits from one or both techniques.
For example, water hyacinth is typically controlled using two types of management techniques: chemical applications and biocontrol agents. Resource managers actively use chemical applications and typically do little to manage the biocontrol agents present in a specific area. That is, they spray plants, with no regard to biocontrol activity in a particular area. However, recent investigations have shown that the application of chemicals can have a profound indirect effect on weevil populations. While the herbicides themselves are not directly toxic to the insect
agents, the rapid destruction of the water hyacinth mat, by chemical degradation, effectively destroys the immature segment of the population. The immature are totally dependent on the plants for food, growth, and development. Hence, in this example, the use of both biocontrol and chemical applications in an incompatible manner leaves the biocontrol agents essentially ineffective.
The integrated solution to this problem is to spray only those plants in "high-priority" areas and leave unsprayed the plants in backwater and low-priority areas to allow the buildup of large populations of the agents for long-term management. Such unsprayed plants act as refugia for the insect populations, allowing them to survive and increase even when chemical applications are used in nearby areas.
It is beyond the scope of this system to provide detailed information on each integrated combination for each plant species. For more information on specific integrated combinations, it is best to refer to the literature for a specific plant. However, in most cases, integration will be nothing more than the use of common sense.
Sustainable crop pest management research in ~anzania is essential because yields for most crops in Tanzania have, on average remained low due to pests. For example, in Tanzania, an annual average of 640kglha for beans is achieved compared to 3000kglha obtained in US14. The use of pesticides commonly practiced in most developing countries offers only a temporary solution to the pest problem and moreover, most farmers cannot afford the cost of the pesticides. In addition, the use of pesticides without sufficient knowledge of their side-effects may create serious problems to the environment. For example, in recent years pesticide resistance by common pests, and pesticide residues in fruits, grain, and animal produce have increased in the developing world due to irrational use of pesticides. Pest biology, ecology and diversity, and the description and quantification of crop damage have been little studied in Tanzania. This lcnowledge is fundamental towards achieving a sustainable crop pest management in the future and SUA should take the lead to achieve these goals.
One constraint is that of over-dependence on foreign technology where Tanzania has been far too dependent on developed countries for technology in pest management. Through the establishment of strong pest research programmes in research institutions like SUA, adequately prepared expertise would be developed, which in turn would increase national self reliance by developing appropriate and affordable technologies in pest management.
4.0 LEGAL ASPECTS OF IPM
4.1 Governing Policies
4.1.1. The National Environmental Policy (NEP, 1997)
This policy identifies land degradation, lack of accessible lands and water for rural inhabitants, environmental pollution (e.g. water bodies), loss of biodiversity, habitat and wetlands, deterioration of aquatic systems and deforestation as the most critical environmental problems facing our country. The adoption of the Environmental Management Act (No. 20, 2004) and the Environmental Impact Assessment and Audit Regulations (No. 349,2005) by the GOT has been decisive measures to strengthen the EIA process within project's design$ and 'to strengthen the role and responsibilities of the National Environmental Management Council (NEMC) for its implementation.
4.1.2. The National Land Policy
The objective of this policy is to (i) promote equitable access to land for all citizens; (ii) ensure customary rights, especially those of smallholders; (iii) promote sound information on land management; and (iv) promote the protection and sustainable use of water and land resources. Under the Land and Village Lands Act (1999), amended in 2003 all lands in Tanzania are vested to the President as the trustee for the citizens. The reforms of the Village Land Act (2003) restricted the application of customary law, if it denies women access to ownership. It also recognizes co-occupancy and access by both spouses as well as recognizing the need for the wife's consent should the husband want to dispose of family lands. Despite the reforms and the Acts, Tanzanian women still do not have adequate access to land use. Their accessibility, under customary law, comes through kinship and patriarchy linkages. Women's access to land occurs under inheritance law and mostly determined by the relationship with men as wives, daughters and sisters.
