Review Minor components of pulses and their potential impact on human health Rocio Campos-Vega a , Guadalupe Loarca-Piña a , B. Dave Oomah b, * a Programa en Alimentos del Centro de la República (PROPAC), Research and Graduate Studies in Food Science, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Querétaro, Qro. 76010, Mexico b National Bioproducts and Bioprocesses Program, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Summerland, BC, Canada V0H 1Z0 article info Keywords: Pulses Legumes Phenolic compounds Enzyme inhibitors Lectins Minerals Vitamins Fatty acids Phytoesterols Phytic acid Galactooligosaccharides Saponins Oxalate Human health Cardiovascular diseases Diabetes Cancer Obesity abstract Pulses contain a number of bioactive substances including enzyme inhibitors, lectins, phytates, oligosac- charides, and phenolic compounds. Enzyme inhibitors can diminish protein digestibility, and lectins can reduce nutrient absorption, but both have little effect after cooking. Phytic acid can diminish mineral bio- availability. Some phenolic compounds can reduce protein digestibility and mineral bioavailability, and galactooligosaccharides may cause flatulence. On the other hand, these same compounds may have pro- tective effects. Phytic acid exhibits antioxidant activity and protects DNA damage, phenolic compounds have antioxidant and other important physiological and biological properties, and galactooligosaccha- rides may elicit prebiotic activity. These compounds can have complementary and overlapping mecha- nisms of action, including modulation of detoxifying enzymes, stimulation of the immune system, regulation of lipid and hormone metabolism, antioxidant, antimutagen, and antiangiogenic effects, reduction of tumor initiation, and promotion and induction of apoptosis. Secondary metabolites are considerated antinutrients, simultaneously conferring health benefits, so these secondary metabolites are currently marketed as functional foods and nutraceuticals ingredients. Crown Copyright Ó 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Contents 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 462 2. Phenolic compounds ................................................................................................ 464 2.1. Levels of phenolic acids in pulses ...................................................................... 464 2.2. Phenolic acids and antioxidant activity .................................................................. 465 2.3. Isoflavones content and health ........................................................................ 465 3. Enzyme inhibitors and lectins ........................................................................................ 466 3.1. Chemical composition .............................................................................. 466 3.2. Levels of enzyme inhibitors and lectins in pulses ........................................................... 466 3.3. Nutritional and physiological effects .................................................................... 467 4. Minerals and vitamins .............................................................................................. 468 4.1. Biological functions of minerals........................................................................ 468 4.2. Levels of minerals in pulses .......................................................................... 468 4.3. Vitamin contents in pulses ........................................................................... 469 5. Fatty acids ........................................................................................................ 471 6. Phytosterols ....................................................................................................... 471 7. Phytic acid ........................................................................................................ 472 7.1. Biological function ................................................................................. 472 7.2. Phytate levels in pulses ............................................................................. 472 7.3. Phytic acid and health .............................................................................. 472 8. Saponins and oxalate ............................................................................................... 473 0963-9969/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright Ó 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2009.09.004 * Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 250 494 6399; fax: +1 250 494 0755. E-mail address: [email protected](B.D. Oomah). Food Research International 43 (2010) 461–482 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Food Research International journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodres
Minor components of pulses and their potential impact on human health
Rocio Campos-Vega a, Guadalupe Loarca-Piña a, B. Dave Oomah b,*
a Programa en Alimentos del Centro de la República (PROPAC), Research and Graduate Studies in Food Science, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro,Querétaro, Qro. 76010, Mexicob National Bioproducts and Bioprocesses Program, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Summerland, BC, Canada V0H 1Z0
Pulses contain a number of bioactive substances including enzyme inhibitors, lectins, phytates, oligosac-charides, and phenolic compounds. Enzyme inhibitors can diminish protein digestibility, and lectins canreduce nutrient absorption, but both have little effect after cooking. Phytic acid can diminish mineral bio-availability. Some phenolic compounds can reduce protein digestibility and mineral bioavailability, andgalactooligosaccharides may cause flatulence. On the other hand, these same compounds may have pro-tective effects. Phytic acid exhibits antioxidant activity and protects DNA damage, phenolic compoundshave antioxidant and other important physiological and biological properties, and galactooligosaccha-rides may elicit prebiotic activity. These compounds can have complementary and overlapping mecha-nisms of action, including modulation of detoxifying enzymes, stimulation of the immune system,regulation of lipid and hormone metabolism, antioxidant, antimutagen, and antiangiogenic effects,reduction of tumor initiation, and promotion and induction of apoptosis. Secondary metabolites areconsiderated antinutrients, simultaneously conferring health benefits, so these secondary metabolitesare currently marketed as functional foods and nutraceuticals ingredients.
Crown Copyright � 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
The nutritional properties of pulses reported to impart physio-logically beneficial effects in humans have been investigatedextensively. Pulse grains are high in protein, carbohydrates, anddietary fibre and are a rich source of other nutritional components(Tharanathan & Mahadevamma, 2003) and their consumption andproduction extends world-wide (Table 1). Pulses used for humanconsumption include peas, beans, lentils, chickpeas, and faba beans(Rochfort & Panozzo, 2007). Frequent legume consumption (four ormore times compared with less than once a week) has been asso-ciated with 22% and 11% lower risk of coronary heart disease (CHD)and cardiovascular disease (CVD), respectively (Flight & Clifton,2006). In an earlier study of 9632 participants free of CVD at their
tion and region of pulse consumption.
edible legume seeds (grain legumes) Latin name
sbeans (Phaseolus spp. including several species now inigna)dney bean, haricot bean, pinto bean, navy bean Phaseolus vulgaris
a bean, butter bean Vigna lunatuszuki bean Vigna angularis
d from Walker and Ochhar (1982) and Duranti (2006).
baseline examination in the First National Health and NutritionExamination Survey (NHANES 1) Epidemiological Follow-up Study(NHEFS), Bazzano et al. (2001) found that legume consumptionwas significantly and inversely associated with risk of CHD andCVD. Over an average of 19 years of follow-up, 1802 incident casesof CHD and 3680 incident cases of CVD were found.
Legumes contain a number of bioactive substances includingenzyme inhibitors, lectins, phytates, oligosaccharides, and phenoliccompounds that play metabolic roles in humans or animals thatfrequently consume these foods (Table 2). These effects may be re-garded as positive, negative, or both (Champ, 2002). Some of thesesubstances have been considered as antinutritional factors due totheir effect on diet quality. Enzyme inhibitors and lectins can re-duce protein digestibility and nutrient absorption, respectively,
World crop production metric tons�10�3
Main region ofconsumption
38191162
World-wideAmericas, AfricaAsia, especially Japan
Asia
255Temperate regionsTemperate regions
892ivumense
478 Asian and Middle East350 Africa, Asia, South
America103 Asia, Africa199 World-wide
9945
ladiatalobus
utilis
Table 2Bioactive components of major pulse species (% dry matter basis except where indicated otherwise).
DM, dry matter; TIU, trypsin inhibitor units; TIA, trypsin inhibitor activity; U, Units, IU, International Units; HA, haemagglutinin activity; HU, haemagglutinatin units.Adapted from Champ (2002).
a Liener (1976), Melcion and Valdebouze (1977), Viroben (1979), Gueguen, Quemener, and Valdebouze (1980), Valdebouze, Bergeron, Gaborit, and Delort-Laval (1980),Ekpenyoung and Borchers (1981), Bertrand, Delort-Laval, Melcion, and Valdebouze (1982), Lacassagne, Francesch, Carré, and Melcion (1988), Huisman (1990), Jondreville,Grosjean, Buron, Peyronnet, and Beneytout (1992), Zdunczyk, Godycka, and Amarowicz (1997), Chrenkova, Ceresnakova, Sommer, and Slamena (2001), Page, Aubert, Duc,Welham, and Domoney (2001), Smulikowska et al. (2001).
b Savage and Deo (1989).c Melcion and Valdebouze (1977), Liener (1979), Viroben (1979), Gueguen et al. (1980), Valdebouze et al. (1980), Ekpenyoung and Borchers (1981), Bertrand et al. (1982),
Savage and Deo (1989).d Savage and Deo (1989), Quinteros et al. (1990).e Savage and Deo (1989), Longstaff and McNab (1991), Saini (1993), Zdunczky et al. (1997), Mazur (1998), Binghma et al. (1998), Bravo (1988), Hom-Ross et al. (2000),
Liggins et al. (2000), Carbonaro et al. (2001), Smulikowska et al. (2001).f Ranilla et al. (2009).
R. Campos-Vega et al. / Food Research International 43 (2010) 461–482 463
but both have little effect after cooking (Lajolo & Genovese, 2002).Phytic acid can diminish mineral bioavailability (Sandberg, 2002).Some phenolic compounds can also reduce protein digestibility(Chung, Wong, Wei, Huang, & Lin, 1998) and mineral bioavailabil-ity (Sandberg, 2002), while galactooligosaccharides may induce
Table 3Potential beneficial effects of bioactive components in pulses.
CHD, coronary heart disease; GL, grain legumes.From Champ (2002).* Compared to main sources.
flatulence (Muzquiz, Burbano, Ayet, Pedrosa, & Cuadrado, 1999).On the other hand, these same compounds may have protective ef-fects against cancer (Lajolo & Genovese, 2002; Mathers, 2002).Phytic acid has antioxidant and DNA protective effects (Midorika-wa, Murata, Oikawa, Hiraku, & Kawanishi, 2001; Phillippy, 2003),
effects Amount in untreatedpulses*
Primary source(s)
genesis (?) and growthn (in animals)
+++ Soya, GL, cereals
digestion +++ Cereals, GLnhibition (in animals), ;absorption
++(+) Beans
lability of minerals ++ Wheat bran, soya, GL
lability of minerals + Spinach, rhubarb, beans+ Soya, clover
syndrome (in animals)
t taste, ; food intake (in ++ Tea, sorghum, rapeseed,Vicia fabaLinseed
tability of dietary fibres + Strawte, ; foodintake (in animals) ++(+) Lucerne (alfalfa), ginseng
Lupins
Table 5Phenolic acid content of commonly consumed dry bean in United States.
Beanclass
Cultivars Mean phenolic acidconcentration (mg 100 g�1)
464 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Food Research International 43 (2010) 461–482
phenolic compounds such as flavonoids and phenolic acids exhibitantioxidant and other specific properties (Murphy & Hendrich,2002; Pieta, 2000; Yeh & Yen, 2003), and galactooligosaccharidesmay exert prebiotic activity (De Boever, Deplancke, & Verstraete,2000; Rycroft, Jones, Gibson, & Rastall, 2001) (Table 3). Secondarymetabolites are considerated antinutrients, simultaneously confer-ring health benefits, so these secondary metabolites are currentlymarketed as functional foods and nutraceuticals ingredients.
