PERSPECTIVES ON
- Mission Differentiation in Higher Education between Teaching and Research
RESEaRCH
- Enabling activation mechanisms
to achieve quality performance at
the University of Princess Noura
bint abdul Rahman
- Problems of parallel education in Tibah’s university from the students perspectives
- alternatives of Government Financing for Higher Education in the Kingdom of Saudi arabia
RESEaRCH PROjECTS
- Models That Link University’s Branches With Their Mother University In Some Countries: a Proposed Model for Saudi Universities
a peer-refreed, bi-annual journal Issue No.10 - Muharram 1435 aH - Nov. 2013
قضية العدد بي��ن الجامع��ي التعلي��م ف��ي التماي��ز -
التدريس والبحث
البحــــــــــوث- آلي��ات تفعي��ل التمكي��ن لتحقي��ق جودة بن��ت ن��ورة األمي��رة جامع��ة ف��ي األداء
عبدالرحمن- مش��كالت التعليم الم��وازي في جامعة
طيبة من وجهة نظر الطالبات- بدائل تموي��ل التعليم العالي الحكومي
في المملكة العربية السعودية
المشروعات البحثيةالجامع�ي����ة الكلي�����ات ارتب��اط نم��اذج -بالجامع��ات ف��ي بع��ض ال��دول : نموذج
مقترح للجامعات السعودية
كتب ورسائل علمية
العدد العاشر - محرم 1435ه� - نوفمبر 2013ممجلة علمية متخصصة محكمة نصف سنوية
ه�14
35م
حرم
شر عا
د العد
ال
ي عال
م العلي
للتة
ديعو
سة ال
جللم
ا
PERSPECTIVES ON
- Mission Differentiation in Higher Education between Teaching and Research
RESEaRCH
- Enabling activation mechanisms
to achieve quality performance at
the University of Princess Noura
bint abdul Rahman
- Problems of parallel education in Tibah’s university from the students perspectives
- alternatives of Government Financing for Higher Education in the Kingdom of Saudi arabia
RESEaRCH PROjECTS
- Models That Link University’s Branches With Their Mother University In Some Countries: a Proposed Model for Saudi Universities
a peer-refreed, bi-annual journal Issue No.10 - Muharram 1435 aH - Nov. 2013
قضية العدد بي��ن الجامع��ي التعلي��م ف��ي التماي��ز -
التدريس والبحث
البحــــــــــوث- آلي��ات تفعي��ل التمكي��ن لتحقي��ق جودة بن��ت ن��ورة األمي��رة جامع��ة ف��ي األداء
عبدالرحمن- مش��كالت التعليم الم��وازي في جامعة
طيبة من وجهة نظر الطالبات- بدائل تموي��ل التعليم العالي الحكومي
في المملكة العربية السعودية
المشروعات البحثيةالجامع�ي����ة الكلي�����ات ارتب��اط نم��اذج -بالجامع��ات ف��ي بع��ض ال��دول : نموذج
مقترح للجامعات السعودية
كتب ورسائل علمية
العدد العاشر - محرم 1435ه� - نوفمبر 2013ممجلة علمية متخصصة محكمة نصف سنوية
General Rules:1- Topics to be submitted have to be
related to the field of higher education.2- Articles could be written in Arabic or
English. In addition, the journal accepts book reviews.
3- Manuscripts submitted are judged on the originality, appropriateness of methodologies, clearness of ideas and statements, contribution to the advancement of knowledge. In addition, they should not be taken from a dissertation or published book.
4- Manuscripts should be submitted with a cover letter asking for acceptance
with the name, short biography, and contact information of the first author.
5- Author should sign a declaration that the manuscript has not be submitted or accepted in other venues.
6- The editorial board then will forward the manuscript to selected reviewers to be blindly-evaluated. Revision might be required based on this review.
7- The author will be eventually notified about the decision of acceptance or rejection. No submitted materials would be returned.
8- Accepted manuscripts can’t be
submitted for publication in other
venues without written permission from
the editor.
9- Five free copies of the issue containing
the published manuscript will be sent to
the author.
Technical Instruction:
1- Submitted articles should not exceed
20 A4 pages, using “Time New
Roman” font, size 12. Other materials
should not exceed 5 pages.
2- Tables and figures should be sized to
12x18 cm.
3- Submission has to be digital in MS
Word format.
4- Text citations and the end references
should be written and sorted in APA
style.
5- Using endnotes is not recommended. If
it is needed, it should be minimized to
the clarification points, and numbered
throughout the article, then listed at the
end after the references.
Manuscript submission
All manuscripts should be submitted in MS Word format to this email address:[email protected]
The Saudi Journal of Higher Education
A Peer-refereed, bi-annual JournalPublished by : Center for Higher Education Research and
Studies (CHERS) Ministry of Higher Education, Saudi Arabia
© Center for Higher Education Research and Studies, Ministry of Higher Education 2013
This journal is copyright. All rights reserved. Except for legitimate non-commercial educational use, no part of this publication may be reproduced or communicated in any form or by any means without the written permission of the Journal Editor-in-Chief
Deposit Ref: 47 / 1424 Date 2 / 1 / 1424 HISSN : 1658 - 1113
The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this Journal and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of CHERS nor the Ministry of Higher Education
ContentsSupervisor
Dr. Khalid M. Al-AnkaryMinister of Higher Education
Deputy SupervisorDr. Abdulhalem A. Mazi
Director, CHERS
Editorial BoardProf . Abdulrahman A. Sayegh
)Editor-in-Chief(King Saud University
Prof . Mohammed M. Al-Hamid Al-Imam Muhammed Ibn Saud Islamic
University
Prof .Mahroos A. Al-GhabbanTaibah University
Prof . Saleh A. Al-NassarKing Saud University
Prof . Amal M. Al-ShamanKing Saud Univeristy
Prof . Fatimah M. Al-Oboudi Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman
University
Dr. Abdullah H. Al-KhalafAl-Imam Muhammed Ibn Saud
Islamic University
Associate EditorDr. Majda I. Al-Jaroudi
King Saud University
SecretaryArwa S. Al-Ruhaimi
Language editorHmood A. Al-Salamah
DesignerEng. Jamal E. Mashali
Contact UsE-mail: [email protected]
www.chers.edu.sa
7
11
39
47
49
51
55
PREFACE
PERSPECTIVES ON :
• Mission Differentiation in Higher Education between Teaching and Research
Prof. Mahroos Ahmad Al-Ghabban
Dr. Husam Abdulwahab Zaman
• Mission Differentiation in Higher Education between Teaching and Research
Prof. John C. Weidman
RESEARCH
• Enabling activation mechanisms to achieve quality performance at the University of Princess Noura bint Abdul Rahman
• Problems of parallel education in Taibah’s university from the students perspectives
• Alternatives of Government Financing for Higher Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
RESEARCH PROJECTS
• Models That Link University’s Branches With Their Mother University In Some Countries: A Proposed Model for Saudi Universities
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has recently celebrated its 83rd anniversary in the memory of its foundation and unification by the founder King Abdullaziz bin Abdurrahman, may Allah bless his soul. As we cherish this most important national event, it is an opportunity for an evaluative reflection on the developmental achievement that has been accomplished in different sectors and particularly in the educational sector and higher education to be specific. In 1936, the Kingdom witnessed the first higher education institution with the establishment of Scholarship Preparatory school in Makah aiming to prepare students to pursue their higher education abroad. With the return of first patch of this program, Share’a College and Teacher Education College were established in 1949 and 1952 respectively. These two initial steps were the milestones for the development of this sector over the last eight decades. Recently, two mage projects were initiated to presume those steps and to revive the sectors: King Abdullah’s project for Higher Education Development, and King Abdullah Scholarships program. The main goals for these projects are strengthening innovation and diversity among universities, and expanding equal opportunities for all citizens to enroll in higher education institutions. The number of universities has expanded dramatically, from 8 universities (all public and concentrated in big cities) in 1995, to 35 public and private universities all over the Kingdom with its different amenities of colleges, institutes and research centers. This expansion has its great effect on the development of local communities across the Kingdom.