4.1.3. Plant Protection Policy (1997)
The Legal Framework Supporting IPM
In Tanzania besides having various policies such as the Plant Protection regulation, 1997 and others; there are a number of legal and regulatory frameworks that are related to the Project and in particular with integrated pest management. All Laws must be complied with; and The Environmental Management Act (No. 20), 2004 is the Principal Legislation governing all environmental management issues in the country. Related sectoral legislations to IPM and specific issues pertaining to the environmental projects include the following:
The Environmental Management Act (EMA) No. 20 of 2004; Animal Diseases Act, No 17 of 2003 Veterinary Act , No 16 Of 2003; The Seed Act, No 18 Of 2003 The Utilization Act (1 997); The Tropical Pesticides Research Act, 1979; Water Utilization Act (No. 42), 1974; and its Miscellaneous Arnendments(N0. 17), 1989 & (No. 8), 1997 The Forest Act, (No. 14), 2002;
(i) Land Act, (No. 4), 1999; 6) Village Land Act (No. 5), 1999; (k) National Parks Act (1992) (1) Wildlife Conservation Act (1 974) (m) Public Lands (Preserved Areas) Act(0rdinance 12 of 1954) (n) Marine Parks and Reserves Act (1 994) (0) Forest Act (2002) (p) Fisheries Act (2003) (q) Fisheries Regulations (2005) (r) Beekeeping Act (2002) (s) Plant Protection Act (1997) (t) MiningAct(1998) (u) The Occupational Health and Safety Act, (No. 5), 2003;
' . . !
4.2.1 The Environmental Management Act (2004)
The Environmental Management Act (EMA) provides the legal and institutional framework for the management of the environment and implementation of the nation's Environment Policy. Institutionally, it provides for the continuation of the National Environment Management Council (NEMC) and the National Environmental Advisory Committee.
The NEMC is charged with the enforcement, compliance, review, monitoring of environmental impact assessment and the facilitation of public participation in environmental decision making and supervision of all matters relating to the environment assigned to the Council. Amongst its functions hTEMC (1) reviews EIAs and recommends them (or not) for approval, and (2) identifies projects, programmes for which environmental audit or monitoring must be conductecl.
It is noted that under the Act, NEMC may "delegate to any sector Ministry, environmental body, employee or agent of the Council, the exercise of any of the powers or the performance of any of the functions or duties of the Council under the Act" (EMA paragraph 26)
All relevant Ministries have established environmental management sections, which liaise with NEMC on environmental matters. In particular, it is the Environmental Section's responsibility to ensure that environmental concerns are integrated into ~ i n i d r y developmental planning and project implementation in a way that it protects the environment. The Environmental Management Sections of Sector Ministries are charged with overseeing the preparation of EIAs required for investment in their sectors (NEMA paragraph 3 1 (k)).
Each Sector Ministry is required to appoint a Sector Environment Coordinator to coordinate and report on all activities and performance of functions related to the environment and the Ministry. In addition, at the regional level there is a Regional Environmental Management Expert (REME) to advise local authorities on matters relating to the Act.
In each City, Municipality, District, Town Council there is an appointed Environmental Management Officer (EMO) and an Environmental Management Committee (EMC). The EMO's responsibilities include the monitoring of the preparation, review and approval of EIAs of local
investments and project and to report to the Director of the Environment on implementation of the Act within the area of hisker jurisdiction.
Similarly, Committees and Environmental Management Officers are to be appointed at the Kitongoji ( KEMO ), Ward ( WEMO ), Mtaa ( MEMO ) and Village (VEMO) levels. They are empowered to coordinate all activities geared towards the protection of environment within their local areas.
The NEMC is responsible for the review of projects and deciding on whether they need EIAs and prepare Environmental Impact Statements (EISs). The Act specifies which types of projects require EIAs in its Third Schedule. Of relevance to the LVEMP 11, EIAs are required for (a) any activity out of character with its surrounding, (b) any structure of a scale not in keeping with its surrounding; (c) major changes in land use, (d) Dams, rivers and water resources projects, (e) solid or liquid waste disposal, and (f) natural conseryation areas.
The Council distribute EISs on ofiicial written comments from government agencies, gives notification of public meetings for EISs' reviews, and ensures availability of related reports and documents to those affected or involved. NEMC is responsible for managing the review process before advising the Minister responsible for Environment to consider issuance of Environmental Permit. It should be noted that the Minister responsible for Environment is able to delegate responsibility for approval of EISs to the Director of Environment, LGAs and Sector Ministries. Subsequently, the NEMC is responsible for monitoring the operation of projects and required mitigation measures especially in cases where holders of Certificates and their projects are in non- compliance.