For example, common bean lines devoid of major lectin proteinsand with low phenolic content have been developed (Campion,Perrone, Galasso, & Bollini, 2009) to improve nutritional character-istics of bean seeds used for human consumption, and potentiallyfor animal feeding. On the other hand, products such as Phase2TM,a bean extract, have been on the market since 2001, gained GRAS(generally recognized as safe) status in the US in 2006 and havebeen shown to influence body composition of overweight subjects(Celleno, Tolaini, D’Amore, Perricone, & Preuss, 2007).
Light redkidney
Cal Early 7.0 14.8 5.7 27.4
Red Mex UI 239 5.8 17.4 5.4 28.6Cranberry Taylor 1.7 14.0 3.5 19.1
The major polyphenolic compounds of pulses consist mainly oftannins, phenolic acids and flavonoids. The legumes with the high-est polyphenolic content are the dark, highly pigmented varieties,such as red kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) and black gram (Vignamungo). Condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins) have been quanti-fied in hulls of several varieties of field beans (Vicia faba) and arealso present in pea seeds of colored-flower cultivars. Tannin-freeand sweet seeds have been selected among broad beans, lentilsand lupins (Smulikowska et al., 2001).
Pulses vary based on their total phenolic contents and antioxi-dant activities (Table 4). Lentils have the highest phenolic, flavo-noid and condensed tannin content (6.56 mg gallic acidequivalents g�1, 1.30 and 5.97 mg catechin equivalents g�1, respec-tively), followed by red kidney and black beans (Xu & Chang, 2007).According to literature, total phenolic content is directly associatedwith antioxidant activity (Amarowicz, Troszynska, Barylko-Pikielna, &Shahidi, 2004; Awika, Rooney, Wu, Prior, & Zevallos, 2003). Pulseswith the highest total phenolic content (lentil, red kidney, andblack beans) exert the highest antioxidant capacity assessed by2,2-diphenyl-1-picryhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging,ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and the oxygen radicalabsorbance capacity (ORAC) (Xu & Chang, 2007).
The potential health benefits of common bean is attributed tothe presence of secondary metabolites such as phenolic com-pounds that possess antioxidant properties (Azevedo et al., 2003;Cardador-Martinez, Loarca-Pina, & Oomah, 2002; Lazze, Pizzala,Savio, Stivala, & Bianchi, 2003). Ferulic acid is the most abundantphenolic acid in common beans and intermediate levels of p-cou-maric and sinapic acids are also present (Table 5) (Luthria &Pastor-Corrales, 2006). Oomah, Cardador-Martínez, and Loarca-Piña
Table 4Phenolic contents and antioxidant activities of pulses.
Legume Total phenoliccontent (mg gallicacid equivalents g�1)
Total flavonoidcontent (mg catechinequivalents g�1)
Condensed tannincontent (mg catecequivalents g�1)
Green pea 1.53 0.08 0.26Yellow pea 1.67 0.18 0.42Chickpea 1.81 0.18 1.05Lentil 6.56 1.30 5.97Red kidney 4.98 2.02 3.85Black bean 5.04 2.49 3.40
Adapted from Xu and Chang (2007).
(2005) reported a 5-fold variation (3.3–16.6 mg catechin equiva-lents g�1) in total phenolic content of six Canadian bean varieties,while variations in flavonoids, anthocyanins, flavonols, and tartaricesters were minimal. Twenty-four common bean samples analyzedrecently by Long-Ze, Harnly, Pastor-Corrales, and Luthria (2008)contained the same hydroxycinnaminic acids, but the flavonoidcomponents showed distinct differences. Black beans containedprimarily the 3-O-glucosides of delphinidin, petunidin, and malvi-din, while kaempferol and its 3-O-glycosides were present in pintobeans. Light red kidney bean had traces of quercetin 3-O-glucosideand its malonates, but pink and dark red kidney beans containedthe diglycosides of quercetin and kaempferol. Small red beans con-tained kaempferol 3-O-glucoside and pelargonidin 3-O-glucoside,while flavonoids were undetected in alubia, cranberry, great north-ern, and navy beans.
The content of total anthocyanin in whole grain and seed coat of15 cultivars of black beans grown in Mexico ranged from 37.7 and71.6 mg g�1grain and between 10.1 and 18.1 mg g�1 seed coat,respectively. The anthocyanins in seed coats of beans were identi-fied as delphinidin 3-glucoside 65.7%, petunidin 3-glucoside 24.3%,and maldivin 3-glucoside 8.7% (Salinas-Moreno, Rojas-Herrera,Sosa-Montes, & Pérez-Herrera, 2005).
Chickpea also contain a wide range of polyphenolic compounds,including flavonols, flavone glycosides, flavonols, and oligomericand polymeric proanthocyanidins (Sarma, Singh, Mehta, Singh, &
EC50 expressed as mg sample mg�1 DPPH�; GAE expressed as mg gallic acid g�1
sample; CE expressed as mg (+)-catechin g�1 sample.From Heimler et al. (2005).
R. Campos-Vega et al. / Food Research International 43 (2010) 461–482 465
Singh, 2002; Singh, Sarma, & Singh, 2003). Total phenolic contentin chickpea ranges from 0.92 to 1.68 mg gallic acid equivalentsg�1 (Xu & Chang, 2007; Zia-Ul-Haq et al., 2008).
Lignans, diphenolic compounds with a 2,3-dibenzylbutane skel-eton have both estrogenic and antiestrogenic properties (Orcheson,Rickard, Seidl, & Thompson, 1998). The plant lignans, secoisolaric-iresinol (SEC), and matairesinol (MAT) are converted to the metab-olites enterodiol (ED) and enterolactone (EL), known as themammalian lignans, in the gastrointestinal tract. A review of phy-toestrogens (isoflavonoids and lignans) in human health in relationto estrogen type II binding sites, sex hormone binding globulin, tu-mor invasion, angiogenesis, and the immune system is given byAdlercreutz (1998). Most studies have only looked at the isoflavo-noid content of legumes, only one study (Mazur, Duke, Wahala,Rasku, & Adlercreutz, 1998) has analyzed the SEC and MAT content(Table 6). The concentrations of lignans in legumes was found torange for SEC from 0 to 240 g/100 g with higher values for the oil-seeds, peanuts 333 g/100 g SEC and soybean range from 13 to273 g/100 g SEC (Table 6) with trace or no MAT detected (Mazuret al., 1998).
2.2. Phenolic acids and antioxidant activity
In the past few years, the antioxidant properties of food havebeen studied since reactive oxygen species are widely believed tobe involved in many diseases such as cancer, diabetes, autoim-mune conditions, various respiratory diseases, eye diseases, andschizophrenia (Cai, Luo, Sun, & Corke, 2004). Heimler, Vignolini,Dini, and Romani (2005) assessed the antioxidant activity of Phase-olus vulgaris L. dry beans. Table 7 lists the EC50 values, total phen-olics according to the Folin–Ciocalteu method expressed as GAE,and total flavonoids expressed as CE. EC50 indicates the amountof beans, expressed in mg, necessary to reduce the activity of1 mg of DPPH by one-half; the lower the EC50 value, the higherthe antioxidant activity of the sample. With this method, theEC50 values (mg of pure standard/mg DPPH) for kaempferol, quer-cetin, and quercitrin were 0.44, 0.20, and 0.49, respectively; forascorbic acid, the EC50 value was 0.21. EC50 data range from 39to 2810. The phenolic content of the dry beans under study wasof the same order of magnitude as that previously found in onebean cultivar used in central Mexico (Cardador-Martinez et al.,2002).
Antioxidant activity from foods can be influenced by the meth-ods applied for its consumption, reason why the effects of soaking,boiling and steaming processes on the total phenolic components(Table 8) and antioxidant activity in commonly consumed cool sea-son food legumes (CSFL’s) including green pea, yellow pea, chick-pea, and lentil have been investigated (Xu & Chang, 2008). All
Table 6Lignan content (lg 100 g�1 dry wt.) of legumes as SEC and MAT or as ED and EL.
ED, enterodiol; EL, enterolactone.Adapted from Meagher and Beecher (2000).
a Mazur et al. (1998); nr, not reported.b SEC, secoisalariciresinol.c Thompson et al. (1991).d Total = sum of ED + EL.
processing steps result in significant decreases in total phenoliccontent (TPC) and DPPH free radical scavenging activity (DPPH)in all tested CSFL’s. All soaking and atmospheric boiling treatmentsdecreased, while pressure boiling and steaming increased the oxy-gen radical absorbing capacity (ORAC). Steaming treatments re-sulted in a greater retention of TPC, DPPH, and ORAC values in alltested CSFL’s as compared to boiling treatments. However, TPCand DPPH in cooked lentils differed significantly between atmo-spheric and pressure boiling. Pressure processes significantly in-creased ORAC values in both boiled and steamed CSFL’scompared to atmospheric processes. Greater TPC, DPPH, and ORACvalues were detected in boiling water than in soaking and steam-ing water. Boiling also caused more solid loss than steaming. Steamprocessing exhibited several advantages in retaining the integrityof the legume appearance and texture of the cooked product,shortening process time, and greater retention of antioxidant com-ponents and activities. The changes in the overall antioxidant prop-erties of processed CSFL’s could be attributed to the synergisticcombinations or counteracting of several factors, including oxida-tive reaction, leaching of water-soluble antioxidant compositions,formation or breakdown of antioxidant compositions, and solidlosses during processing.
2.3. Isoflavones content and health
Flavones and isoflavones have been isolated from a wide varietyof plants, though the isoflavones are largely reported from the Fab-aceae/Leguminosae family. According to the USDA survey on iso-flavone content, lentils do not contain significant amounts ofthese isoflavones (USDA, 2002). Chickpeas contain daidzein, geni-stein, and formononetin (0.04, 0.06, and 0.14 mg 100 g�1, respec-tively), and approximately 1.7 mg 100 g�1 biochanin A. Soybeanshave significantly higher levels of daidzein and genistein (47 and74 mg 100 g�1, respectively) but contain less formononetin andbiochanin A compared to chickpeas, 0.03 and 0.07 mg 100 g�1,respectively. There are many biological activities associated withthe isoflavones, including a reduction in osteoporosis, cardiovascu-lar disease, prevention of cancer and for the treatment ofmenopause symptoms (Cassidy et al., 2006; Messina, McCaskill-Stevens, & Lampe, 2006; Polkowski & Mazurek, 2000; Ricketts,Moore, Banz, Mezei, & Shay, 2005; Trock, Hilakivi-Clarke, & Clarke,2006).
Total isoflavones in L. mutabilis range from 9.8 to 87, 16.1 to30.8 and 1.3 to 6.1 mg 100 g�1 fresh weight of sample (expressed
Table 8Effect of processing on total phenolic content (TPC-mg gallic acid equivalents g�1) and DPPH free radical scavenging capacity (lmol trolox equivalents g�1) of selected cool seasonfood legumes.
Legumes Processing conditions Green pea Yellow pea Chickpea Lentil
Adapted from Xu and Chang (2008).a Loss% was calculated using original unprocessed beans as starting materials. DPPH values are in brackets.b Peas were pre-soaked based on 100% hydratation rate, lentil was pre-soaked based on 50% hydratation rate prior to boiling treatments.c All samples were pre-soaked based on 70% hydratation rate prior ro stearning treatments. RB, regular boiling; RS, regular steaming.