Accomplishing these strategic goals is the responsibility of what commonly called the “Strategic Trinity”: The Higher Education Council, The Ministry of Higher Education, and the universities. Their collaborative efforts focus on developing the integrity of higher education sector, reforming its structure and organization, improving the quality of its research and teaching functions, differentiating its institutional missions and academic programs, and diversifying its financing and budgeting approaches. All these developmental efforts are conducted according to international standards and benchmarks, with deployment of national and international cooperation and partnership.
This current issue of Saudi Journal for Higher Education elaborates on this “strategic partnership for development” by approaching analytically and critically the issue of mission differentiation among higher education institution in the Kingdom. Mission differentiation, as the issue’s theme, was presented from national and international perspectives. Other articles in this issue look at related subjects: parallel education in Taibah University, measuring performance in Princess Nora University, in addition to reviewing recent publication on leadership and organization in higher education.
In conclusion, I have great appreciation for the editorial board of our journal for their great effort in encouraging and expanding the research in the field of higher education in the Kingdom. I hope that we will continue working cooperatively to develop our sector with the increasing support from the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah bin Abdullaziz and his Crown Prince, whom interests are on improving the quality of higher education sector and expanding access to its institutions for all citizens. We greatly believed in the high qualification and intellectuality resides in our universities that will work in achieving our national goals related to serving our nation and the whole human beings.
Dr. Khalid M. Al-Anqari The Minister of Higher
Education and the Magazine's General
Supervisor
Preface
11The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Mission Differentiation in Higher
Education between Teaching and
Research
Prof. Mahroos Ahmad Al-Ghabban
Prof. of Comparative Education
Vice Rector of Taibah University
Introduction
The growing demand for Higher Education since the end of the World War II and its
repercussions of a great expansion of its institutions capacity at the level of the whole world,
especially during the period since the beginning of the last decade of the twentieth century
and the first decade of the twenty-first century, led to the changing nature of universities from
elite to mass institutions. This in turn created huge pressure on national governments in trying
to cope with various problems associated with the growing enrollment in these institutions
(Guri-Rosenblit et al., 2007), where there is no country in the world having higher education
system immune from facing the pressure of massification that has become a permanent and
stable condition with its own logic and consequences leading to fundamental changes in
universities’ structure.
The approach of differentiation and diversity has become on the top of the important
policies list pursued by contemporary higher education systems. It is aimed to meet the
increasing demand and diversified economic and social backgrounds and talent among the
growing number of students, to the extent that makes expansion and diversity in higher
education Twin Phenomena linked to the development of the Higher Education in many
countries of the world (zha, 2008). This is what Altabach (2002) previously noted that
differentiation is a central property for mass higher education systems globally.
Pers
pect
ives
on
Dr. Husam Abdulwahab Zaman Asst. Prof. of Comparative Education
Supervisor of Saudi Electronic UniversityMadinah Munawwarah
12 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
The process of differentiation in
Higher Education can occur vertically or
horizontally. The vertical differentiation
occurs as the types of institutions proliferate,
with the traditional research universities
being joined by teaching and community
colleges. The horizontal differentiation
occurs as a result of the spread of private
higher education institutions operated
by new service providers. The growing
number of these private institutions and
their enrollment, especially the for-profit
ones, is the largest manifestation of the
differentiation aspects in the world higher
education systems. In Brazil, for example,
nearly %60 of higher education students
are enrolled in private higher education
institutions and this percentage is exceeded
in Philippine to more than %80 (The World
Bank, 2000).
The impetuses leading to the
two forms of differentiation vary. While
horizontal differentiation is driven by
increased demand for higher education,
vertical differentiation is a reaction to
demand for greater diversity of graduates.
Higher Education system described
by differentiation and diversity of its
institutions on the horizontal and vertical
levels is certainly best able to serve
individuals and society. The mission
differentiation among Higher Education
institutions is considered a logical response
to the increasing importance of specialized
knowledge. As we find in many cases that
the new or restructured institutions are best
serving the public interest through their
focus on a specific set of goals for certain
group of students. Besides, differentiation
works to unify the efforts and prevents
duplication. It is also helpful in halting
institutional drift and makes the process
of accountability easier (The World Bank,
2000).
In this context, this paper has come
to show how far the higher education
institutions, especially the governmental
ones in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, are
in need to differentiation. It emphasizes
that it is the most important way for
developing the sector. The paper proposes
a hierarchical structure to reconstruct
these institutions in a way that basically
achieves the vertical differentiation based
on diversity and integration of mission and
goals. Though this paper does not claim
that it offers a magical and comprehensive
formula to reform higher education in KSA,
yet it seeks to provide a starting point for a
constructive dialogue towards change in the
desired direction according to the local data
and learned lessons of the contemporary
13The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
international experiences concerning higher
education development.
Universities between research and
teaching:
Teaching and research are two
basic functions in modern universities,
yet it is always a dilemma for educational
institutions to make decision about what
should be their main focus. These decisions
become more difficult when identifying the
area of focus implies arranging priorities
and allocating resources. Accordingly, we
can find that some systems develop obvious
mechanisms for differentiating among
Higher Education institutions between
research and teaching universities, while
many other systems suffer from blurring
vision concerning differentiation among
their educational institutions and their
assigned roles.
Following the history of universities,
it can be shown that they were mainly
constructed for teaching not research. The
contemporary research universities date
back to the beginning of the 19th century.
Before that, universities were largely
devoted to teaching and the preparation
of professionals in different areas like
Theology, Medicine and Law (Altbach,
2011a). Thanks to the German scholar
Wilhelm von Humbold (1767-1835) who
made the function of research a basic one
and whose view was that university, as
an institution, should be a place for the
production of the scientific knowledge
rather than training on a profession or a
craft. In other words it should be a place
that combines both teaching and research as
two faces for the same coin. The faculty of
Philosophy should be the beating heart of
university where research becomes for the
sake of research. The role of government
should be minimized to providing the
financial resources with a limited authority
to professors appointment. Hamboldt’s
vision was applied in Friedrich Wilhelms
University that was founded in 1810 AD in
Berlin, Germany. This pattern of universities
was known as the Humboldtian Model and
imitated in many countries around the world
( Gürüz, 2011).
Despite the historical fact that
universities emerged basically as teaching
institutions, yet research universities
come on the top of the academic system
hierarchy and have a high degree of respect.
14 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
They also participate actively in the production of authentic knowledge in both its basic and
applied research as well as granting the high scientific degrees. The world-class research
universities are also characterized by strong and direct position in the world knowledge
network with an ability to attract internal and external talented students, researcher, staff
members, technicians, and financial resources. That is why they always occupy the advanced
levels in the world rankings which normally focus on research universities. Studying the
common factors among world-class research universities (Salim, 2009), diagram (1) shows
briefly the characteristics of this kind of institutions and the objective condition that should be
considered to be classified internationally.
The research universities usually provide limited number of undergraduate programs,
while focusing on postgraduate especially at the PhD level. Therefore, they attract the best
and most intelligent students whether locally or internationally. Besides, they employ the
best academics and researchers. Research competency and productivity are the criteria for
employment and reward. Briefly, the academic society in the research universities revolves
around research and research culture and even the undergraduate students are given the
opportunity to participate in research (Altbach, 2011a).
Figure (1): Characteristics of World-class Research Universities
15The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
The source: Salmi, Jamil (2009). The Challenge of Establishing World-Class Universities.
Washington, DC: World Bank
On the economic and social levels, Altbach (2011a) explains that research universities
stand at the center of the 21st-century global knowledge economy as they are elite, complex
institutions with multiple academic and societal roles not only through production of
new knowledge leads to advanced technology , but also by contributing to better our
understanding of human condition. Moreover, there is widespread recognition of the
importance of research universities in almost all countries. The number of these universities
varies from country to country, although it occurs always in a very limited number compared
to the total number of higher education institutions in those countries. Smaller countries
may have only one research university, whereas larger nations may have many research
universities. In the United States, for example there are 150 research universities out of
about 4800 postsecondary institutions; India may have 10 such universities out of its 18000
higher education institutions, and China has about 100 research universities among its 5000
postsecondary institutions. It is observed that research universities, in most countries except in
Japan and the United States, are almost public institutions because they need a very large fund
compared to other universities as well as the private sector rarely supports these universities.