Regarding the LVEMP 11, some of its project activities will fall under the list of projects prescribed for EIAs. EIA studies will have to be conducted, before the implementation of such project activities. However, as project locations and the extent of project activities are not known at this time, an environmental and social management framework is required for environmental and social screening.
4.2.2 Land Legislation
The administration, use, planning and development of land resources in the country are regulated through "The Land Act, (No. 6), 1999" and "The Village Land Act, (No. 7), 1999. The two Acts are discussed separately as follows:
4.2.2.1 The Land Act, (No. 6), 1999
The major function of this Land Act is to promote the fundamentals of the "National Land Policy" through giving clear classification and tenure of land, land administration procedures, rights and incidents of land occupation, granted rights of occupancy, conversion of interests in land, dispositions affecting land, land leases, mortgaging of land, easements and analogous rights, co- occupation and partitioning and, settlement of land disputes. One of the pertinent issues when dealing with land is the right of occupancy. According to the Land Act, 1999, the right of occupancy is given in two categories that separate citizens and non-citizens rights to occupy land.
(i) For a citizen or in a group of two or more formed in association, partnership or corporate body will enjoy the right of being granted the right of occupancy or derivative of a granted right of occupancy.
(ii) For a non-citizen, or in a group whether formed into a corporate body under the Companies Ordinance or otherwise, (including corporate bodies whose majority shareholders or owners are non-citizens) may only obtain a right of occupancy or derivative right for purposes of investment prescribed under the Tanzania Investment Act 1997.
These sections are regarded ciucial because conceived projects can have both local and foreign shareholders in investment or operation of LVEMP I1 projects according to the Tanzania Investment Act 1997.
4.2.2.2 Village Land Act (No. 7), 1999
The Village Land Act, (No. 7), 1999 was enacted specifically for the administration and management of land in villages. Under the provisions of this Act, the village council is responsible for the management of the village land and is empowered to do so in accordance to the principles of a trustee managing property on behalf of a beneficiary. In addition, the village council is required to manage land by upholding the principles of sustainable development, relationship between land uses, other natural resources and the environment. Many identified projects under LVEMP I1 shall be established and operated with the village lands.
4.2.3 Water Utilization and Regulation Act, (No. 42) 1974
The Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Act, (No. 42), 1974, is the Principal Legislation dealing with the protection of water resources and control of water extraction for different uses. This act has gone through three amendments, amendment through Act No. 10 of 198 1, Written Laws (miscellaneous amendment) Act No. 17 of 1989 and the Water Utilization (miscellaneous amendment) Act No 8 of 1997. The extraction of water for different users is controlled through a "water right permit". Under this law, applications for water rights required to be submitted to the Basin Water Office for water sources falling under particular Basin.
The applicant is required to undertake EIA as classified in the EMA (2004) and (the OP 4.37 safety of Dams in case of construction of water facilities) and submit the environmental clearance certificate from NEMC to the Basin Water Office.
The LVEMP I1 projects needs to understand the procedures for acquiring and managing water rights, discharges to open environment and maintenance of water quality, which are provided by this Act. The new proposed Water Legislation in Part XI1 provides for dam safety and flood management.
4.2.4 The Forest Act, (No. 14), 2002
The Forest Act, (No. 14), 2002, provides for the management of forests and its main objectives are to promote and enhance the contribution of the forest sector to the sustainable development of
Tanzania and the conservation and management of natural resources for the benefit of the present and future generations. In addition, the legislation aims to ensure ecosystem stability through conservation of forest biodiversitjr, water catchments and soil fertility.
According to section 18 of this Act, an EIA is required for certain developments in accordance with the modalities and substance as set out in the guidelines by authorities responsible for the protection of the environment. Among others are (a) road construction or the laying of pipelines; (b) construction of dams, power stations, electrical or telecommunication installations; (c) construction of buildings.
4.2.5 The Wildlife Conservation Act (No. 12), 1974
The Wildlife Conservation Act, (No. 12), 1974, is entrusted with the custodianship of wildlife resources in the country. The Act empowers the Minister to establish game control areas, prohibit, restrictJregulate the hunting, killing and capture of animals during such periods as may be specified. In addition, it also gives the Director of Wildlife powers inter alia: to restrict the carriage of weapons in game reserve; protect vegetations against burning or cutting; restrict use of devices for killing or capturing animals within game reserve and game controlled areas and to declare any area to be a partial game reserve for protected animals and restrict the hunting, capturing or killing protected animals or from game reserves.