466 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Food Research International 43 (2010) 461–482
as genistein) in seed coat, cotyledon, and hypocotyl fractions,respectively (Ranilla, Genovese, & Lajolo, 2009). Barceló and Muñoz(1989) identified isoflavones such as genistein, 20 hydroxigenistein,luteone, and wighteone in sprouted hypocotyls of L. albus CVmultolupa, suggesting that these compounds are related with thelignification of the cell wall. This may explain luteone (a tetrahydr-oxyisoflavone) which was detected in immature seeds of L. luteus(Fukui, Egawa, & Koshimizu, 1973). Dini, Schettino, and Dini(1998) detected two genistein derivatives, mutabilin (glycosylatedform) and mutabilein (aglycon form), in seeds of L. mutabilis. Fur-ther, formononetin, genistein and the phytoestrogen secoisolaric-iresinol were found in seeds of L. mutabilis (23, 2420, and 3.1 lg100 g�1, respectively) (Mazur et al., 1998).
The cotyledon of Andean lupins have the highest content of to-tal isoflavones (16–31 mg 100 g�1 cotyledon FW) compared to thehypocotyls (1.3–6.1 mg 100 g�1 hypocotyls FW) and seed coats(9.8–10 mg 100 g�1 seed coat FW). Interestingly, the genisteinderivative (GD) was the major isoflavone found in seed coats andcotyledons from L. mutabilis cultivars. Furthermore, the H-6 culti-var was remarkable because of its high total isoflavone contentin seed coats (87 mg 100 g�1 FW), cotyledon (30.8 mg 100 g�1
FW) and hypocotyls (6.1 mg 100 g�1 FW).
3. Enzyme inhibitors and lectins
3.1. Chemical composition
Protein inhibitors of hydrolases present in pulses are activeagainst proteases, amylases, lipases, glycosidases, and phospha-tases, those inhibiting proteases being the most well-known. Fromthe nutritional aspect, the inhibitors of the serine proteases trypsinand chymotrypsin found in plant foodstuffs are the most important(Belitz & Weder, 1990). Beans are the second largest group of seedsafter cereals reported as natural sources of a-amylase inhibitors(Lajolo, Mancini Filho, & Menezes, 1984). Protease inhibitors iso-lated from legumes are generally classified into two families, re-ferred to as Kunitz and Bowman-Birk on the basis of theirmolecular weights and cystine contents. Kunitz type inhibitorshave a molecular mass of �20 kDa, with two disulfide bridges,and act specifically against trypsin. Bowman-Birk type inhibitorswith a molecular mass of 8–10 kDa, have seven disulfide bridges,and inhibit trypsin and chymotrypsin simultaneously at indepen-dent binding sites. In common beans, lima beans, cowpeas, andlentils protease inhibitors have been characterized as members ofthe Bowman-Birk family (Belitz & Weder, 1990; Lajolo, Finardi-Filho,& Menezes, 1991; Liener, 1994). Trypsin/chymotrypsin inhibi-tors from red kidney bean, Brazilian pink bean, lima bean andsoybean are closely related with high homology (Wu & Whitaker,1991).
Lectins are proteins or glycoproteins that agglutinate erythro-cytes of some or all blood groups in vitro and depend on their spec-ificity and high binding affinity for a particular carbohydrate
moiety on the cell surface (González de Mejía, Rocha, Winter, &Goldstein, 2002). Lectins or haemagglutinins are found in mostplant foods (Nachbar & Oppenheim, 1980), however, grain legumesare the main sources of lectins in ordinary human food. Beans(most species, including Phaseolus vulgaris) seem to be importantsources of lectins, but some varieties can have a much higher lectincontent than others (Bond & Duc, 1993). As a result, residual quan-tities of the initial levels may resist even normal cooking at alti-tudes well above sea level (De Muelenaere, 1965). Kidney beanphytohemagglutinin (PHA) is a tetrameric glycoprotein consistingof two different subunits with a molecular mass of �120 kDa(Sgarbieri & Whitaker, 1982).
Studies have suggested that lectins affect the immune responseagainst ovalbumin and may promote the development of food al-lergy to plants containing lectins. Lectins extracts from red kidneybean inhibits oral tolerance when administered to mice fed ovo-mucoid, while lectin extracts from pea have less pronounced andno effects (Kjaer & Frokiaer, 2002). Lectin is one of the major pro-teins found in lentil (Lens culinaris). All lectins bind one transitionion, usually manganese, and one calcium ion. Intact and decorticat-ed lentils exhibit both manganese ion and radical signals, but thetesta shows only the radical signal (Polat & Korkmaz, 2001). Onthe other hand, cooking effectively removes trypsin inhibitor andlectins levels of vegetable peas and significantly reduces proteinand amino acid solubility (Habiba, 2002). Lectin can be completelyremoved from lentil flour after 72 h fermentation at 42 �C with aflour concentration of 79 g L�1 (Cuadrado et al., 2002). Lectin isbeing used for the discovery of protein markers of cancer using anatural glycoprotein microarray approach. Multiple lectins canscreen serum samples from patients with pancreatic cancer or pan-creatitis by selective detection of glycan structures (Harland, 2002)(see Table 9).
3.2. Levels of enzyme inhibitors and lectins in pulses
Several plant lectins including those present in pulses areimportant tools in cell biology and immunology, with potentialfor clinical applications. Grant, Dorward, Buchan, Armour, andPusztai (1995a) determined trypsin inhibitor and lectin contentsof kidney beans, soybeans, cowpeas, and lupin seeds. They re-ported high levels of lectins in kidney beans [840 � 10�5 hemag-glutinating activity units (HU) kg�1] and very low amounts incowpea and lupin seeds [3 � 10�5 HU kg�1]. Protease inhibitorcontent was moderate in kidney beans and cowpeas (8 and10.6 g of trypsin and 9.2 g of chymotrypsin inhibited kg�1, respec-tively), and low in lupin seeds (1.1 g of trypsin and 1.4 g of chymo-trypsin inhibited kg�1). Brazilian bean varieties with different seedcoat colors had trypsin inhibitory activity of 18–29 (TIA) mg�1
(Table 10) (Lajolo & Genovese, 2002).Amounts of lectin in legumes vary significantly (Zhang, Shi, Ilic,
Jun, & Kakuda, 2009). Lectin accounts for about 2.4–5% of the totalprotein (17–23%) in kidney bean seeds, 0.8% in soybean and lima
Induction of cell cycle arrestand apoptosis in human breastcancer cells in vitro
Choi et al. (2001)
Inhibits the expression andfunction of the androgenreceptor in LNCaP prostatecancer cells prevents andprotects streptozotocin-induced oxidative stress and b-cell damage in rat pancreas
Xing, Chen, Mitchell,and Young (2001)
Inhibition of DMBA-inducedhamster buccal pouchcarcinogenesis
Coskun, Kanter,Kormaz, and Oter(2005)
Inhibition of colon cancer inrats and mice induced byazoxymethanol
Avila, Velasco,Cansado, andNotario (1994)
Expression inhibition of themutated p53 (tumorsuppressor gene) proteinin vitro
Inhibition of humanrecombinant synovialPhospholipase A2
Pruzanski and Vadas(1991)
Quercetin, apigenin,and taxifolin
Inhibition generation of H2O2
in vitroOgasawara, Fujitani,Drzewiecki, andMiddleton (1986)
Quercetin andapigenin
Inhibition of anti-IgE-inducedhistamine release
Ogasawara et al.(1986)
Catechin Reduced cholesterolabsorption from rat intestine
Ikeda et al. (1992)
Inhibition oxidation of LDLinduced by the mousetransformed macrophage cellline, 1774, human monocyte-derived macrophages, andvascular endothelial cellsisolated from umbilical cords
Mangiapane et al.(1992)
Ellagic acid, robinetin,quercetin, andmyricetin
Inhibition of thetumorigenicity of BP-7,8-diol-9,10-epoxide-2 on mouse skinand in the newborn mouse
Chang et al. (1985)
Caffeic acid Inhibits oxidation of LDLin vitro
Nardini et al. (1995)
Suppressed the growth ofHepG2 tumor xenografts innude mice in vivo
Chung et al. (2004)
Ferulic acid Elevate the activities ofdetoxifying enzymes, namelyglutathione S-transferase andlower incidences of coloniccarcinomas induced byazoximethane in vivo
Kawabata et al.(2000)
Luteolin Inhibition of alpha-glucosidaseand amylase
Kim et al. (2000)
Table 10Trypsin inhibitory activity (TIUb mg�1 of bean) of raw and autoclaved (121 �C/15 min)Brazilian varieties of common beans.
Adapted from Lajolo and Genovese (2002).b TIU, trypsin inhibitory units.
Table 11Trypsin inhibitor activity and lectin content in common (P. vulgaris L.) and tepary(P. acutifolius) beans.a
Bean type Trypsin inhibitors (TIU mg�1) Lectin (HAU g�1 protein)
Common beanFlor de Mayo 26.8 a 8.57 b
Tepary beanWhite
L-246-12 18.0 b 3.29 aG-400-16 13.5 b 1.40 aPI-246-22 16.8 b 3.69 aL-246 18.0 b 3.29 aL-173 14.9 b 18.16 cPI-319-443 11.5 c 1.30 a
BlackL-242-45 17.5 b 1.68 aL-246-19 12.8 c 4.67 ab
BrownL-179 12.7 c 1.75 a
Note. Means with different letters are significantly different (Tukey a = 0.05).Adapted from Gonzalez De Mejia et al. (2005).
a Mean of two independent experiments with triplicates. TIU, trypsin inhibitoryunits/mg; HAU, hemagglutinin activity units/mg protein.
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bean protein (34% and 21%, respectively), and around 0.6% of thetotal protein (24–25%) in garden peas. Lectin from kidney beanseeds directly inhibits HIV-1 reverse transcriptase, an enzyme cru-cial for HIV replication, as well as b-glucosidase, which has a role inHIV-1 envelope protein gp120 processing, therefore a very potentelement of the antiretroviral chemotherapy.
González De Mejía and Prisecaru (2005) compared the levels ofantinutritional components and cytotoxic effect of extracts fromtepary and common beans (Table 11). Antinutritional factors wereevaluated by determining their effect on the viability of epithelial
cells isolated from rat small intestine. Common beans had highercontent of trypsin inhibitors and lectins than tepary beans. Thepercent cellularity on rat epithelial cells was significantly differentamong protein extracts from different bean cultivars and rangedbetween 54% and 87%, suggesting that the incorporation of teparybeans in the diet would not alter the current nutritional contribu-tion of common beans or introduce adverse toxic effects.