Salmi (2009) observes that most of countries do not realize the complexity and need for
resources necessary for the construction and continuity of research universities. Jouti (2012)
confirms this observation when he compares the annual budget of Harvard University and the
general annual budget of Morocco in which the former represents third of the latter.
On the other hand, teaching universities are the dominant pattern in terms of the
number of institutions and their spread globally. Its basic mission revolves around the
dissemination of knowledge and preparation of professionals to meet the needs of society
and labor market. The elite institutions of this pattern work on preparing and graduating
excellent leaders in various scientific and professional areas. Most colleges in this category
are considered the main shelter and the attractive environment for children of society’s elite as
they prepare them scientifically and practically in a way that matches their expected roles in
future. In most cases, these colleges are good tributary for excellent students to complete their
postgraduate programs in distinctive research universities. Teaching universities, in general,
16 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
work on preparing and qualifying trained
manpower efficiently with what labor
market needs. While in most of them, there
are professional postgraduate programs
at Masters and PhD levels, most research
outputs concentrate on the practical and
applied aspects.
Despite the clear difference between
these two patterns of universities through
the content of their missions and activities,
it is observed that most of these classified
universities in both patterns do not declare
themselves or add the quality “teaching” or
“research” to their names. Rather, they cling
to the traditional concept of university that
combines teaching and research.
Comparing the teaching university
with the research university in terms of
attention and funding, it is noted that the
requirements of financing and operating the
research universities excel those of teaching
universities and perhaps that is a logical
interpretation for the huge budgets that
research universities have versus what is
allocated for teaching universities. However,
that does not negate that there are modern
trends in favor of teaching universities.
The preparation of workforce with high
skills has become an important function of
Higher Education more than ever. Besides,
the privatization, generalization and
commodification of education increase the
priority given to teaching (Altbach et al.,
2010).
Concerning the different
mechanisms and policies of performance
evaluation and ranking between these
two patterns of universities, it seems
that the criteria and indicators measuring
the level of performance and status of
research university are more easy to
measure and objective compared with its
teaching counterpart. This may be due to,
according to Altbach (2011b), the difficulty
of measuring the quality and effect of
teaching quantitatively. In addition, making
comparisons among different academic
systems in terms of the quality and effect of
teaching is more difficult, which explains
the ignoring of most world rankings creating
criteria for the measurement and comparison
of teaching and learning quality. Though
the level of performance and status of
research universities were measured by a
set of criteria and indicators based formerly
on reputation, yet this has been changed
recently with the advent of the World
University Ranking Bodies. The Academic
ranking of World Universities (ARWU)
in Shanghai is one of these bodies that is
considered the most stable, transparent,
17The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
objective and clear in methodology.
Measurement in this ranking focuses on the
research productivity and uses six criteria
including the number of scientific papers
published in two journals “Science” and
“Nature”; the number of researchers whose
articles are frequently cited; teaching staff
members who got “Noble” and “Fields”
Prizes; the number of published and indexed
articles in “Science Citation Index” and
“Social Sciences Citation index” in addition
to other indexes. But some criteria of
Shanghai have a role in favor of the Western
universities especially those concerning the
number of graduates who received Noble
Prize or having the ability to attract them. In
addition, the indexes used for this ranking
are mainly focusing on research published
in English (Altbach, 2011b). Concerning
the educational aspects, it is generally
noted that rankings use a set of indicators
to measure the level of performance and
status of university relevant to both inputs
and outputs. Qualifications of faculty
members, their nationalities, conditions
of students’ admission, the proportion of
international students, and the percentage of
professor to student are the main indicators
of inputs. While the main indicators used
for measuring the quality of outputs are the
amount of demand for these outputs, the
degree of employers’ satisfaction and time
required for employment after graduation.
To sum up, the distinction
between the two patterns of research and
teaching should not be understood as
the research universities ignore teaching
and dissemination of knowledge or the
teaching universities have no place for
research As they have different purposes,
the research university is concerned with
disseminating knowledge in order to
produce more of it, while the teaching
university is concerned with that for the
purpose of qualifying and training more
students in different professions.. However,
taking care of the students’ education,
evaluating and measuring the learning
outcomes are common activities among
different institutions in the two patterns.
States need both patterns of universities, but
certainly need a larger number of teaching
universities because of the growing needs
of labor market for excellent competencies
in various fields on one hand, and a limited
number of research universities (varies
according to the size and degree of progress
of the state but perhaps no more than one in
small state) on the other hand, because of
the high cost of establishing and financing a
productive research university that.
18 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Mission Differentiation of Higher Education
Institutions from a Global Perspective:
The great demand for Higher
Education and the accompanying
unprecedented increase of enrollment
resulted in a state of conflict and
polarization between forces of massification
and forces of excellence protection. This
conflict is not confined to the developing
countries but extends to include the
developed countries that have a long history
in higher education and differentiation of its
institutions.
Though the strategy of adopting
the hierarchal organizational structure
that ensures ample opportunities for
admission with the protection of excellence
is considered the most available option
in many educational systems whether
implicitly or explicitly, yet it was exposed to
many challenges and sometimes to changes
in some systems as a result of massification
requirements.
In the European Union, we find the
United Kingdom, for example, characterized
for decades with the differentiation of its
institutions among research, polytechnic and
community universities until the nineties
of the last century. The country witnessed
reactional change when converting all the
colleges and polytechnic universities to
universities which in turn leads, as Ritzen
(2011) indicates, to the loss of transparency
in differentiation between institutions on
one hand, and the watering down of research
effectiveness on the national level from
the other hand. Although other European
countries faced the same challenges, yet
the political power in the Netherlands was
more stable in maintaining the gains of
differentiation among their educational
institutions when the parliament refused
the request of polytechnic colleges to be
converted into research universities on
the ground that a state in the size of the
Netherlands does not need 12 universities
like Harvard in its educational system and
enough to have one or two universities only
to compete in the world university rankings
(Ritzen,2011). On the other side of the
Atlantic, the American educational system
was evident in its respect and appreciation
for differentiation among its Higher
Education institutions which appeared
clearly and directly in the California State
Plan of Higher Education that will be
presented later in details.
In developing countries, we find
two completely different models for the
19The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
largest two developing countries in this
regard. While China sought to develop
its higher education system according
to vertical structure taking into account
differentiation among its institutions – as
will be detailed later - we find the higher
education in India has grown in a haphazard
manner. The successive Indian governments
expanded the sector by opening more public
universities and granting permits for the
private universities without checking the
nature of their missions and priorities of
functions (Agarwal, 2011). This in turn led
to a state of disconnect between the status
quo and outputs of university education and
the requirements of development and labor
market.
But there are still some distinctive
experiences in legalizing and maintaining
mission differentiation that deserve to be
studied and observed. The experience of
California State in USA and that of China
are models of prestigious and successful
experiences in this regard.
The experience of California State:
There is almost an agreement that
one of the best global model for Higher
Education is in USA. This may be due
to, according to professor of Education in
Stanford University David F. Labaree, its
success in dealing with the tension between
two contradictory principles: accessibility
by offering admission opportunity for
everyone, and exclusivity by limiting
access to elite universities for distinguished
students. The higher education system
in America has developed a hierarchy of
universities ranging from open access
institutions at the bottom to highly exclusive
institutions at the top confined to excellent
and high achievers. Therefore, it is a system
provides opportunities for all and protects
distinction (Labaree, 2007).
Further to the magnitude of the
Higher Education system in America,
decentralization and flexibility, it contains
unique and various experiences and
practices. The experience of California State
known as The California Master Plan for
Higher Education comes in the forefront of
experiences which received attention and
admiration inside and outside America. It
is not surprising that it can be replicated or
claimed to be replicated in most countries.