On public interest, the Director is empowered to refuse to issue license, certificate and permission to any person and may cancel permission/permit and try various offences. Although the Act does not prohibit consumptive use of wildlife, it seeks to control and regulate that use in order to ensure sustainability.
Among the many objectives and strategies that the Act sets, the following are major ones:
To promote the conservation of wildlife and its habitat (Protection); -. To regulate the development of projects/activities in protected areas (Development); To conserve viable populations of species for making up Tanzania's fauna and flora with emphasis on endangered, threatened, endemic species and their habitats; Enforce EIA process for proposed developments in protected areas and requesting for environmental planning for developments to be carried out in the wild.life areas outside protected areas in order to minimize negative impacts.
LVEMP I1 projects will adhere to the laws governing the conservation of wildlife.
4.2.6 Occupation Health and Safety Act (No. 5,2003)
The Occupation Health and Safety Act is an Act for Health and Safety. The Act is administered through the Ministry of Labour. Under the Act, the Minister responsible for Labour shall appoint the Chief Inspector (CI) to perform the functions stipulated in the Act. The CI may in turn also designate any person as an Inspector to perform all functions assigned to an Inspector in respect of LVEMP I1 project activities, this Act shall be enforced in all working places.
4.2.7 The Veterinary Act, 2003 (No 16 of 2003) ,
This Act establishes Veterinary Council of Tanzania whose purpose among others is to (a) effecting registration, enrolment and enlistment under this Act; (b) monitoring the performance of veterinarians Veterinary, Paraprofessionals and Paraprofessionals Assistants; and also to register Veterinarians, Veterinary Specialists and veterinary practice facilities, enroll Paraprofessionals and Paraprofessional Assistants pursuant to this Act; advise and make recommendations to the Minister on any matters relating to veterinary practice znd regulate veterinary practice in the country. This Act also gave powers to appoint Inspectors whose functions include. (a) to enter and inspect any premises suspected to be used as the veterinary practice facility;(b) to require the owner or operator of the veterinary practice facility or premises to observe and maintain good condition or established standards of the veterinary practice facility; (c) to issue prohibition notice to owners or operators of veterinary practice facilities who operate in contravention of prescribed procedures or standards; (d) to seize and detain any drugs, equipment, record, or any other thing which appear to him to constitute or contain evidence of contravention of this Act; and (e) to inquire into any matter regarding animal disease or animal health within his area ofjurisdiction.
4.2.8 Animal Disease Act 2003 (No. 17 of 2003)
This Act bestow powers to the Minister to issue regulations spelling out measures for checking and handling livestock disease outbreaks including the technical steps to be taken in order to effect quarantine and shall spell out epidemiological demarcations for buffer zones or areas and infected areas. The Act also gave Inspectors powers to regulate the disposal of carcasses, animal produce, feed, litter, animal waste and any other things associated with disease within the infected ,area; and that no person shall move any animal, animal produce, animal feed, litter, animal waste or anything as may be prescribed in the regulation into or from an infected area without a written ]permission of the Inspector. Furthermore no person shall move an infected or diseased animal outside the infected area and such steps are necessary to contain and control spread of diseases
4.3 Relevant WB safeguard policies
The proposed LVEMP I1 will mainly trigger five WB safeguard policies, namely, Environmental Assessment (OP/BP 4.01), Pest Management (OP/BP 4.09), Involuntary Resettleiment (OP/BP 4.12) Natural Habitats (OP/BP 4.04) and International Waterways OP/BP 7.50). The Environmental Assessment is the most relevant and applicable safeguard policy for the ESMF. Both policies are summarised and compared with the National Legislation in the sub-sections below:
. '
4.3.1 Environmental Assessment
The objective of Environmental Assessment is to ensure that projects are environmentally sound and sustainable, and that decision-making is improved through appropriate analysis of actions and mitigation of their likely environmental impacts. This policy is triggered if a project is likely to have potential adverse environmental risks and impacts in its area of influence. The
implementation of various projects including rehabilitation of infrastructure under the Project may have environmental impacts, which require mitigation. Therefore, in line with this Operational Policy, this Environment and Social Management Framework for screening of the LVEMP I1 activities has been prepared.