The content of a-amylase inhibitors differs greatly among le-gumes, with the highest amounts found in dry beans. a-Amylaseinhibitor was found in common beans and runner beans (Phaseoluscoccineus) at levels of 2–4 g kg�1 of seed meal. Field beans, black-eyed peas, and chickpeas contain low levels of 0.1–0.2 g kg�1 ofseed meal. In lentils, soybeans, peas, winged beans, lima beans(Phaseolus lunatus), and adzuki beans a-amylase inhibitor activitywas undetected (Genovese & Lajolo, 1998; Grant, Edwards, & Pusztai,1995b; Grant et al., 1995a; Mancini & Lajolo, 1981; Sgarbieri &Whitaker, 1982). Screening of 150 Brazilian bean varieties classi-fied by color revealed average values between 0.19 and 0.29a-amylase inhibitor unit mg�1 of protein (Table 12) with no corre-lation between inhibitory activity and seed coat color (Lajolo et al.,1991).
3.3. Nutritional and physiological effects
Legumes are very rarely consumed by humans without heattreatment, and the effects of the consumption of individual compo-nents cannot always be related to those of a mixture, as normallypresent in a diet (Lajolo & Genovese, 2002).
Table 12a-Amylase inhibitory activity of P. vulgaris classified by bean color.
Bean color Specific inhibitory activity (AIUa mg�1 of protein)
Range Average
Pale brown 0.16–0.40 0.29Brown 0.14–0.35 0.29Beige 0.14–0.40 0.26Light brown 0.09–0.32 0.20Dark brown 0.19–0.33 0.25Black 0.11–0.30 0.19Red 0.16–0.37 0.25Pink 0.16–0.28 0.21White 0.14–0.33 0.23Purple 0.17–0.22 0.19
a An a-amylase inhibitory unit (AIU) value of 10 is defined as a 50% decrease inenzyme activity at 37 �C/5 min after addition of 1% starch as substrate. From Lajoloand Genovese (2002).
468 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Food Research International 43 (2010) 461–482
Administration of a black bean inhibitor in a starch meal by stom-ach tubing slowed starch digestion with reduction of serum glucoseand insulin concentrations and increased metabolism of nonesteri-fied fatty acids from the adipose tissue in rats (Lajolo et al., 1991).These effects were also observed for diabetic rats (Menezes & Lajolo,1987). A reduction of calorie utilization from the diet was also ob-served in mid-term experiments with rats with restricted calorieingestion (Lajolo et al., 1984). Similarly, Pusztai et al. (1995) re-ported reduced utilization of dietary starch and protein for rats ina 10-day experiment with purified a-amylase inhibitor.
Some legume and cereal lectins can inhibit the growth of exper-imental animals and reduce the digestibility and biological value ofdietary proteins (Balint, 2000; Grant, Alonso, Edwards, & Murray,2000). These antinutritional effects are most likely caused by somelectins that can impair the integrity of the intestinal epithelium(Reynoso-Camacho, Gonzalez de Mejia, & Loarca-Pina, 2003) andthus alter the absorption and utilization of nutrients (Radberget al., 2001). The administration of lectins to experimental animalscan also alter the bacterial flora (Pusztai, 1996). Thus, dietary lectinshave generally been considered to be toxic and antinutritional fac-tors. However, many lectins are non-toxic, such as those from toma-toes, lentils, peas, chickpeas, faba beans, and other common foods.
Several studies have suggested a strong correlation betweencertain lectin-binding patterns and their biological behavior in var-ious tumors (Table 13). Vicia faba agglutinin (VFA), a lectin presentin broad beans, aggregated, stimulated the morphological differen-tiation, and reduced the malignant phenotype of colon cancer cells(Jordinson, El-Hariry, Calnan, Calam, & Pignatelli, 1999). The inclu-sion in the diet of phytohemagglutinin (PHA), a lectin present in
Table 13Inhibitory effects of some pulse lectins on malignant cells in vitro.*
Lectin Tumor cells Type of effect References
Con A Merkel cell skincarcinomas
Direct contact/adhesion/binding to cell membraneor receptors
Sames et al.(2001)
LCA H3B human hepatomaMerkel cell skincarcinomas
Cytotoxicity/tumorinhibition Direct contact/adhesion/binding tocellmembrane orreceptors
Wang, Ng, Ooi,and Liu (2000)Sames et al.(2001)
PHA SK-MEL-28, HT-144 andC32 human melanoma
(Cytotoxicity/tumorinhibition)
Lorea et al.(1997)
Hs729 (HTB-153) humanrhabdomyosarcoma andSK-UT-1 and SK-LMS-1human leiomyosarcoma
Cytotoxicity/tumorinhibition, (direct contact/adhesion/binding to cellmembrane or receptors)
Remmelinket al. (1999)
Adapted from Gonzalez De Mejia and Prisecaru (2005).* Note. Parentheses ( ) indicate weak effects.
raw kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), greatly reduced the growthof a murine non-Hodgkin lymphoma tumor in the mouse, eitheras an intraperitoneal ascites tumor or as a solid subcutaneous tu-mor. The reduced growth rate occurred in a dose-dependent man-ner (Pryme & Bardocz, 2001). The number of Krebs II tumor cells inthe ascitic fluid of mice fed a control diet for 8 d was three timeshigher than in mice fed a PHA diet. Feeding PHA for less than 8 dafter the injection of tumor cells also led to a reduction in tu-mor-cell growth (Bardocz et al., 1997).
Inclusion of raw kidney bean in the diet of obese rats reducedlipid accumulation that was related to a decrease of insulin levelscaused by lectins. However, no body or muscle protein losses oc-curred, even at high doses, as with normal rats, suggesting a possi-ble use of lectins as therapeutic agents to treat obesity (Pusztaiet al., 1998). The most recent EUREKA study showed that red kid-ney bean lectin given as an additive to piglets at 11–12 days oldgreatly enhanced successful weaning at 28 days. This result wasachieved by stimulating the digestive tract thereby acceleratingthe production of mature intestinal cells faster (Thomsson, Rantzer,Weström, Pierzynowski, & Svendsen, 2007). Wean age is a criticalfactor in pig health, litter size and economy of hog operations.
4. Minerals and vitamins
4.1. Biological functions of minerals
The determination of minerals and trace elements in foodstuffsis an important part of nutritional and toxicological analyses. Cop-per, chromium, iron, and zinc are essential micronutrients for hu-man health. In addition, these elements play an important role inhuman metabolism, and interest in these elements is increasing to-gether with reports of relationships between trace element statusand oxidative diseases (Fennema, 2000). Copper can be found inmany enzymes, some of which are essential for Fe metabolism.Deficiencies of Cu are infrequent. However, various studies havereported a direct correlation between the dietary Zn and Cu ratioand the incidence of cardiovascular disease. Chromium is involvedin carbohydrate and lipid metabolism; the most frequent sign of Crdeficiency is altered glucose tolerance. This nutrient has also beenassociated with diabetes and cardiovascular disease (Neilson,1994). Provisionally, a daily intake of 50–200 mg Cr has been rec-ommended for adults (National Research Council, 1989). Iron is anessential element, although Fe metabolism occurs in a ‘close cir-cuit’, there exist physiological losses which must be compensated.When the Fe amount supplied does not satisfy the requirement, Fedeficiency ensues. The recommended daily intake in adults is10–15 mg Fe (National Research Council, 1989). Zinc enzymes partic-ipate in a wide variety of metabolic processes including carbohy-drate, lipid and protein synthesis or degradation. The metal isrequired for deoxyribonucleic and ribonucleic acid synthesis; itmay also play a role in stabilizing plasma membranes (Shils, Olson,& Shike, 1994). Zinc has been recognized as a co-factor of thesuperoxide dismutase enzyme, which is involved in protectionagainst oxidative processes (Shils et al., 1994). The net deliveryof Zn to an organism is a function of the total amount of this ele-ment in foods and its bioavailability. The recommended daily in-take for adults is 12–15 mg (National Research Council, 1989);certain groups of people can be at risk with regard to Zn nutrition.
4.2. Levels of minerals in pulses
Legumes supply adequate protein while being a good source ofvitamins and minerals (Fennema, 2000). Mineral contents of le-gumes (Table 14) indicate that beans and lentils have the highestiron (110 and 122 lg g�1, respectively), and zinc contents (44
R. Campos-Vega et al. / Food Research International 43 (2010) 461–482 469
and 48 lg g�1, respectively). The levels of minerals in legumesgenerally range between 1.5–5.0 lg Cu g�1, 0.05–0.60 lg Cr g�1,18.8–82.4 lg Fe g�1, 32.6–70.2 lg Zn g�1, 2.7–45.8 lg Al g�1,0.02–0.35 lg Ni g�1, 0.32–0.70 lg Pb g�1 and not detectable–0.018 lg Cd g�1 (Table 15) (Cabrera, Lloris, Giménez, Olalla, &López, 2003). The content of Fe and other minerals is generallyhigh in legumes with beans having the highest mineral content(Table 16).
Selenium (Se) is an essential micronutrient in human nutritionand is involved in important regulatory and protective mecha-nisms (Schwarz & Foltz, 1957). There is a great necessity for foodsystems to provide at least 55 lg per day for maximal expressionof Se enzymes, and large populations in some parts of the worldare Se deficient. Se deficiency compromises the health of develop-ing children and reduces the ability to combat the effects of heavymetals in the human diet (Spallholz, Mallory Boylan, & Rhaman,2004). Thavarajah, Ruszkowski, and Vandenberg (2008) showedthat Saskatchewan-grown lentils contain 425–673 lg/kg�1 of Sedepending on location, soil characteristics, and growing conditions(Table 17). This potentially provides 80–120% of the minimum rec-ommended daily Se intake in only 100 g of dry lentils.
Table 14Copper, iron, and zinc content (lg g�1) in legumes and food composition tables.
Green peasFresh 1.7 0.08 20.2 38.9Canned 1.8 0.09 24.6 58.8
Adapted from Cabrera et al. (2003).a Not detectable.
Legumes also contain compounds that lower the nutritional va-lue of a food by lowering the digestibility or bioavailability ofnutrients. Phytate, and some of the degradation products of phy-tate, are well-known inhibitors of absorption of essential dietaryminerals; in particular non-haem iron and Zn. Certain Fe-bindingpolyphenols are potent inhibitors of non-haem iron absorption.On the other hand, certain polyphenols are able to complex-withFe, rendering the complex-bound Fe unavailable for absorption(Hurrell, Reddy, & Cook, 1999). However, the absorption of miner-als depends on the total composition of the meal. In a balanced dietcontaining animal protein, a high intake of legumes does not implya risk of inadequate mineral supply. In the modern food industry,the phytate content of soya-based infant formulas is of concern;major efforts are therefore being made to remove phytate. Oncephytate is degraded, legumes would become good sources of Feand Zn as the content of these minerals is high (Sandberg, 2002).