The California Master Plan for
Higher Education dates back to 1960
(Douglass, 2000). This plan is based on
building a system for the governmental
higher education combining both elite and
20 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
mass institutions through setting up three systems for higher education. Each one of them has
its own clear mission that distinguishes it from others but they are all combined by a general
regulatory framework achieving integration. More than fifty years since this experience was
applied and is still working successfully. California University and its ten campuses come
at the top of this triple system led by Berkeley Campus with its research mission. Followed
by California State University (CSU) with its twenty three branches, this university offers
bachelor and master degrees with a mission focusing on teaching. The third system consists
of 112 community colleges attended by the largest number of students. Its mission is
concentrated on teaching and service.
Figure (2) Hierarchy of Governmental Higher Education System in California State
Figure (2) Hierarchy of Governmental Higher Education System in California State
Comprehensive University (teaching and research)
California State University (CSU)
Community Colleges
-It accepts higher than 12.5 of High School graduates based on their relative percentage.
-It offers Bachelor and Master programs.
- It is concerned at the level of state with providing doctoral program.
- It provides degrees in (Law, Medicine, Dentistry) as graduate degrees in the American system.
Research University
California University
Comprehensive university (teaching & research)
California State University (CSU)
Community Colleges
-It selects students from the top 33.3% of High School graduates based on their percentages.
-It offers all bachelor and master programs in all academic and professional specifications.
- It accepts all High School graduates who have the ability to complete their studies.
-It provides co-diploma degrees in a number of academic and professional specifications which qualify for labor market and to complete bachelor in one of the above two universities.
-The above two universities adhere to admit graduates of other colleges in the third year for two students in the first year.
21The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
These patterns absorb High School graduates who wish to join the universities
included within this system. While the research university and the teaching university absorb
about 50% of those graduates (13% for California University and 33% for California State
University), the other applicants join the community colleges spread throughout the state. The
privilege of California system is that it has flexibility protecting the right of high achievers in
joining institutions at the top of hierarchy or through transferring them from the lower to the
upper institutions (Douglass, 2000).
What most distinguishes this model, as indicated by Ritzen (2011), is the mutual
respect and great appreciation for the role of each pattern of university education in this
system to the point that the head of Berkeley university (that is considered one of the most
prominent campuses of research university) proudly declared that about half of the top 100
graduates of master program of his university are the graduates of community colleges in the
same system as a result of doing their educational mission in the best way.
The experience of China:
China, the strongly coming giant on the international educational area recently,
gave special attention to the development of its educational system. It witnesses an ambitious
project for the development of its higher education system called (Project 985) in which it was
announced that there is a need to world-class universities. The executive five- year plan of the
project (from 2003-2007) includs the following five major trends (Al Essa,2011):
1. From a central administration to local ones with important authorities in university
administration of.
2. From elite education to mass education.
3. From focus on narrow specifications to comprehensive general education.
4. From governmental education to private education.
5. From local education to global education.
Based on these trends, the Chinese universities got more independence in the
22 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
management of their affairs. A new system
was followed in financing universities
based on a variety of sources like allowing,
for the first time, to impose tuition fees on
students, and major modifications to the
salary and reward of faculty members which
allow the Chinese universities to attract
more international competencies. Besides,
the central government allocated specific
funding packages for constructing world-
class universities.
In response to the previous great
trends and the accompanying change in
the China’s economic policy towards a
market economy, an improvement in the
citizens income and the steady increase in
the proportion of students enrolled in higher
education, the structure of higher education
institutions is restructured in a hierarchical
way based on their missions and goals,
as shown in figure (3). The hierarchy (the
organizational pyramid) of higher education
in China consists of four sections or ranks.
Each section contains a set of institutions
that decrease in number when moving to the
top of the pyramid because of the need and
high cost. At the top of the pyramid, there are
national elite universities whose main focus
is on research. They teach the majority of
PhD students, in addition to some Masters
and bachelor students. These universities,
with its effective participation in international
research arena, are assigned to be the
national team responsible for strengthening
China’s innovation ability, while playing
the leading role in conducting research
which is considered important for national
development and security. . Universities
of the second rank are basically concerned
with teaching in which most of their students
are at Bachelor and Masters Levels with
limited number of PhD students in certain
specifications, as research is considered the
second priority. Universities of the third rank
are exclusively concerned with teaching and
training of undergraduate students with no
graduate programs to be offered. Finally,
there is a new class of institutions at the
bottom of the pyramid called the Senior
Vocational Colleges offering programs
lasting from 2 to 3 years. The institutions of
the third and fourth ranks constitute most of
higher education institutions and considered
the main outlet to absorb the steady increased
numbers of applicants, whereas admission to
national elite universities is symbolic and
very limited.
23The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Figure (3) Hierarchy of Higher Education in China
The crisis of differentiation in Higher Education in the Kingdom:
Public universities are considered the backbone of higher education in the Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia in which they include about 90% of students enrolled in this pattern of
education. However, comparing these universities’ missions reveals a lack of focus and
differentiation, as they all seek distinguishing position in both research and teaching.
Although this problem, as described in the report of the UNESCO World Conference on
Higher Education 2009, is a real and complex identity problem that is overlooked by most
higher education systems in the world so far (Altbach et al., 2010, p.184). However, its
importance and danger increase greatly on the level of higher education in the Kingdom
Figure (3) Hierarchy of Higher Education in China
Research Universities
(National Elite Universities)
PhD, MA, B.
Research &Teaching Universities
B., MA, PhD in very limited specifications
Teaching Universities
Bachelor
Vocational Colleges
Duration of study (2-3 years)
24 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
that has witnessed during the last ten years
successive and rapid changes especially with
regard to its massification and privatization
which makes dealing with this issue fateful
and inevitable.
Getting university degree is still
seen, in the Saudi society, as a matter of
pride (swank) and social mobility. Besides,
joining the higher education institutions
helps young high school graduates,
especially girls, to find a safe haven
,albeit temporarily, from unemployment.
In addition, enrolling in higher education
institutions eases the load of daily charges,
as higher education in the Kingdom is
not only offered free of charge, but in
most cases students are paid stipends in
addition to providing them with some free
services such as transportation and housing
especially for female students coming from
remote areas.
In responding to this high social
demand, the number of universities in
the Kingdom jumped from 11 public
universities in 2005 to 24 universities in
2011, and from 4 to 8 private universities
in the same period with total percentage
growth amounted 113%. Besides, statistics
indicate that the total percentage of students
enrolled in higher education in the Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia takes a rapid ascending
curve. The enrollment ratio in higher
education improved from 30.2% in 2007
to 38.9% in 2011 (the Higher Education
Observatory, 2001, pp. 37-38), while this
percent in 2000 did not exceed 22%. This
percentage is going to be up to 50% in 2020
(the Ministry of Higher Education, 2012)
in which there is still demand to higher
education especially university level. With
these data, it becomes of urgent significant
importance to launch initiatives, supported
with long and short–term policies for
restructuring universities in the Kingdom to
cope with these changes in order to achieve
both differentiation and integration among
them.
Without reducing the importance
of this quantitative expansion, tit wasn’t
accompanied with a real consideration
of the issue of universities’ identity. In
response to the lack of differentiation
among higher education institutions in the
Kingdom, two main viewpoints about the
problem and its causes are observed: Al Essa
(2011), the former director of Al Yamamah
Private University, attributes the cause to
the traditional beginnings of established
public universities which affected deeply
the structure of educational system and
contributed to submitting the universities to
25The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
a bureaucratic centralized system directly
linked to the powers of the state whether
the Ministry of Higher Education or other
superior bodies. This contributes to effacing
the identity of universities and stifling
opportunities of diversity and difference
among them. Universities are founded as if
they are duplicate copies for one university
with its structures, systems, divisions and
practices. No one knows what distinguishes
this university from the other or what makes
university excel the others. Besides, the
establishment of emergent universities in
different regions of the Kingdom came also
in a cloning way, which intensifies the crisis
of the universities’ identity. This analysis
comes to confirm what had been earlier
referred to in the World Bank report (2008)
about reforming education in the Middle
East and North Africa. The report asserts
the need of educational systems in these
countries, and Saudi Arabia specifically,
to follow a new path for reforming
education and achieving effectiveness
and competitiveness. The most prominent
features of this path is the decentralization
of educational systems, along with effective
evaluation and increased accountability.