4.3.2 Involuntary Resettlement
The objective of Involuntary ~edettlement i's to avoid or minimise involuntary resettlement where feasible, exploring all viable alternative project designs. Furthermore, it intends to assist displaced persons in improving their former living standards; it encourages community participation in planning and implementing resettlement and in providing assistance to affected people, regardless of the legality of title of land. This policy is triggered not only if physical relocation occurs, but also by any loss of land resulting in: relocation or loss of shelter; loss of assets or access to assets; loss of income sources or means of livelihood, whether or not the affected people must move to another location. The detailed Resettlement Policy Framework for LVEMP I1 has been prepared to provide guidelines on how to deal with resettlement issues.
4.3.3 Projects on International Waterways
The objective of Projects on International Waterways is to ensure that projects that impact on international waterways do not affect other states of the Nile Basin (NB) areas. It is recognised that the cooperation and goodwill of riparian states is essential for the use and protection of the waterways. Due to great importance to all NB countries and riparian states to the Lake Victoria an appropriate agreements or arrangements for the entire waterway or any part thereof is organized including notifications for all activities that could impact other countries. In cases where differences remain unresolved between the state proposing the project (beneficiary state) and the other riparian states prior to financing the project, normally it is urged that the beneficiary state is required to negotiate in good faith with the other riparian states, to reach an appropriate agreements or arrangements. This policy is triggered if a project will affect relations of riparian states negatively by the increased use of water resources or by significantly polluting the water.
5.0. PROPOSED INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT AND FRAMEWORK
In order to ensure principles of IPM are followed and understood by all key stakeholders various techniques will be followed including awareness and other educational campaigns to let concerned parties become full aware of Project operations. The proposed awareness campaign intends to achieve among other things:
I
(i). A better understanding of the biology, ecology, and population interactions of pests and hosts.
(ii). Minimizing the risks of pests' potential to destroy crops, or transmitting diseases.
(iii). Development of early warning systems in pest management
(iv). Reducing the probabilities of secondary pest outbreaks and pest resurgence
(v). Developing selective control methods which are less destructive to natural competitors or enemies of pests.
(vi). Developing methodologies to manage pests, which do not harm the health of farm crops, animals, humans or the environment.
(vii). Beneficial exploitation of pests
5.1 Introduce new research activities and disseminate past research findings
In Tanzania there are grey areas where future prospects lies for examples traditional practices like bushfire to the control of weeds could not be forfeited. Thus there is a need to make associations of events or issues in the society to find whether they may contribute or demerit management of pests in the LVB region. The possible areas include the following:
1. The influence of fire on the diversity of forest insects; 2. Seasonal abundance and host preference of bark and wood-boring beetles in
lowland forest; 3. The influence of induced water and shade stress on the performance of Leucaena
psyllid. 4. Social economic impact of parasitic plants on fruit trees production.
Replicate ongoing (long term) research activities in other parts to the LVB region
There are many research studies done in related institutions in Tanzania; this scientific work could be replicated in the LVB areas to address similar problems. Ongoing research areas include: 1. Evaluation of the health of forests and monitoAng insects and disease outbreaks; 2. Evaluation of the current status of natural pesticides and their efficacy against major
insects, and diseases; 3. Analysis of operational control measures with the ultimate goal of developing
appropriate IPM packages for major insects and diseases. (Emphasis on biological control and breeding for pest resistance).
4. Diseases of timber trees in catchment forests.
5.3 Proposed Pests monitoring and Evaluation System M&E system in IPM should be done in an integrated approach, and it should also be enterprise based so as to deal with a group of diseases and pests affecting any single crop. Since pest problem is an existing problem and major constraints to several enterprises in Lake Victoria Basin, it is obvious that there are already existing pest management programmes within the region. In view of that it is advisable to use the participatory Impacts Monitoring (PIM) approaches. The following are the proposed steps that has to be involved in participatory M&E
Stakeholder Analysis and identification of M&E team Setting up objectives and expectations for monitoring Selection of impacts that has to be monitored Develop indicator sheets Develop and test the tools to be used in data collection Collect the data from Mwanza, Kagera, Mara and part of Shinyanga Region
5.4 Other research projects Since the impacts of Pesticides affects most sectors of the economy and thus hinders the efforts of achieving development goal. It is here by recommended that other specific projects related to pesticides should be performed. In line with that the following projects are proposed
There is a need to investigate on the effects of biological control methods of water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes (Mart) Solms - Laubah on the water quality, food chain, micro- organism from benthic communities to the pelagic communities. Research on the control measures that minimize risks and accidents when the methods is adopted, especially where dangerous pesticide may be in use