4.3. Vitamin contents in pulses
Legumes constitute an important part of the human diet inmany parts of the world and are sources of vitamins. (Shils, Olson,
Reference
Mataix and Mañas (1998)Terrés et al. (2001)Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo (1999)Souci, Fachmann, and Kraut (2000)Vadivel and Janardhanan (2000)Elhardallon and Walker (1992)Holland, Unwin, and Buss (1992)Lombardi-Boccia, Carbonaro, Di Lullo, and Carnovale (1994)Fennema (2000)
Mataix and Mañas (1998)Mataix and Mañas (1998)
Terrés et al. (2001)Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo (1999)Souci, Fachmann, and Kraut (1994), Jimenez, Cervera, and Bacardí (1998)
Terrés et al. (2001)Mataix and Mañas (1998)Jimenez et al. (1998)Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo (1999)
Feinberg, Favier, and Ireland-Ripert (1995)Elhardallon and Walker (1992)Holland et al. (1992)
Mataix and Mañas (1998)Jimenez et al. (1998)
c Aluminium Nickel Lead Cadmium
30.2 0.24 0.51 0.009
13.4 0.15 0.62 0.000519 0.17 0.69 0.007
6.7 0.17 0.4 0.01210.2 0.26 0.48 0.01
6.5 0.05 0.37 NDa
15.5 0.07 0.45 0.015
Table 16Mineral content (mg kg�1) of dry bean cultivars.
Cultivar MK Ca Mg K P B Cu Zn Fe Mn
AC Cruiser Navy 1381de 2002b 17286f 6207b 13.7b 8.8a 25.0c 55.0b 13.3d
AC Earlired Small red 1344ef 1677f 17305f 5727d 11.3c 0.4h 18.9e 34.1e 13.2d
AC Mast Navy 1649b 1952c 17944d 6564a 11.1c 3.1e 18.3e 44.1de 15.8c
AC Ole Pinto 1328f 1758e 18638b 6194b 10.2e 3.6d 21.5d 43.6d 13.3d
Table 19Folate content (lg100 g�1 dry weight) of chickpeas and peas, and the water used forprocessing.a
Samples Undeconjugate folatesc Total folatesc
ChickpeaRaw 121.5 c 149.7 cBoiled 63.3 a (52.1)b 78.8 a (52.6)Pressure-cooked 73.8 b (60.7) 93.0 b (62.1)
In mediumSoaking water 21.8 a (17.9) 25.9 a (17.3)Boiling water 32.4 b (26.7) 42.2 c (28.2)Pressure cooking water 24.6 a (20.2) 29.7 b (19.8)
PeasRaw 87.5 b 101.5 bBoiled 38.9 a (44.5)b 45.7 a (45.0)Pressure-cooked 43.4 a (49.6) 51.5 a (50.3)
In mediumSoaking water 18.3 a (20.9) 21.0 a (20.7)Boiling water 27.8 c (31.8) 32.3 c (31.8)Pressure cooking water 22.7 cb (25.9) 27.5 b (27.1)
Adapted from Dang et al. (2000).a Values are the mean of six replicate determinations.b Figures in parentheses represent precent retention of folates (in chickpeas or
peas) or loss of folates (in medium).c Significance of LSD between means at p < 0.05. With columns, means followed
by different letters are significantly different.
470 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Food Research International 43 (2010) 461–482
Shike, & Ross, 1999).The variation of vitamins content in nine com-mercial Phaseolus vulgaris classes were evaluated by Augustin,Beck, Kalbfleish, Kagel, and Matthews (1981). The raw bean sam-ples contained 0.99 mg of thiamin, 0.20 mg riboflavin, 1.99 mg nia-cin, 0.49 mg vitamin B12, 0.30 mg folic acid, but only 70–75% ofwater-soluble vitamins were retained in cooked seeds (Table 18).
Legumes are very good sources of folates which are not readilyavailable due to complex binding with bio-molecules (Kadam &Salunkhe, 1989). Beans are excellent source of folate at 400–600 mcg representing 95% of daily requirements. Higher folate in-take has been inversely associated with the risk of colon cancer(Giovannucci et al., 1998). Folate is a methyl donor, and in rodentmodels, methyl deficient diet may result in hypomethylation andtherefore loss of regulation of proto-oncogenes (Giovannucci &Willett, 1994). Chickpeas have higher content of folates comparedwith peas according to Dang, Arcot, and Shrestha (2000) (Table 19).Folate contents in raw chickpeas and peas were 149.7 and 101.5 lg100 g�1, respectively, and 78.8 and 45.7 lg 100 g�1 in boiled chick-
peas and peas respectively, indicating that some folates may haveleached in the water used for processing. FDA (1996) authorizedvoluntary folic acid fortification of enriched grain products to pre-vent neural tube defects (NTD). Folic acid fortification (1995–2002)led to 34–36% drop in NTD among Hispanic and white non-His-panic babies. Current folic acid requirement is set at 140 lg100 g�1 grains, while clinicians recommend 400 lg day�1 for wo-men of childbearing age.
Pulses are good source of thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pyridox-amine, pyridoxal and pyridoxine. Lentils var., variabilis have0.647, 0.062, and 0.93 mg 100 g�1 d.m. of thiamine, riboflavin,
R. Campos-Vega et al. / Food Research International 43 (2010) 461–482 471
and niacin, respectively; while Vicia faba var., major have 0.253,0.123, and 2.233 mg 100 g�1 d.m. of thiamine, riboflavin, and nia-cin, respectively (Table 20) (Prodanov, Sierra, & Vidal-Valverde,1997; Vidal-Valverde, Sierra, Diaz-Pollan, & Blazquez, 2001). Mostplant-derived foods contain low to moderate levels of vitamin Eactivity. However, owing to the abundance of plant-derived foodsin our diets, they provide a significant and consistent source ofvitamin E (Eitenmiller & Lee, 2004). Tocopherol content is higherin seeds and legumes than cereals. Peas contain greater amountsof a than b + c-tocopherols (10.4 and 5.7 mg 100 g�1, respectively)and chickpeas contain similar levels of a- and b + c-tocopherols(6.9 and 5.5 mg 100 g�1, respectively) (Table 22) (Ryan, Galvin,O’Connor, Maguire, & O’Brien, 2007).
5. Fatty acids
Legume seeds contain 2–21% fat with beneficial composition ofexogenic unsaturated fatty acids: linoleic (21–53%) and linolenic(4–22%) acids. These seeds also contain high levels of vitamin E:12–187 i.u. kg�1 feed and 470–2560 i.u. kg�1 oil. Common beansare an important source of free unsaturated fatty acids accountingfor 61.1% of total fatty acids (FA). The major fatty acids are palmitic(16:0), oleic (18:1), and linoleic (18:2). The major acid among theunsaturated FA is linolenic (18:3) acid, there is 43.1% in FA of thecommon bean (Grela & Gunter, 1995). The main fatty acid presentin legumes is linoleic (18:2), followed by linolenic (18:3). Chick-peas have the highest MUFA content (34.2 g 100 g�1); while butterbean has the highest SFA content (28.7 g 100 g�1) and kidney beanshave the highest content of PUFA (71.1 g 100 g�1) (Table 21) (Ryan,Galvin, O’Connor, Maguire, & O’Brien, 2007). Adzuki beans grownin Japan contained 2.2% fat consisting mainly of phospholipids(63.5%), triglycerides (21.2%), steryl esters (7.5%), hydrocarbons(5.1%), diacylglycerols (1.3%), free fatty acids (0.9%), and other min-or components. The principal fatty acid composition of adzuki beanlipids were linoleic, palmitic and linolenic acids representing 45%,25%, and 21%, respectively, of the total lipids (Yoshida, Tomiyama,
Table 20Thiamine, riboflavin and niacin (mg 100 g�1 d.m.), pyridoxamine, pyridoxal and pyridoxin
Legume Thiamine Riboflavin
Lentis culinaris var. vulgaris 0.433 ± 0.005 0.061 ± 0.004Lentis culinaris, var. variabilis 0.647 ± 0.006 0.062 ± 0.001Vicia Faba, var. major 0.253 ± 0.003 0.123 ± 0.008Faba beansPeasLupinsLentilsChickpeasHaricot beans*Beans (raw) 0.81–1.32 0.112–0.411*Beans (cooked) 0.64–1.06 0.086–0.246
Adapted from Prodanová and Vidal-Valverde (1997), Vidal-Valverde et al. (2001).* From Augustin et al. (1981).
Table 21Total oil (g 100 g�1) and fatty acid composition (% of total) of pulses.
SFA, saturated fatty acids; MUFA, monosaturated fatty acids; PUFA, polysaturated fatty aAdapted from Ryan, Galvin, O’Connor, Maguire, and O’Brien (2007).
Yoshida, Saiki, & Mizushina, 2008). Food legumes generally containonly 1–2% lipids with the unsaponifiable fraction of the oil rangingfrom 0.5% to 4% (Harborne, Boulter, & Turner, 1971). The lipid con-tents of seeds of eight Vicia species collected in Turkey varied be-tween 2.5% and 3.9% with palmitic (7–23%) and stearic (15–35%)acids as the major fatty acids (Akpinar, Akpinar, & Türkoglu, 2001).
6. Phytosterols
In pulses, phytosterols are present in small quantities, and themost common phytosterols are b-sitosterol, campesterol, and stig-masterol (Benveniste, 1986). These compounds are also abundantas sterol glucosides and esterified sterol glucosides, with b-sitos-terol representing 83% of the glycolipids in defatted chickpea flour(Sanchez-Vioque, Clemente, Vioque, Bautista, & Millan, 1998).Ryan, Galvin, O’Connor, Maguire, and O’Brien (2007) recently re-ported the phytosterols content in legumes. Total phytosterol con-tent detected in the legumes ranged from 134 mg 100 g�1 (kidneybeans) to 242 mg 100 g�1 (peas). Total b-sitosterol content rangedfrom 160 mg 100 g�1 (chickpeas) to 85 mg 100 g�1 (butter bean).Chickpeas and peas contained high levels of campesterol (21.4and 25.0 mg 100 g�1, respectively). Stigmasterol content is higherin butter beans (86 mg 100 g�1) and squalene content in peas(1.0 mg 100 g�1) (Table 22). Weihrauch and Gardner (1978) re-ported similar phytosterol levels for kidney beans at 127 mg100 g�1, with much lower concentration of phytosterols for chick-peas, 35 mg 100 g�1 as opposed to 205 mg 100 g�1 in the presentstudy. Butter beans and kidney beans contained high levels of stig-masterol (86.2 and 41.4 mg 100 g�1, respectively).
The consumption of pulse grains has been reported to lowerserum cholesterol and increase the saturation levels of cholesterolin the bile. A dietary study conducted by Duane (1997) on humansover a seven week period showed that serum LDL cholesterol wassignificantly lower during the consumption of a diet consisting ofbeans, lentils, and field peas. The study showed that consumptionof pulses lowers LDL cholesterol by partially interrupting the
472 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Food Research International 43 (2010) 461–482
entrohepatic circulation of the bile acids and increasing the choles-terol saturation by increasing the hepatic secretion of cholesterol.The study concluded that other pulse components in the dietmay also have contributed to the observed effect; in particular,saponins, which are hydrolyzed by intestinal bacteria to diosgenin,may have exerted a positive effect (Fenwick & Oakenfull, 1983;Thewles, Parslow, & Coleman, 1993). Several studies have demon-strated the efficacy of plant sterols and stanols in the reduction ofblood cholesterol levels, and plant sterols are increasingly incorpo-rated into foods for this purpose (Gylling & Miettinen, 2005;Thompson & Grundy, 2005).