Luomi (2008) comments on the report’s
recommendations that higher education
institutions in these countries are not only
in need to increase funding but to inject
diversification in the system as well,
particularly in the light of growing demand
on of High School graduates to join its
institutions,.
The other viewpoint about meeting
challenges facing the higher education
in the Kingdom is not necessarily based
on a call for ending centralization. The
former president of King Fahd University
of Petroleum and Minerals- (Al Dakheel,
2011) points out that the solution lies in
the adoption of triple system for higher
education. This system consists of national
research universities and regional teaching
universities including a number of relevant
colleges whose main purpose is teaching
and are not allowed to offer postgraduate
programs except on a limited scale that does
not exceed master stage. The last pattern
includes the community colleges that give
students an opportunity for education for a
period of two to three years after secondary
Education. This type of colleges focuses
on preparing and training the assistants of
specialists who labor market increasingly
needs.
26 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Differentiation in the Future Plan of
University Education in Saudi Arabia
(AFAQ Project):
From this standpoint, the Ministry of
Higher Education initiated a project called
“The Future Plan for University Education
in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia – Afaq”.
The project’s scope was limited to university
education and especially on public and
private universities and colleges lying under
the umbrella of the Ministry of Higher
Education. The project aims to develop
a long-term strategic plan (25 years) that
identifies the vision of university education,
its mission, needs, types and quality of
outputs. It also aims to develop an action
detailed plan for the first five years. The plan
was officially issued in 2011.
The strategic vision of AFAQ
looks forward to setting an integrated
university education in the Kingdom
whose main trends are controlled by
three dimensions: expansion, quality and
differentiation, with the ability to compete
globally and contribute effectively in
constructing knowledge society (The
Ministry of Higher Education, No date
a). The first five-year detailed action
plan includes 40 programs such as:
capacity planning of university education,
international exchange for students, the
reinforcement the role of private higher
education, the fortification of quality
assurance system in Higher Education,
planning the expected need of, and
recruiting policies for faculty member ,
the partnership with business and industry
sector , the development of electronic and
distance education, the encouragement of
innovation and productivity, by tying faculty
salaries and incentives to their performance,
and finally, the activation of differentiation
and integration higher education institutions.
(The Ministry of Higher Education, no date
b).
The privilege of AFAQ
demonstrated in drawing attention
towards the issue of differentiation in
university education through highlighting
differentiation as one of the main three
dimensions of the strategic plan showed in
Figure (4), which was neglected in Saudi
higher education for a long time.The plan
defines differentiation as the integrated
diversity among universities based on their
visions and missions . this should be done
through integrative diversification in terms
of academic specifications, geographical
spread, and alignment with development
requirements (the Ministry of Higher
Education, no date a).
27The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Figure (4) Dimensions of the Strategic Trends of “Afaq” Plan
The source: Ministry of Higher Education, the Ministry Commission of Educational Affairs
(no date a). The Future Plan of University Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
1450/2029: Handbook
AFAQ formulated a differentiation model for higher education system in the Kingdom
as shown in table (1). The model classifies the institutions of higher education into six
patterns: specialized research universities, comprehensive universities, teaching universities,
applied universities, virtual universities and the community colleges.
28 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Table (1) Model of differentiation of the University Education system in the Kingdom
according to “Afaq” classification
# Pattern Definition
1 Specialized ResearchUniversities
Focus mainly on research and postgraduate programs and offer distinguished research programs in strategic.fields in addition to other undergraduate programs
2 ComprehensiveUniversities
Concern with the balance between research and teaching; undergraduate and postgraduate programs. They are always located in densely populated areas.and are comprehensive in offered specializations
3 TeachingUniversities
Mainly offer undergraduate programs and limited number of Masters degrees and research programs..They focus on serving local communities
4 AppliedUniversities
The academic curricula focus on the practical aspects and students professional preparation in addition to theoretical principles. They are concerned with knowledge, skills, field work and the applied research necessary for meeting the society’s, industry’s and business’s needs. The programs can include various .fields of study
5 Virtual Universities
Aim to offer distance learning programs in the form of online courses utilizing the latest communication technologies so as to be available to students all over .the Kingdom
6 CommunityColleges
offer applied programs consistent with the local community’s needs. They grant diploma degree and.prepare some of their students to university education
The source: Ministry of Higher Education, the Ministry Commission of Educational Affairs
(no date a). The Future Plan of University Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
1450/2029: Handbook
29The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
A Critical Review of AFAQ Proposed
Differentiation Model
Investigating the previous proposed
model of differentiation in the future plan
of University Education in the Kingdom
(AFAQ), it is shown that it is a step towards
the right direction for reforming the
structure of university education System;
however, it has a number of drawbacks that
should be reconsidered.
The first drawback is the number
of patterns proposed for institutions. Six
patterns are not justified when compared
to other international odels especially
those of California and China which have
3 to 4 patterns respectively that cover,
without overlapping, all higher education
institution in their systems. Afaq model,
for example, singled out an independent
pattern for applied universities which are
very close to vocational education. This type
of education should not be within AFAQ
scope as it is supervised by the General
institution of Technical and Vocational
Education, not by the Ministry of Higher
Education . In addition, there is an overlap
between teaching and comprehensive
universities on one hand and applied
universities on the other hand. Moreover, the
virtual universities do not deserve to be an
independent pattern as done in the model, as
they can be included within the category of
teaching universities.
The second drawback of AFAQ
differentiation model for “” project is its
expansion in assigning research function
to all the proposed patterns of universities
except the virtual universities. This in turn
will lead eventually to unjustified distraction
of efforts and resources. The research
function should be limited to the specialized
research and comprehensive universities
because of the concentration and optimal
investment of human and material resources.
The third drawback is the
marginalization of the role of community
colleges by making their primary job is to
provide applied programs at the level of
diplomas and enable a limited number of
them to prepare the enrolled students for
the university stage. Focusing their role, in
this way, makes them intersect clearly with
the mission of polytechnic colleges to the
extent that is difficult to distinguish between
the missions of them. This gives a chance
for duplication and the consequent waste of
resources and efforts. It is better to give a
major role for community colleges to be the
main gate or tributary for joining university.
30 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Finally, this model is suggests a fuzzy and non- binding mechanism for the re-
distribution of current universities according to the proposed patterns. Accordingly, the
current universities stay – until now - as they are and ready to remain in this state in the
future.
A proposed Differentiation Model for University Education in the Kingdom:
In light of the drawbacks of the AFAQ proposed model, besides the lessons learned
from the relevant international experiences, a differentiation model for public university
education based on diversity and integration can be provided. Table (2) and figure (5)
illustrate the components and features of this proposed model as well as the way of
distributing current universities according to this model.
Table (2) the Proposed Differentiation Model for the Governmental University Education
System
Pattern Definition Universities proposed to beclassified in this pattern
Researchuniversities
They are primarily concerned with post graduate programs in the scientific fields and research in the strategic fields. They offer some.Bachelor programs
King Saud, King Abdel Aziz, King Fahd, King Abdullah university for Science and Technology, King Saud forHealth Sciences
ComprehensiveUniversities
Teaching & ()Research
They are concerned with providing most of the Bachelor programs, Master in most specifications, PhD in limited areas (the Islamic studies, Education and Humanities) and limited research program related to.community service
Islamic University, Imam, Umm Al Qura, King Faisal, King Khalid, Taibah, Al Qassim, Al Taif, Al Dammam,Princess Noura, Jazan
31The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
TeachingUniversities
They are focused exclu- sively on undergraduate programs, in specializations related to local communityneeds the available resourc-
.es
Prince Salman, Tabuk, North- ern Borders, Al Jouf, Shaqra, Al Majmaah, Al Baha, Najran,Hail and the Electronic uni-.versity
Faculties of University
Preparation and community
Service
They are concerned with the preparatory programs.They offer associate diplo- mas aligned to labor market .needs
Substitute for Community Colleges and the Preparatory.year
Figure (5) the Differentiation Proposed Model
The privileges of the proposed model of differentiation in this study are as follows:
1. It is consistent with successful international experiences in which it benefits from
the most prominent characteristics of the two models of California and China. It also
reformulates them with a model commensurate with the status quo and needs of the
Saudi society. From the two models it borrows the idea of organizing the institutions
Figure (5) the Differentiation Proposed Model
The privileges of the proposed model of differentiation in this study are as follows:
Teaching Universities
Research Universities
Comprehensive Universities
Faculties of University
Preparation and
community Service
32 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
of higher education hierarchically
based on differentiation of mission
and goals. From the Chinese model
it takes the idea of triple distribution
of types of universities. There are
research universities, comprehensive
(research & teaching) universities
and teaching universities.