Some potential areas for future crop protection research within SPMC
5.5 Weed Management.
Biological control, in the classical sense, is the purposeful introduction by man of parasites, predators, and/or pathogenic microorganisms to reduce or suppress populations of plant or animal pests. This concept of classical biological control is not new, having been practiced in many forms around the world since the earliest days of recorded history. Biological control has been and is currently used as a viable management strategy for insect pests, unwanted plants, and the control of nuisance reptiles and mammals.
The most successful cases of using biological control occur when a problem species has been introduced into a new region of the world without a complex or assemblage of organisms that feed directly upon it, attack its seeds or progeny (i.e., predators or parasites), or cause severe or debilitating diseases (i.e., pathogenic microorganisms). Such is the case with the major problem terrestrial, wetland, and aquatic plants; they were introduced without their associated complex of predators or herbivores, parasites, and disease-causing organisms.
The reason biological control is practical is that pest populations are maintained at lower characteristic sizes or densities mainly by the combined action of predators, herbivores, parasites,
disease-causing organisms and a variety of abiotic factors such as climate, localized environmental conditions, etc., with only minimal intervention by man.
To clearly comprehend the potential that the interactions between various species have on the regulation of population size, and hence biological control, it is important to understand some basic concepts of population biology and ecology, including population growth, population regulatory factors, and the potential competition between abd within different species.
This least developed field of research at SUA needs a special attention. Collaboration between SPMC and TPRI in this field would be particularly desirable.
6 CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 CONCLUSION
It is concluded from this study that LVB Region like many other parts of Tanzania, which experiences disturbances from presence of number of pests and anthropogenic control means require physical, biological and chemical agents. While the first two are less detrimental to the environment, the latter not only kill the target pests but also affect non targeted organisms. Besides, it was noted that over time agrochemicals build up resistance and instead of solving they make the problems more complicated, thus calling for sufficient research before opting to chemical agents.
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS: ., ! : . .
In order to mitigate the impacts of pests in Lake Victoria Basin the following recommendations are proposed
1. There is need to identify pests according to beneficial species in various cultivated and fallow lands.
2. Understanding of biology and ecology of the pests (i.e. morphology, life cycle, breeding behaviour, feeding habits, and density and population dynamics) woluld assist in combating them using IPM strategies.
3. The determination of seasonal patterns of pest outbreaks, and of predisposing factors of outbreaks
4. Establishing the optimal time during the life cycle for the management of pest species. 5. Developing biological agents appropriate for the management of specific pests, with
reference also to traditional systems. 6. Survey of potential indigenous bio-control agents in forestry. 7. Stakeholders analysis- is very important in determining key players in the