7. Phytic acid
7.1. Biological function
Phytic acid (myo-inositol hexaphosphate or InsP6), a majorphosphorus storage form in plants, and its salts known as phytatesregulate various cellular functions such as DNA repair, chromatinremodeling, endocytosis, nuclear messenger RNA export andpotentially hormone signaling important for plant and seed devel-opment (Zhou & Erdman, 1995), as well as animal and humannutrition (Vucenik & Shamsuddin, 2006). It is often regarded asan anti nutrient because of strong mineral, protein and starch bind-ing properties thereby decreasing their bioavailability (Weaver &Kannan, 2002). Enzymatic degradation of phytic acid by exogenousphytase is already used in feed, particularly to improve mineraland protein utilization (Graf & Eaton, 1990), simultaneously reduc-ing excessive phosphorus accumulation in the environment (Graseset al., 2006). Phytate play important role in plant metabolism,stress and pathogen resistance in addition to their beneficial effectsin human diets by acting as anticarcinogens or by promotinghealth in other ways such as in decreasing the risk of heart diseaseor diabetes (Welch & Graham, 2004 and references therein).
InsP6 – the most abundant inositol phosphate in dry legumes isconsidered the anticancer agent. However, procedures that can dif-ferentiate among the 6 forms of InsP have been developed only re-cently. InsP6 accounts for an average of 88% of the total inositolphosphates in black beans (Morris & Hill, 1996). Inositol hexaphos-phate is important in the cell-signaling process and may be in-volved in induction of cell differentiation, apoptosis, chromatinremodeling, anticarcinogenic action, and other biological effects(Shamsuddin & Vucenik, 2005).
7.2. Phytate levels in pulses
Phytate constitutes 1–3% of cereal grains, legume seeds andnuts, and also occurs in low concentrations in roots, tubers andvegetables. In particular, wholegrain cereals and legumes have ahigh content of phytate but also of the minerals Zn, Fe, and Mg(Sandberg, 2002). In legume seeds, phytate is located in the proteinbodies in the endosperm. Phytate occurs as a mineral complex,which is insoluble at the physiological pH of the intestine (Fredlund,Isaksson, Rossander-Hulthén, Almgren, & Sandberg, 2006).
The phytate content of some legumes is shown in Table 23(Morris & Hill, 1996; Rochfort & Panozzo, 2007). Inositol phosphate(InsP) in raw dry legumes was: InsP3 28%, InsP4 10%, InsP5 4%, andInsP6 2%; and in cooked dry legumes: 8, 4, 2, and 2%, respectively.Raw lentils contained 0.3 mmol kg�1 of InsP3. The highest InsP4
concentration in raw legumes was 0.26 mmol kg�1 in blackeyepeas and accounted, on the average, for only slightly more than1% of the total inositol phosphates in raw, dry legumes. The meanInsP5 concentration in raw, dry legumes is 1.9 mmol kg�1, rangingfrom 1.36 to 2.52 mmol kg�1 in green split peas and blackeye peas,respectively, accounting for an average of 16% of total inositolphosphates. The most abundant inositol phosphate in raw, dry le-gumes is InsP6, accounting for an average of 83% of the total inosi-tol phosphates, ranging from 77% in chickpeas to 88% in blackbeans. The InsP6 concentration tends to be higher in raw dry beans,blackeye peas, and pigeon peas than in lentils, green and yellowsplit peas, and chickpeas and ranged between 14.2 and6 mmol kg�1 in black beans and chickpeas, respectively (Morris &Hill, 1996). Oomah, Blanchard, and Balasubramanian (2008) re-ported that phytic acid expressed as InsP6 represents 75% of the to-tal phosphorous in several Canadian bean varieties. Varietal andagronomic factors, alone and in combination, often result in a widevariation in phytate content of mature legume seeds and cerealgrains (Dintzis, Lehrfeld, Nelsen, & Finney, 1992; Mason, Weaver,Kimmel, & Brown, 1993).
Chen (2004) reported InsPn contents in beans. Among InsPn,only InsP6 and InsP5 were detected in all beans. There was a widevariation in the InsP6 or InsP5 content among different types of rawdry black beans or red kidney beans. InsP6 content (per kg, ad-justed by moisture) in raw dry beans ranged from 5.87 to14.86 mmol in mung beans and black beans, respectively, and from5.21 to 9.75 mmol in cooked mung beans and black beans, respec-tively. InsP6 was the predominant inositol phosphate of the totalInsPn determined in raw dry beans, ranging from 63.9% in red kid-ney beans to 97.5% in pinto beans, and in the selected cookedbeans, ranging from 81.2% in mung beans to 88.2% in black beans.Of the four possible InsP5 isomers (excluding enantiomers), DL-Ins(1,2,4,5,6)P5 was dominant in raw dry beans, followed byIns(1,3,4,5,6)P5, DL-Ins(1,2,3,4,5)P5, and Ins(1,2,3,4,6)P5, if present,which indicated that there probably were some common profilesat least for raw dry beans. The determination results of InsP6 inraw dry and cooked beans are very comparable to the literaturevalues, which were summarized by Phillippy (2003).
7.3. Phytic acid and health
In vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that inositolhexaphosphate (InsP6, phytic acid) exhibits significant anticancer(preventive as well as therapeutic) properties. It reduces cell prolif-eration and increases differentiation of malignant cells with possi-ble reversion to the normal phenotype and is involved in hostdefence mechanism, and tumor abrogation (Shamsuddin, 2002).InsP6 has been suggested to be responsible for the epidemiologicallink between high-fibre diets (rich in InsP6) and low incidence ofsome cancers. Phytic acids delay postprandial glucose absorption,
Table 23Phytate content (lmol g�1) in pulses.
Food legume IP3 IP4 IP5 IP6
Baby lima beans Raw ND 0.23 2.13 9.96Cooked 0.25 1.08 3.07 7.08
Black beans Raw ND 0.13 1.87 14.2Cooked 0.18 0.98 3.62 9.96
Black peas Raw 0.01 0.26 2.52 12.6(Cowpeas) Cooked 0.22 0.89 3.38 9.67Chickpeas Raw ND 0.04 1.76 6.00(Garbanzo beans) Cooked 0.10 0.56 2.04 5.18
Great northern beans Raw ND 0.19 2.19 12.7Cooked 0.23 1.05 3.60 9.24
Green split peas Raw ND 0.17 1.36 6.48Cooked 0.07 0.45 1.73 4.93
Lentils Raw 0.32 0.21 1.39 8.37Cooked 0.44 0.97 3.62 7.09
Navy beans Raw ND 0.14 1.80 12.4Cooked 0.13 0.68 3.07 8.80
Mung beans Raw ND ND 1.18 5.87Cooked ND ND 1.21 5.21
ND – not detectable.Adapted from Morris and Hill (1996), Chen (2004), Phillippy (2003), Rochfort andPanozzo (2007).
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reduce the bioavailability of toxic heavy metal such as cadmiumand lead, and exhibit antioxidant activity by chelating iron andcopper (although phytic acid intake on improving antioxidant sta-tus in vivo remains unclear) (Minihane & Rimbach, 2002). Dietaryand endogenous phytic acid have protective effects against cancerand heart disease and may be responsible for the cancer-protectiveeffects of high-fibre foods (Fredlund et al., 2006; Grases et al.,2001; Grases et al., 2006; Jenab & Thompson, 2002). The anticarci-nogenic properties of phytic acid may result from numerous fac-tors, including its ability to chelate metal ions; this depends onthe phytate retaining its integrity in the colon, a profuse microbialecosystem (Steer & Gibson, 2002).
The backbone of most inositol phosphates in cells is myo-inosi-tol. An extensive review of the metabolism of myo-inositol in plantswas published by Loewus and Murthy (2000). Inositol phosphatesfrom seeds are a significant food source of myo-inositol, as are thephospholipids and free inositol from many plant- and animal-based foods (Berdanier, 1992). Myo-inositol has been evaluatedfor its ability to improve the mental health of patients with variouspsychiatric disorders (Einat & Belmaker, 2001; Kofman, Einat,Cohen, Tenne, & Shoshana, 2000; Nemets, Fux, Levine, & Belmaker,2001). In addition to myo-inositol, smaller amounts of epi- and scyl-lo-inositol are present in human brains (McLaurin, Golomb, Jurewicz,Antel, & Fraser, 2000). Phosphatidyl-scyllo-inositol appears to be
synthesized more rapidly than phosphatidyl-myo-inositol in barleyseeds (Carstensen, Pliska Matyshak, Bhuvarahamurthy, Robbins,& Murthy, 1999), but little is known about the metabolism or func-tion of D-Chiro-inositol in animals. D-Chiro-inositol, which may be ofbenefit to diabetics (Steadman et al., 2000), and myo-inositol levelsin urine of older men and women, appear to be related to insulinsecretion (Campbell, Ostlund, Joseph, Farrell, & Evans, 2001).Myo-inositol and InsP6 have synergistic or additive effects in inhib-iting the development of cancer (Shamsuddin, 1999). In mice, die-tary myoinositol has been shown to be effective in preventingcancer of the lung (Wattenberg et al., 2000), forestomach (Estensen& Wattenberg, 1993), liver (Nishino et al., 1999) colon, mammarygland, prostate, and skin (Jenab & Thompson, 1998; Jenab &Thompson, 2002; Shamsuddin, 1999).
8. Saponins and oxalate
8.1. Saponins structure
Saponins have long been considered undesirable due to toxicityand their haemolytic activity. However, there is enormous struc-tural diversity within this chemical class, and only a few are toxic(Shi et al., 2004). They consist of a triterpene or steroid nucleus(the aglycone) with mono- or oligosaccharides attached to thiscore. Most of the saponins occur as insoluble complexes with 3-b-hydroxysteroids; these complexes again interact with bile acidand cholesterol, forming large mixed micelles (Oakenfull & Sidhu,1989). In addition, they form insoluble saponin–mineral com-plexes with iron, zinc, and calcium (Milgate & Roberts, 1995).The most common saponins in legumes include the soya saponins,which are classified into group A, B, and E saponins on the basis ofthe chemical structure of the aglycone (Rochfort & Panozzo, 2007).Field peas were initially thought to contain soyasaponin I (S-I) (andthen soyasaponin VI (S-VI) as the only soyasaponin, but recentlyfield pea extracts were shown to contain dehydrosoyasaponin I(D-I) as a minor component (Taylor & Richards, 2008). D-I frompea has insecticidal and antifeedant properties against storedproduct insect pests. This triterpenoid saponin dehydrosoyasapo-nin I is a natural product present in chickpeas and other legumesand is known to be a potent calcium-activated potassium channelopener and as such can be used for treating cardiovascular, urolog-ical, respiratory, neurological, and other disorders (Taylor &Richards, 2008 and references therein).