From the model of California it
takes the idea of flexibility and
expanding the opportunities with
protection of excellence in which
the distinguished students of
the pyramid base are allowed to
continue their education in the
higher institutions of the pyramid.
2. The base of the pyramid (the
faculties of university preparation
and community service) assures
the expansion in admission
opportunities, developing the idea of
community college and addressing
some of its problems in Saudi
context. Most of the community
colleges suffer from lack of demand
and are stigmatized as a refuge
for under-achieved students. The
opportunity of their graduates to join
the university has become so limited
if found. In addition, because
of the dissatisfaction with high
school graduates’ competencies, all
universities provide a preparatory
year for accepted applicants. Thus,
the suggestion of establishing
faculties for university preparation
and community service will
be suitable substitute for both
community colleges and preparatory
year at the same time.
3. The model highlights that the
number of research universities
should be very limited to confirm
that the quality is more important
than quantity when establishing
such universities. Focusing on
competitiveness, high quality and
continuity of the offered programs
of teaching and research that serve
the scientific research should come
first. The model also confirms that
universities established to meet the
local community and business’s
needs of manpower should be
teaching universities that can be
turned into comprehensive ones
when necessary, with the availability
of needed resources.
4. The model takes into account the
status quo of the Saudi universities
so as to achieve diversity and
33The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
integration among them. The
proposed model helps the Saudi
universities overcome their
excessive tendency to become
comprehensive universities. By
reviewing the vision and mission
of all Saudi universities, except
King Abdullah University for
Sciences and Technology, it is found
that they are all comprehensive
institutions (teaching and research)
realistically or ambitiously. This is
happening while it is well-observed
that most of these universities,
especially the emerging ones whose
number is more than one-third,
do not have the basic capacity to
run serious research programs.
In an attempt to address this
issue practically, the proposed
model distributes the public
universities among the patterns
based on a number of criteria,
notably: originality, chronological
age of university, availability of
research infrastructure, nature of
the available specifications and
experience, the position in global
ranking of universities, and the
region where university is located.
Moreover when the model suggested
the comprehensive (teaching
&research) universities, it considers
that programs and fields of research
in these universities complement
and not compete their counterparts
in research universities. The model
provides these universities with an
opportunity to offer postgraduate
programs at the level of Masters
and PhD in religious, human and
educational studies, especially
within institutions with relatively
long history and experience in
offering such programs like the
Islamic University in Medina, , Al
Imam Muhammad Bin Saud Islamic
University, and Umm Al Qura
University.
5. The model supports the students’
mobility between the regions of
the Kingdom and reinforces the
social and cultural intricacy of
Saudi students. There were only
seven universities in the Kingdom
decade and half ago found in four
administrative regions of the thirteen
regions of the Kingdom. These
universities attracted the students
from all over the Kingdom. This
turns them to be centers for smelting
social and cultural backgrounds of
the Saudi students. This privilege
started to shrink clearly when each
34 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
region had its own university, with
its comprehensive mission and
offered programs which eventually
limited the students’ mobility among
regions. It is expected that the
proposed model and its achieved
diversity will restore and support
this mobility.
In this regard, it may be
important to confirm the importance
of the role of centralization in higher
education system in the Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia. As in many
international experiences, there will
be reluctance inside and outside
the higher education institutions
against imposing differentiation
among them. As long as there is no
general trend to impose the policy
of differentiation, its application
in all institutions and linking
the financial support of Higher
Education institutions to the degree
of commitment to their assigned
mission in accordance with their
capabilities and needs of surrounding
environment, differentiation will
not be implemented successfully in
Saudi higher education institutions.
Conclusion:
Globally, the issue of differentiation
and diversity among higher education
institutions is no longer a supplementary
but a fundamental requirement imposed
as a consequence of massification of the
sector. Therefore, applying the policy
of horizontal and vertical differentiation
of higher education system of countries
should be listed at the top of policy agenda
in many countries to meet the increasing
demand for higher education and the market
need of greater diversity in the graduates’
qualifications and abilities.
In Saudi Arabia, the absence of
differentiation especially the vertical one
among public universities, considered the
backbone of higher education with 90%
of enrolled students, is a troubling issue
for those interested in the higher education
reform. This is reflected in the absence of
distinct identity and considering mission
differentiation at the time of universities
establishment especially the emerging
ones, which were based on negative
simulation of old institutions. This is
accompanied with absence of a binding
policy for constructing a hierarchical system
for the higher education institutions and
35The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
limiting the reform focus on technical and
operational issues. Thus, the introduction
of mission differentiation policy is no
longer a luxury but an urgent necessity as
recently observed by the Ministry of Higher
Education in its strategic paper “the Future
Plan of University Higher Education in the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia – AFAQ Project”.
AFAQ considers mission differentiation
as one of the three main dimensions of
strategic trends of in addition to quality
and expansion; it suggests a model for
differentiation of public university education
system. But the proposed model in “AFAQ”
project has some drawbacks including: the
unjustified increase of university patterns,
its expansion in making research among the
main functions of five out of the six patterns,
the marginalization of the community
colleges role and the absence of criteria for
the distribution of current universities on the
proposed patterns.
In light of the previous drawbacks
, and based on the learned lessons from
relevant international experiences especially
those of California in USA and China,
the current study suggested a mission
differentiation model for public university
Education in the Kingdom . The model is
based on assuring diversity and integration
of higher education institutions and their
missions, and proposes re-organizing
them hierarchy of four patterns: research,
comprehensive (teaching & research),
and teaching universities, in addition to
faculties of university preparation and
community service. The privileges of this
model are its consistency with successful
international experiences; expanding
admission opportunities while protecting
excellence; considering the status quo of
Saudi universities; restoring and supporting
the students’ geographic mobility in a way
that reinforces social and cultural intricacy
of Saudi students. The study also highlights
the importance of benefiting from the
centralization of the system to impose a
mission differentiation policy whether
based on this proposed model or not. The
re-organization of institutions, is argued,
should consider the resources availability to
higher education institutions and the social
and developmental needs of the surrounding
environments.
To guarantee the success of the
proposed model, it is necessary to modify
the rules and regulations governing higher
education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
The regulations of employing faculty
members, researchers and technicians or
36 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
those related to contracting or promoting
them should be changed to be consistent
with the mission of the university and its
assigned local or global role. The current
system of promoting faculty members
– for example - is completely biased to
research production, while applying the
proposed differentiation model necessitates
diversifying promotion policies to be
suitable for different university patterns.
In addition, proposing and implementing
such policies require greater levels of
flexibility and independence to be granted
for universities in administration and
management of their academic and financial
affairs.
37The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Al-Ohali, Mohammad and Al-Mehrej,
Hamad (2012). “Faculty Salary and
Remuneration in the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia”. In Altbach, Philip G., Liz
Reisberg, Maria Yudkevich, Gregory
Androushchak, and Ivān F. Pacheco. Paying
The Professoriate: Aglobal Comparison of
Compensation and Contracts. Marceline,
Mo, Walsworth Publishing Company.
Agarwal, Pawan (2011). “Mission
Differentation”. Paper presented as Keynote
address, International Exhibition and
Conference on Higher Education.
Altlbach, P.G.(2002). “Differentiation
Requires Definition : The Need for
Classification in Complex Academic
System”. International Higher Education,
26, 2-3.
Altabach, P.G.(2007). The Logic of Mass
Higher education. P.G. Altabach (ed),
Tradition and Transition : The International
Imperative in Higher Education, Rotterdam,
Netherland, Sense Publishers. 3-22.