implementation of IPM strategies 8. Establish IPM committees in the Lake Victoria Basin which will comprise of
communities from all sectors around the lake.
ANNEXES
Importance of Different Types of Livestock
Chart 2.1 Mend o lL ies tock by Type Sherr, P i p 1 50% of the total 1
C s n l c Q Gmts Sheep P i p important for household food security and
I I Cattle OGoats Sheep Pips I Chad 23 Number of Housel~aldr keeping 1,ivestock by Type
Plgs 9%
Goats are as important as Cattle in terms of the number of
Number of Livestock infected by Pleuro Pneumonia by Livestock type and region during the 200:1/03 Agriculture Year I d
Region
Dodoma
Arusha
Kilimanjaro
Tanga
Morogoro
Pwani
Dar es Salaam
Lindi
Mtwara
Ruvuma
Iringa
Mbeya
Singida
Tabora
Rukwa
Kigoma
Shinyanga
Kagera
Mwanza
M ara
Manyara
Mainland
Zanzibar
National
*Data on Pleuro
Cattle
1,031,889
1,593,633
494,555
378,338
461,063
122,308
13,195
3,080
17,158
121,175
420,954
941,077
1,257,159
1,568,691
504,727
422,361
2,604,105
886,474
1,718,190
1,099,068
1,177,951
16,837,150
162,643
16,999,793
Pnemonia was
Pleuro
101,729
117,591
22,586
24,079
21,715
7,212
333
186
19,23 1
39,966
99,730
100,865
12,181
2,323
83,360
33,873
13,291
51,606
121,687
873,545
0
873,545
captured for
Pleura
Goats
797,481
1,650,445
572,577
514,620
243,175
98,604
22,292
1 10,505
196,675
309,595
327,476
358,789
684,420
718,996
292,849
425,604
1,277,929
699,301
829,997
634,044
991,152
1 1,756,527
52,324
11,808,851
cattle, sheep and
Pneumonia
Pleuro
95,286
254,794
58,693
51,250
13,198
533
35
960
11,434
853
16,776
13,265
14,732
19,332
6,353
6,701
24,892
6,187
4,674
10,989
221,001
83 1,937
5,565
837,502
goats only
Infection by
Sheep
187,244
1,024,149
257,260
164,355
95,680
24,334
1,290
11,905
25,275
24,458
67,424
66,031
309,938
235,213
36,073
51,805
517,144
90,321
121,978
194,073
439,314
3,945,266
3 00
3,945,566
Livestock
Pleuro
12,517
97,701
13,354
14,177
2,492
204
10,203
319
323
1,900
3,583
4,748
5,024
133
5,514
5,064
1,611
9,989
48,722
237,576
153
237,729
Type
Pigs Pleuro Total Livestock
2,016,614
4,268,227
1,324,392
1,057,3 12
799,918
245246
36,777
125,490
239,109
455,229
815,854
1,365,897
2,251,517
2,522,9010
833,649
899,770
4,399,179
1,676,096
2,670,166
1,927,186
2,608,417
32,538,943
2 15,267
32,754,210
Total Pneumonia
209,532
470,086
94,633
89,506
37,405 . 7,949
368
11,163
11,753
1,362
37,907
56,814
119,210
125,221
18,534
9,157
113,766
45,124
19,576
72,584
391,410
1,943,060
5,718
1,948,778
% infected of regional livestock numbers
10.4
11.0
7.1
8.5
4.7
3.2
1 .O
8.9
4.9
0.3
4.6
4.2
5.3
5 .O
2.2
1 .O
2.6
2.7
0.7
3.8
15.0
6.0
2.7
Number of Livestock Infected by Foot and Mouth by Livestock type and region during the 2002103 Agriculture Year
*Data on Foot and Mouth was captured for cattle and sh
Number
Region
Dodoma
Amsha
Kilimanjaro
Tanga
Morogoro
Pwani
Dares Salaam
Lindi
Mtwara
Ruwma
lringa
Mbeya
Singida
Tabora
Rukwa
Kigoma
Shinyanga
Kagera
Mwanza
Mara
Manyara
Total
by Foot Rot by of Livestock infected
Sheep
187,244
1,024,149
257,260
164,355
95,680
24,334
1,290
11,905
25,275
24,458
67,424
66,031
309,938
235,2 13
36,073
51,805
517,144
90,321
12 1,978
194,073
439,314
3,945,264
Goats
Goats . 797,481
1,650,445
572,577
5 14,620
243,175
98,604
22,292
1 10,505
196,675
309,595
327,476
358,789
684,420
7 18,996
292,849
425,604
1,277,929
699,301
829,997
634,044
991,152
1 1,756,527
Livestock type and region during the 2002103 Agriculture Year
Sheep
Foot Rot
8,509
70,786
17,636
12,408
8,999
372
17
891
473
104
2,760
1,641
3,181