8.2. Saponins in pulses
Saponins have been reported in many edible legumes, althoughthe detailed structures were not always established. They havebeen found in lupins (Woldemichael, Montenegro, & Timmermann,2003), lentils (Morcos, Gabriel, & El-Hafez, 1976; Ruiz et al., 1996),and chickpeas (El-Adawy, 2002), as well various beans, and peas(Shi et al., 2004).
Saponin content may vary even among the same species of edi-ble beans, because of variations in cultivars, varieties (Khokhar &Chauhan, 1986), locations (Fenwick & Oakenfull, 1983; Price, Johnson,& Fenwick, 1987), irrigation condition, type of soil, climaticconditions, and year during which they are grown. The saponincontent in various legumes is listed in Table 24. Chickpeas, blackgrams, month bean, broad beans and peas can contain 3.6, 2.3,3.4, 3.7, and 2.5 g kg�1 dry matter of saponins, respectively (Khokhar& Chauhan, 1986). Saponin content in dehulled light and darkcolored peas ranges from 1.2 to 2.3 g kg�1 dry matter (Daveby,Betz, & Musser, 1998). Some saponin is lost during processing ashas been reported in moth beans (Khokhar & Chauhan, 1986), blackgrams (Kataria, Chauhan, & Punia, 1989), faba beans (Sharma &
Adapted from Khokhar and Chauhan (1986), Price et al. (1987), Oakenfull and Sidhu(1990).
Table 25Oxalate content of legumes.
Legumes Oxalate content (mg 100 g�1 wet weight)
BeansAnasazi 80Azuki 25Black 72Garbanzo 9Great northern 75Large lima 8Mung 8Navy 57October 28Pink 75Pinto 27Red kidney 16Small red 35Small white 78
PeasBlackeye 4Green split 6Yellow split 5
Adapted from Chai and Liebman (2005).
474 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Food Research International 43 (2010) 461–482
Sehgal, 1992) and pigeon peas (Duhan, Khetarpaul, & Bishnoi,2001).
Table 26Melatonin content in lentil and vetch seeds during germination.
Day of germination Melatonin content (pg g�1 d.m.)
8.3. Saponins and health
Recent evidence suggests that legume saponins may possessanti-cancer activity (Chang, Yu, Lin, Wang, & Tsai, 2006; Ellington,Berhow, & Singletary, 2006; Shi et al., 2004) and be beneficial forhyperlipidemia (Shi et al., 2004). In addition, they reduce the riskof heart diseases in humans consuming a diet rich in food legumescontaining saponins (Geil & Anderson, 1994). Epidemiologicalstudies suggest that saponins may play a role in protection fromcancer (Shi et al., 2004). Metastatic events are critical in cancerproliferation, and there is evidence that glycosylation is an impor-tant event in this process (Aubert et al., 2000). Chang et al. (2006)have recently demonstrated that soyasaponin I decreases theexpression of R-2, 3-linked sialic acid on the cell surface, whichin turn suppresses the metastatic potential of melanoma cells.The observed anticancer activity may therefore in part be due tothis observed sialyltransferase inhibition activity.
Additional mechanistic studies indicate that there is evidencefor saponin regulation of the apoptosis pathway enzymes (AKT,Bcl, and ERK1/2), leading to programmed cell death of cancer cells(Ellington et al., 2006; Godlewski, Slazak, Zabielski, Piastowska, &Gralak, 2006; Xiao, Huang, Zhu, Ren, & Zhang, 2007; Zhu, Xiong,Yu, & Wu, 2005). Research on colon cancer cells suggests that itis the lipophilic saponin cores that may be responsible for the bio-logical activity. The in vitro fermentations carried out by theseauthors also suggest that colonic microflora hydrolyze soya sapo-nins to the aglycones, potentially enhancing the activity of thesoyasaponins (Gurfinkel & Rao, 2003).
Oxalate salts are poorly soluble at intestinal pH and oxalic acidis known to decrease calcium absorption in monogastric animals(Allen, 1982). Legumes such as lentils, red kidney beans, and whitebeans have been previously analyzed for oxalate (Table 25). Thehighest and lowest oxalate content is present in Anasazi beans(80 mg 100 g�1 wet weight) and blackeyed peas (4 mg 100 g�1
Within the last decade, melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytrypta-mine) has been found to have various beneficial effects within cellsand organisms. This has translated into protective actions against anumber of experimental and clinical diseases (Blask, Sauer, & Dauchy,2002; Gitto et al., 2001; Herrera, Romero, & Rodríguez-Iturbe,2001; Lissoni, 2002; Pappolla et al., 2000). Melatonin is normallyproduced in vertebrates, most notably by the pineal gland andthereafter discharged into the blood (Lewy, 1999; Reiter, 1980)and the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) as well (Skinner & Malpaux,1999). Given that pineal melatonin is produced most abundantlyduring the night in darkness (Reiter, 1991), likewise, blood andCSF melatonin levels are also higher at night than during the day.
Recently, the presence of melatonin in some legumes (Zielínski,Lewczuk, Przybylska-Gornowicz, & Kozowska, 2001) has been re-ported. The immunoreactive melatonin found in raw lentil seeds(122.7 pg g�1) was lower than that reported in others plants. Ingerminated seeds the amount of melatonin increased attainingthe highest values between the fifth and the seventh day duringthe germination process. The increase was 747% in lentil seedsand 620% in vetch seeds after 7 and 6 days of germination, respec-tively (Table 26) (Zielínski et al., 2001).
Extensive research has focused on melatonin as a sleep-promot-ing molecule (Oldani et al., 1994; Skene, Lockley, & Arendt, 1999).
R. Campos-Vega et al. / Food Research International 43 (2010) 461–482 475
Because elevated melatonin levels occur at night coincident withsleep in humans, it has often been surmised that this neurochem-ical influences the ability to sleep. Melatonin supplements are alsobeneficial in individuals with delayed sleep phase syndrome(Skene et al., 1999), sleep inefficiency that accompanies Alzheimer’sdisease (Pandi-Perumal, Zisapel, Srinivasan, & Cardinali, 2005),and in many other cases. Melatonin as an oncostatic agent hasbeen found to limit the growth of various tumors, particularly asa suppressor of experimental mammary gland tumors (Blask, Hill,Orstead, & Massa, 1986; Molis, Spriggs, Jupiter, & Hill, 1995).The most important functions of melatonin may relate to its multi-ple and varied actions in preventing mutilation of essential mole-cules by free radicals and related reactants (Reiter, 1991; Reiter,2002).
10. Pulses and health
10.1. Pulses and cardiovascular diseases
The prevalence of coronary heart disease (CHD) affected 16.8million Americans in 2006 (American Heart Association, 2009).Soluble fibre has been shown to reduce total and low-density lipo-protein, cholesterol levels, as well as insulin resistance (Glore, VanTreeck, Knehans, & Guild, 1994). Consumption of legumes has beenassociated with reduced risk of coronary heart disease and cardio-vascular disease (CVD); legume consumption of four times or moreper week compared with less than once a week, was associatedwith 22% lower risk of CHD, and 11% lower risk of CVD (Bazzanoet al., 2001; Flight & Clifton, 2006) (Table 27). While the replace-ment of refined rice with whole grain and legume powder as asource of carbohydrate in a meal showed significant beneficial ef-fects on glucose, insulin, and homocysteine concentrations and li-pid peroxidation in coronary artery disease (CAD) patients, theseeffects are likely to substantially reduce the risk factors for CADand diabetes (Jang, Lee, Kim, Park, & Lee, 2001). The phytochemi-cals from legumes may be responsible for the beneficial cardiovas-cular effects since data from the Nurses’ Health Study showed thatfolate and vitamin B6, from diet and supplements, conferred pro-tection against coronary heart disease (Rimm et al., 1998). A re-cently published meta-analysis concluded that a higher intake offolate (0.8 mg folic acid) would reduce the risk of ischaemic heartdisease by 16% and stroke by 24% (Wald, Law, & Morris, 2002).
Table 27Relative risk of coronary heart disease and cardiovascular disease according to frequency
Frequency of legume intake per week
Variable Less than once (n = 3885) Once (n = 21
Person-years 63,046 36,015
Coronary heart diseaseNo. events 812 355RR (95% Cl)Age, race, sex, and energy adjusted 1.00 0.90 (0.79–1Multivariate model 1b 1.00 0.91 (0.79–1Multivariate model 2c 1.00 0.93 (0.81–1
Cardiovascular diseaseNo. events 1593 758RR (95% CI)Age, race, sex, and energy adjusted 1.00 0.95 (0.87–1Multivariate model 1b 1.00 0.96 (0.87–1Multivariate model 2c 1.00 0.99 (0.90–1
From Bazzano et al. (2001).a NHEFS indicates First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Epidemiolob Stratified by birth cohort and adjusted for age, sex, race, history of diabetes, recre
cigarette smoking, and total energy intake; n = 9178.c Additionally adjusted for total serum cholesterol level, systolic blood pressure, body m
of fruit and vegetable intake; n = 9078.
Consuming beans may help lower total cholesterol levels,according to new research from the Agricultural Research Serviceof the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Eighty volunteers between the ages of 18 and 55 participated inthe study, with half being healthy and the other having at least twosymptoms that lead to metabolic syndrome, which indicates a riskfor cardiovascular disease. For 12 weeks, half of the group ate one-half cup of cooked pinto beans every day along with their regulardiet. The other half ate a replacement serving of chicken soup in-stead of pinto beans. The study found all participants who ate pintobeans lowered their cholesterol during the study (Finley, Burrell, &Reeves, 2007). These findings agree with earlier studies that havefound beans to have cholesterol lowering effects. Therefore,healthy adults consuming dried, cooked pinto beans daily (130 g,12 weeks) can reduce their TC, LDL (important CVD risk factor)and HDL levels. People who eat beans four times per week reducetheir heart-disease risk by 20 percent.
Recently, the effects of azuki bean juice supplementation pre-scribed according to a Kanpo medicine regimen, on serum lipidconcentrations were studied in young Japanese women. Triglycer-ide concentrations were decreased in the azuki juice group medi-ated by inhibited pancreatic lipase activity. Azuki juice intakemight be benefical for preventing hypertriglyceridemia (Maruyamaet al., 2008). In other hand, Jacobs, Andersen, and Blomhoff (2007)reported that whole-grain consumption is associated with areduced risk of noncardiovascular, noncancer death attributed toinflammatory diseases in the Iowa women’s health study. Ortega(2001) indicated that the nutrition of pregnant women is decisivein the course of gestation and the health of both mother and child,and recommended 7–8 portions of cereals and legumes per day.
10.2. Pulses and diabetes
The suggestion that whole-grain foods might protect againstthe development of diabetes as well as being useful in the manage-ment of people who have already developed type II diabetes mel-litus (T2DM) is relatively recent (Venn & Mann, 2004).Epidemiological studies strongly support the suggestion that highintakes of whole-grain foods protect against the development ofT2DM. People who consume 3 or more servings of whole-grainfoods per day are less likely to develop T2DM than low consumers(63 servings per week) with a 20–30% risk reduction. The role of
of legume intake in 9632 NHEFS participants.a
28) 2–3 Times (n = 2226) P4 Times (n = 1393) P value for trend
37,283 23,255 . . .