Altbach, Philip G. (2011a) “The Past,
Persent, and Future of the Research
University”. In Altbach, Philip G. and
Salmi, Jamil (ed), The Rood to Academic
Excellence : The Making of World-Class
Research Universities. Washington, DC: The
world Bank.
Altbach, Philip G. (2011b) “Ranking Season
IS Here”. The Saudi Journal of Higher
Education, No.5, 176-183.
Douglass, John A. (2000). The California
Idea and American Higher Education.
Stanford, CA. Stanford University Press.
Guri – Rosenblit, S., Sebkova, H. and
Teichler, U. (2007). “Massification and
Diversity of Higher Education Systems:
Interplay of Complex Dimensions”. Higher
Education Policy, Vol. 20, No. 4, PP. 373-
389.
Gürüz, Kemal (2011). Higher Education and
International Student Mobility in the Global
Knowledge Economy. Second ed. Albany,
State University of New York.
Labaree, David F. (2006). “Understanding
the Rise of American Higher Education
: How Complexity Breeds Autonomy”.
Paper presented as vice presidential address,
Division F, American Education Research
Association.
Luomi, Mari (2008). “Reforming Higher
References املراجــــــــــــع
38 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Education: the GCC highway in the shadow
of the World Bank road’ In Davidson,
Christopher and smith, Peter M. (Ed).
Higher Education in the Gulf States:
Shaping Economies, Politics and Culture.
London Middle East Institute at SOAS,
London.
Ritzen, Jo (2011). “Strategy, Structure and
Organization”. Paper presented as Keynote
address, International Exhibition and
Conference on Higher Education.
Salmi, Jamil (2009). The Challenge of
Establishing World-Class Universities.
Washington, DC: World Bank.
The World Bank (2000). Higher Education
in Developing Countries : Peril and Promise,
Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
The World Bank (2008). The Road Not
Traveled : Education Reform in the Middle
East and North Africa. Washington, DC: The
World Bank
Zha, Qiang (2009). “Diversification or
Homogenization : How Government and
Markets Have Combined to (Re) Shape
Chinese Higher Education in Its Recent
Massification Process”. Higher Education,
58:41-58.
Arabic References
التعليم يف توجهات )2010م( واآخرون جي. فيليب – األتباخ البحوث مركز ترجمة الأكادميية، الثورة ر�صد العاملي، العايل
والدرا�صات يف وزارة التعليم العايل يف اململكة العربية ال�صعودية.
توبقال دار امل�صتقبل، جامعة ،)2012( بوطالب حفيظ جوطي، للن�صر، الدار البي�صاء.
ماله العايل التعليم )2011م(، اهلل عبد العزيز عبد الدخيل، وماعليه، �صركة العبيكان للأبحاث والتطوير، الريا�ض.
العي�صى، اأحمد )2009م( اإ�صلح التعليم يف ال�صعودية بني غياب الروؤية ال�صيا�صية وتوج�ض الثقافة الدينية وعجز الإدارة الرتبوية،
دار ال�صاقي، بريوت.
رحلة ال�صعودية: يف العايل التعليم )2011م( اأحمد العي�صى، البحث عن الهوية، دار ال�صاقي، بريوت.
التعليم )2012م(، العايل التعليم مر�صد العايل، التعليم وزارة ومقارنات حملية موؤ�صرات ال�صعودية العربية اململكة يف العايف
دولية، وزارة التعليم العايل يف اململكة العربية ال�صعودية.
التعليم )2011م(، العايل التعليم مر�صد العايل، التعليم وزارة ومقارنات حملية موؤ�صرات ال�صعودية العربية اململكة يف العايل
دولية، اململكة العربية ال�صعودية، وزارة التعليم العايل.
.)a وزارة التعليم العايل، وكالة الوزارة لل�صوؤون التعليمية )بدونال�صعودية العربية اململكة يف اجلامعي للتعليم امل�صتقبلية اخلطة العربية اململكة تعريفي. كتّيب 1450هـ/2029م: )اآفاق(
ال�صعودية، وزارة التعليم العايل.
)b وزارة التعليم العايل، وكالة الوزارة لل�صوؤون التعليمية )بدونال�صعودية العربية اململكة يف اجلامعي للتعليم امل�صتقبلية اخلطة )اآفاق( 1450هـ/2029م: برامج اآفاق التنفيذية. اململكة العربية
ال�صعودية، وزارة التعليم العايل.
39The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
The authors of this article have provided a thoughtful analysis of international
trends in the differentiation of national higher education systems and applied their
assessment to the Saudi Arabian context. Building from a constructive and well-
documented critique of the current “AFAQ” plan for differentiation of higher education
institutions in Saudi Arabia, they recommend that the number of tiers in the new higher
education system be reduced from six to four, identify which existing institutions would
be in each tier, and discuss benefits of the proposed structure.
I am well aware of the major effort that went into the national planning
process, having participated in both the “AFAQ” conference on “Future Trends in
Higher Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia” in Riyadh (December, 2006) and a
preliminary meeting at King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (May, 2006).
The resulting “AFAQ” plan, based on extensive consultation with both domestic and
international experts, is comprehensive and far reaching. The modifications to the
“AFAQ” plan put forward in the present article are a constructive effort to improve
effectiveness and efficiency of the Saudi higher education system across the different
Mission Differentiation in Higher Education between Teaching and Research
John C. Weidman
Professor of Higher and International Development Education
University of Pittsburgh, USA
Pers
pect
ives
on
40 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
institutional tiers by reducing complexity
and sharpening programmatic focus
while, at the same time, retaining
the basic goals and objectives of a
differentiated structure. The authors
provide a convincing rationale for
each of the four tiers, though I would
question whether “virtual” or online
programs should be confined to a single
tier (“teaching universities”). The
experience in the USA, for instance, has
been that online academic programming
of one sort or another can be found in all
types of higher education institutions,
from community colleges through elite
research universities.
There are, however, a
few issues that I believe require
attention in order for the proposed
plan modifications to take place. My
goal is not to provide a blueprint for
implementation, but rather to reflect
on important concerns that might
be considered. Any specific actions
necessary would, of course, have
to be determined by the Ministry of
Higher Education, the respective higher
education institutions, and relevant
stakeholders.
System Integration
The authors describe how a
four-tier structure might be integrated so
that each type of institution contributes
to improved quality and impact of
the entire higher education system.
While higher education institutions
in each of the four tiers would have
their own, unique missions, integration
across tiers is important in order to
make certain there is not significant
duplication of activities across
institutional tiers. Higher education
institutions around the world are prone
to “mission creep,” namely, a tendency
to take on an increasingly expansive
range of academic activities. From
an institutional perspective, there
are usually compelling reasons for
expanding, most notably student demand
and perceived enhancement of status and
reputation. This can spread resources
too thinly, directing them away from
the primary mission, and may affect
overall quality at both the institutional
and system levels. Consequently, there
may need to be periodic review and
assessment (e.g., via a formal quality
assurance and/or accreditation system)
to make certain that “mission creep”
is not occurring. Many countries also
support organizations for presidents of
higher education institutions, including
requiring meetings of leaders across
tiers.
41The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Opportunity for Students to Transfer
between Institutions
Most national higher education
systems seek acceptable avenues for
students to move, at least in some
limited way, between institutions
without losing credit for courses already
completed. Transfer is generally most
common across institutions in the
same tier, but many systems also have
mechanisms in place to encourage those
students who demonstrate significantly
outstanding academic accomplishment
to move to a higher tier higher education
institution in the system. This requires
curricular integration across institutions.
The California community college
system, for instance, provides open
access to all state high school graduates
but also gives them the opportunity
to move to a higher level (either
comprehensive or research university)
if their academic achievement warrants
such advancement. One mechanism for
making this possible is the establishment
of “articulation agreements” between
institutions through which four-year
institutions agree to accept course credits
earned either from other same- and
higher-tier tier institutions or from two-
year institutions.