8,266
668
1,350
9,261
- 4,959
6,111
19,151
177,543
Foot Rot
65,397
87,749
12,129
29,200
18,019
3,625
816
2,137
9,607
9,213
6,784
9,549
19,289
44,255
5,716
3,005
39,322
8,207
23,246
31,620
48,583 ----- 477,468
Total Sheep and Goats
984,725
2,674,594
829,837
678,975
338,855
122,938
23,582
122,410
221,950
334,053
394,900
424,820
994,358
954,209
328,922
477,409
1,795,073
789,622
95 1,975
828,117
1,430,466 15,701,791
Total
Total Foot rot
73,906
158,535
29,765
41,608
27,018
3,997
833
3,028
10,080
9,317
9,544
11,190
22,470
52,521
6,384
4,355
48,583
8,207
28,205
37,731
67,734
655,011
% infected of regional livestock
numbers
7.5
5.9
3.6
6.1
8 .O
3.3
3.5
2.5
4.5
2.8
2.4
2.6
2.3
5.5
1.9
0.9
2.7
1 .O
3 .O
4.6
4.7 _ _ - 4.2
%
Rank
2
4
9
3
1
11
10
16
8
13
17
15
18
5
19
21
14
20
12
7
6
% infected of regional livestock numbers
11
24
5
6
4
1
0
0
2
1
1
2
3
8
1
1
7
1
4
6
10
26.1 Number of Livestock Infected by Helminthiosis by Livestock Type and Region during the 2002/03 Agriculture Year
Dodoma
Amsha
Kilimanjaro
Tanga
Morogoro
Pwani Dares Salaam
Lindi
Mtwara
Ruvuma
Iringa
Mbeya
Singida
Tabora
Rukwa
Kigoma
Shinyanga
Kagera
Mwanza
Mara
Manyara
Mainland
Zanzibar
National
Cattle
1,031,889
1,593,633
494,555
378,338
461,063
122,308
13,195
3,080
17,158
121,175
420,954
941,077
1,257,159
1,568,691
504,727
422,361
2,604,105
886,474
1,718,190
1,099,068
1,177,951
16,837,150
162,643
16,999,793
Helm
41,935
342,442
163,396
83,056
22,729
16,862
4,402
728
1,486
8,850
30,379
76,307
57,008
54,435
25,769
42,367
150,753
90,482
255,814
102,854
396,457
1,768,511
8,722
1,777,233
Goats
797,481
1,650,445
572,577
514,620
243,175
98,604
22,292
110,505
196,675
309,595
327,476
358,789
684,420
718,996
292,849
425,604
1,277,929
699,301
829,997
634,044
991,152
11,756,527
52,063
11,808,590
Helm
52,587
494,618
222,241
162,286
60,375
30,629
8,451
19,461
18,391
37,936
48,918
43,021
78,210
67,279
34,323
135,662
83,763
103,325
122,707
112,549
275,330
2,212,06 2
4,143 2,216,20
5
Sheep
187,244
1,024,14 9
257,260
164,355
95,680
24,334
1,290
11,905
25,275
24,458
67,424
66,031
309,938
235,213
36,073
51,805
517,144
90,321
121,978
194,073
439,314
3,94526 6
300 3,945,56
6
Helm
13,974
273,143
91,043
54,137
19,825
3,988
903
1,172
777
1,699
16,459
2,822
27,212
11,191
2,684
17,764
28,151
6,165
21,972
36,631
121,385
753,097
0
753,097
Pigs
43,835
7,958
116,877
6,281
44,986
3,673
12,993
4,956
6,293
134,951
180,904
227,036
6,375
6,286
51,840
23,698
3,266
47,508
610
2,409
41,236
973,971
535
974,506
Helm
10,863
1,887
59,365
4,233
18,002
1,989
6,387
1,886
1,061
41,866
60,973
81,501
550
1,517
4,881
19,744
31
5,687
229
651
16,237
339,540
80
339,620
Total Livestock
2,060,449
4,276,184
1,441,269
1,063,594
844,904
248,919
49,770
130,446
245,402
590,180
996,758
1,592,933
2,257,892
2,529,186
885,488
923,469
4,402,445
1,723,604
2,670,775
1,929,594
2,649,653
33,512,914
215,541
33,728,455
Total helrnenthiosis
119,359
1 ,I 12,090
536,045
303,712
120,93 1
53,468
20,143
23,247
21,715
90,351
156,729
203,651
162,980
134,422
67,657
215,537
262,698
205,659
400,722
252,685
609,409
5,073,210
12,945
5,086,155
% infected of regional livestock numbers
5.8
26.0
37.2
28.6
14.3
21.5
40.5
17.8
8.8
15.3
15.7
12.8
7.2
5.3
7.6
23.3
6.0
11.9
15.0
13.1
23.0
15.1
6
15
Number of Livestock infected by Tick Borne Disease by Livestock type and region during the
2002103 Agriculture Year I I cattle ]cattle 1 Dodoma Arusha Kilimanjaro Tanga Morogoro Pwani Dar es Salaa~ Lindi Mtwara Ruvuma Iringa Mbeya Singida Tabora Rukwa Kigoma Shinyanga Kagera Mw anza Mara
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