401 234 . . .
.02) 0.93 (0.83–1.03) 0.82 (0.72–0.94) .02
.04) 0.91 (0.81–1.01) 0.78 (0.68–0.90) .002
.07) 0.90 (0.81–1.01) 0.79 (0.69–0.91) .003
818 511 . . .
.03) 0.94 (0.86–1.01) 0.91 (0.82–1.01) .07
.06) 0.94 (0.87–1.02) 0.89 (0.80–0.98) .02
.08) 0.95 (0.88–1.03) 0.91 (0.82–1.01) .06
gic Follow-up Study; RR, relative risk; and CI, confidence interval.ational physical activity, level of education, regular alcohol consumption, current
ass index, saturated fat intake, frequency of meat and poultry intake, and frequency
476 R. Campos-Vega et al. / Food Research International 43 (2010) 461–482
legumes in the prevention of diabetes is less clear, possibly becauseof the relatively low intake of leguminous foods in the studied pop-ulations. However, legumes share several qualities with wholegrains of potential benefit to glycaemic control including slow re-lease carbohydrate and a high fibre content. A substantial increasein dietary intake of legumes as replacement food for more rapidlydigested carbohydrate might therefore be expected to improve gly-caemic control and thus reduce incident diabetes (Venn & Mann,2004).
Mung bean (Vigna radiata) is an excellent source of vitamins,minerals and protein with its essential amino acid profile compa-rable to that of soybean and kidney bean (Mubarak, 2005). Recentresearch indicates that mung bean consumption produces small in-crease in blood glycemic index in humans making it an attractiveoption for diabetic patients. It is reported to modify glucose and li-pid metabolism favourably in rats (Lerer-Metzger, Rizkalla, & Luo,1996). It is also well documented that certain proteins in mungbean exerts both antifungal and antibacterial activity (Wang, Wu,Ng, Ye, & Rao, 2004).
Recently, Villegas et al. (2008) reported that adherence to veg-etables and legumes were inversely associated with the risk of type2 diabetes in a large Chinese population. Tang, Li, and Zhang(2008), searched the Traditional Chinese Medicine Database(TCMD), which documents �10,000 components extracted from�4600 traditional medicinal agents. According to the pharmaco-logical activity annotations, they found that some componentsare directly associated with prevention and/or treatment ofT2DM, because of their aldose reductase inhibitory or hypoglycae-mic activity. Besides, the functions (e.g., antiatherosclerotic, anti-hypertensive, antilipemic, antithrombotic, lipase-, lipidperoxidation-, lipoxygenase-, and platelet aggregation-inhibitoryactivities) of many other vegetable and legume components arealso associated with ameliorating T2DM (Tang et al., 2008).
10.3. Pulses and cancer
A recent case–control study found an inverse association be-tween vegetables, particularly dark green/dark yellow vegetables,legumes, and allium vegetables, with endometrial cancer risk(Tao et al., 2005). These findings are consistent with other epidemi-ological studies linking reduced risk for hormone-related cancerswith dark green/dark yellow vegetables consumption (Cramer,Kuper, Harlow, & Titus-Ernstoff, 2001; Littman, Beresford, & White,2001; Malin et al., 2003; McCann et al., 2000). In a large prospec-tive cohort study a reduced breast cancer risk was associated withhigher intake of legumes (Velie et al., 2005). Also, Fung et al. (2003)suggest that a diet high in whole grains (including legumes), fruitsand vegetables may reduce the risk of colon cancer in women.Other studies revealed that consumption of legumes such as driedbeans, split peas, or lentils was negatively associated with risk ofcolorectal adenoma (Agurs-Collins, Smoot, Afful, Makambi, &Adams-Campbell, 2006). Dark green/dark yellow vegetables con-tain high levels of carotenoids, folates (with beans as an excellentdietary source) vitamin C, and riboflavin. Carotenoids and vitaminC may inhibit endometrial carcinogensis via antioxidant effects,while folate influences DNA stability via its important role in thesynthesis of nucleotides and DNA methylation. Folate also could af-fect carcinogenesis in numerous specific cancers (Kim, Kwon, &Son, 2000; Lucock, 2000).
10.4. Pulses and obesity
Overweight and obesity are key features of the metabolic syn-drome and prevention of excessive weight gain is a health priorityinternationally. Increased consumption of whole-grain foods, likecereals and legumes, may protect against obesity, but concern
has been expressed that refined-grain intake may directly contrib-ute to increases in obesity (Koh-Banerjee & Rimm, 2003).
In the United Kingdom (UK) women’s cohort study seven clus-ters of food consumption were identified, three of which had highcereal levels: health conscious (high bran, wholemeal, and pulses),low diversity vegetarians (high wholemeal bread and pulses), andhigh diversity vegetarians (high wholemeal bread, cereals, pastaand rice, and pulses) (Greenwood et al., 2000). Women with thesefood consumption patterns had significantly lower average BMIvalues as well as the lowest proportion of obese subjects (5–9%vs. 10–12% in the other four clusters). Another prospective studyperformed in the UK identified four diet patterns and found theone with high intakes of rice, pasta, and pulses was negatively cor-related with waist-to-hip (WHR) ratio (Williams et al., 2000). Inthe United States, factor analysis of dietary data from the Baltimorelongitudinal study of aging (BLSA) identified six food patterns. Sub-jects consuming a fibre-rich pattern, high in non-white bread,whole grains, beans, and legumes, had the lowest BMI, smallestwaist circumference (WC), and the smallest mean annual increasein BMI. In older adults, the same pattern was also found. Clusteranalysis of the diets of subjects aged 70–77 years in the cross sec-tional SENECA baseline study in Europe and the Framingham HeartStudy cohort identified five dietary patterns; the two that were sig-nificantly associated with the lowest BMI and WC were those high-est in grains and legumes, nuts, and seeds (Haveman-Nies, Tucker,De Groot, Wilson, & van Staveren, 2001). One small trial performedin Mexico compared a low- and a high-GI diet, providing 63 g vs.55 g, respectively, of carbohydrate from cereals and legumes. Thelow-GI diet (high in whole-grain bread and beans and with lesswhite bread and rice) resulted in improved glycemic control andgreater weight loss (Jimenez-Cruz, Bacardi-Gascon, Turnbull,Rosales-Garay, & Severino-Lugo, 2003).
10.5. Pulses and other diseases
Chickpeas are the largest grown legume crop in Pakistan (Khokar,Muzaffar, & Chaudhri, 2001) and various varieties of chickpeasare popularly consumed as a source of dietary protein. Seeds enrichthe blood and cure skin diseases and inflammation of the ear(Agharkar, 1991; Warrier, Nambiar, & Remankutty, 1995). Theyare used as tonic, appetizer, stimulant and aphrodisiac, and theyalso have anthelmintic properties (Sastry & Kavathekar, 1990). Die-tary supplementation with chickpeas resulted in significant reduc-tions in serum total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterols inadult woman and men (Pittaway et al., 2006).
In a nationwide study of lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) amongchildren ages 5 years and younger with focus on maternal diet inGreece, Petridou, Ntouvelis, Dessypris, Terzidis, and Trichopoulos(2005) found that increased maternal consumption of fruits andperhaps vegetables (including pulses) reduces the risk of ALL. Re-sults indicate that the incidence of ALL among young childrencould be reduced by maternal adherence during pregnancy to thegenerally accepted principles concerning a healthy diet throughoutlife (see Table 28).
Azuki beans (Phaseolus angularis WIGHT.) have long beenwidely cultivated and consumed in confectionary and other tradi-tional dishes, in Asian countries. Shozu-to is a Chinese medicine,composed mainly of azuki beans, which has been recognized tohave antidotal, diuretic, and laxative effects and is thus used totreat constipation, beriberi, nephritis, and insufficient postpartumlactation (Namba, 1980). Boiled azuki beans juice prescribed byherbal doctors and as a folk remedy has been used to prevent dam-age associated with the stress of aging. Azuki beans extracts havean inhibitory effect on malonaldehyde formation, and thereby ex-ert antioxidant activity (Lee & Lee, 2005; Lee et al., 2003). Azuki
Table 28Pulses and their main potential positive and beneficial effects.
Involved metabolism Beneficial effect Reference
Legumes (including somepulses)
Cardiovascular 22% lower risk of coronary heart disease, and an 11% lower risk of cardiovasculardisease
Bazzano et al. (2001)
Cardiovascular anddiabetes
Modulation of glucose, insulin, and homocysteine concentrations and lipidperoxidation in coronary artery disease patients
Jang et al. (2001)
Azuki bean juice Hypertriglyceridemia Decreased triglyceride concentrations by inhibited pancreatic lipase activity Maruyama et al. (2008)Legumes Type II diabetes
mellitusRisk reduction to develop T2DM in the order of 20–30% Venn and Mann (2004)
Mung bean Glucose and lipidmetabolism
Modify glucose and lipid metabolism favourably in rats Lerer-Metzger et al.(1996)
Legumes Endometrial cancer Low risk of endometrial cancer Tao et al. (2005)Breast cancer Low breast cancer risk Velie et al. (2005)Colon cancer Low risk of colorectal adenoma Agurs-Collins et al.
(2006)
Legumes and cereals Obesity Low average body mass index (BMI) and low risk of obesity Greenwood et al. (2000)Pulses Obesity Low waist-to-hip (WHR) ratio Williams et al. (2000)Whole grains, beans, and
legumesObesity Low body mass index and waist circumference (WC) Haveman-Nies et al.
(2001)Whole-grain bread and
beansGlycaemia andobesity
Glycemic control and weight loss Jimenes-Cruz et al.(2003)
Chickpeas Skin and earinflammation
Low risk of skin diseases and inflammation of the ear Agharkar (1991), Warrieret al. (1995)
Tonic, appetizer, stimulant and aphrodisiac, anthelmintic properties Sastry and Kavathekar(1990)
Hypertriglyceridemia Reductions in serum total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterols Pittaway et al. (2006)
Vegetables (including someseeds of pulses)
Lymphoblasticleukemia
Low risk of lymphoblastic leukemia Petridou et al. (2005)
Common bean Colon cancer Inhibition of aberrant foci crypt development in rat colon Feregrino-Perez et al.(2008)
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beans have also been suggested to have lipase inhibitor activityin vitro (Hatano et al., 1997; Shimura et al., 1994).
11. Concluding remarks
Pulses are good source of minor compounds which may haveimportant metabolic and/or physiological effects. These com-pounds have been considered as antinutritional factors. More re-cent evidence, however, provides potential information of theirimpact on health, so these secondary metabolites are currentlymarketed as functional foods and nutraceutical ingredients. Futureresearch may determine if they should be preserved or eliminatedin each main nutritional situation.
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