Labor Market Demand for Graduates
Because of the community
focus in both the “AFAQ” plan and
the proposed modification, projected
labor market requirements for graduates
should be considered, at least to some
extent, in building academic programs
and community service activities at each
tier and degree level in the system. This
is particularly difficult in the Middle
East and North Africa (MENA) region
due to the large expat workforce and
preference of country nationals for civil
service jobs (Weidman, 2011). The high
costs (e.g., facilities, equipment, faculty,
etc.) of running institutions make it
imperative that investments in higher
education be strategic, not on only in
terms of institutional capacity but also
with respect to labor market (local,
national, and international, depending on
the institutional tier) and other national
development goals. While there are
significant national benefits to having
an “educated citizenry,” most students
and their families are more immediately
concerned with having graduates finding
employment as soon as possible after
completing their degrees. Projected
employment patterns and corresponding
demand for academic programs serving
women should also be considered.
42 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Building “World-Class” Universities
One final concern has to
do with possible consequences of
designating a small set of institutions as
elite, research universities, presumably
with corresponding special funding.
While this may simply reflect a
national desire to have a tier of very
high-level institutions aspiring to
become, as Salmi and others call
them, “world-class” universities, it
has consequences spanning the entire
higher education system. It requires
establishing a careful balance across
institutions in expectations for faculty
and student performance, academic and
other resource allocation, and student
admission selectivity. It requires
training and recruitment of faculty
with outstanding credentials. As the
authors mention, this also includes
establishing faculty reward systems that
are not totally driven by research and
publications, but are uniquely identified
with institutions in each tier and based
on the specific types of faculty work
expected.
Higher education in Saudi
Arabia has a promising future based
on systematic planning and careful
investment. The present article reflects
the sort of dialog that promises to
engage stakeholders and, ultimately, to
facilitate effective implementation of
higher education reform.
43The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Weidman, John C. (2011). Linking
Higher Education Reform to Labour
Market Demand in the Gulf States:
A Slippery Slope?” Pp. 2124- in
Intersections of the Public and Private
in Education in the GCC. Conference
Proceedings, Papers from the Second
Annual Symposium of the Gulf
Comparative Education Society, Ras Al
Khaimah, United Arab Emirates, 1617-
March. http://boneducation.com/bon/
wp-content/uploads/201110//GCES-
2011-Proceedings-.pdf#page=21
References املراجــــــــــــع
47The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Abstract:
The purpose of this descriptive analytical study was to arrive at the mechanism of activating
the Empowerment to achieve quality performance at Princess Noura Bint Abdulrahman
University. The research’s main question was (How can the Empowerment of quality
performance be achieved at Princess Noura Bint Abdulrahman University?). A number of sub-
questions came out of such question. For this purpose, a questionnaire including the following
points was designed:
First: A diagnosis of the reality of the support given to the Empowerment at Princess Noura
Bint Abdulrahman University. Such diagnosis includes the following:
1- Delegation of administrative and regulatory procedures to the authority;
2- Communication and Organizational Trust;
3- Teams (Internal Committees);
4- Motivation and Self-esteem.
Second: Mechanisms of supporting the Empowerment of quality performance at Princess
Enabling activation mechanisms to achieve quality performance atthe University of Princess Nourabint Abdul Rahman
Prof. Seham Mohammed S. KakiProfessor of educational administration
Princess Noura Bint Abdul Rahman University
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Madawe alshaallanAssistant Professor of Educational Admin.
Princess Noura Bint Abdul Rahman University
E-mail: [email protected]
Key words: Quality - Empowerment
Res
earc
h A
bstr
act
48 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Noura Bint Abdulrahman University.
The findings of this study highlighted
the mechanisms of supporting the
Empowerment of academic quality
performance including the promotion of
dialogue, exchange of information and
power sharing, strengthening Organizational
Loyalty and Commitment, increasing
the staff’s Absorptive Capability and
improving their productivity through
the activation of national standards and
benchmarks of performance, highlighting
the importance of human relationships in
supporting the Empowerment, developing
incentives which are commensurate with
the performance, adopting the Group
Work Method, improving productivity and
designing university quality performance
systems, in addition to ensuring the
Organizational Climate which enables
to adopt the Empowerment mechanisms,
delegating authority and expanding granted
powers, activating human relationships,
adopting incentives to improve productivity,
achieving Career Compliance by supporting
Job Satisfaction, designing training
programs at various administrative levels
thus helping to spread the culture of
Empowerment and improve the efficiency of
the employees in a manner that enables them
to activate the administrative Empowerment.
The study stressed the importance of
training, organizing workshops, lectures
and instructive seminars, the importance of
reconsidering the administrative procedures
and organizational structure, describing
jobs, focusing on the communication with
members to open effective communication
channels, ensuring the availability of
technological environment which leads
to quality performance, encouraging
the participation of faculty members in
the scientific tasks, and supporting and
stimulating evaluation researches that
achieve the Empowerment of quality
performance for the universities’ Faculty
Members.
49The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Abstract:
This study has aimed to detect the problems of parallel education in Taibah’s university from the students’ perspective, and that was done by getting acquainted with the problems that students of parallel learning faced. the levels of problems were based on management, service, and academic levels.The study used the descriptive and analytical approach to achieve the required goals. The study has also made a questionnaire to detect the problems; the questionnaire contained 52 phrases. And to assure the validity of the questionnaire, the virtual honesty and the consistency test were measured. The questionnaire was handed to 178 students; the following results were discovered:
1- The problems based on the management level were:A- The students do not have different varieties of specializations; moreover, most of the
specializations are unwanted in the labor market; even more, students can’t transfer from one specialization to another; lastly, there is a lack of communication between students and the management.
B- Students do not receive guidance from the Deanship of parallel learning; additionally the
Problems of parallel education in Taibah’s
university from the students perspectives
Dr.Mona Ali Al SaloosAssociate Professor
Faculty of EducationTaibah University
Dr. Sahar Mufti El SidikyAssistant Professor
Faculty of Education Taibah University
Key words: Parallel Education - Problems of university education
Res
earc
h A
bstr
act
50 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
deanship retire in evenings even though the students of parallel learning start their shift at the evening.
C- There is also a lack of connection between the students and the academy coordinator, as well as the lack of the presence of the coordinator.
2- The problems based on the service level:The following is not available
during the evening shift: medical shift, transportation systems, library ,cafeteria.
3- The problems based on the academic level were:Traditional ways of teaching, no teaching aids, no office hours in the evening; therefore the lack of office hours lead to the lack of connection between a student and her teacher.
51The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Abstract:This paper mainly aims to shed light on the various available resources and alternatives that
finance education so as to make use of it as far as possible in mobilizing the financial resources
of education sector in general and government higher education in particular in the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia. To achieve this target, the problem of financing education has been reviewed as
well as indicators of education finance. Also the status in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has been
referred to and showed that expenditure on education is generally in constant rise.
The paper concluded that it is necessary to adopt different alternatives to finance educational
expenditure in the Kingdom in addition to the main finance resource (the government) such as
individuals participation in financing their education by that extent that does not affect joining
rates and equality of opportunities, participation of private sector represented by its various
companies and corporations through incentive taxation or granting loans or subsidization, or
donations , or others. Lastly, there is also financing through the optimal exploitation of the
natural and human resources available to educational institutions and researches to different
institutions or the utmost use of educational utilities at evening time, vacations, seasons, renting
unused buildings … etc.
Alternatives of Government
Financing for Higher Education in
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Dr. Abdullah Mohamed AlmalikiAssistant Professor of Economics
Chairman of Administrative Sciences departmentCommunity College, King Saud University - Riyadh
Key words: Finance, financing of higher education, public higher education, education spending, education funding alternatives
Res
earc
h A
bstr
act
55The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Models That Link University’s Branches
With Their Mother University In Some
Countries: A Proposed Model for Saudi
Universities.Res
earc
h pr
ojec
ts
Higher education has an extremely important position in the life of nations and populations in various social, economical, political and knowledge aspects. With the emergence of the technical challenges, the increasing population and the high requirements of the labor market, the world›s universities particularly in Saudi Arabia faced great challenges to achieve the balance required by the human development in order for the country to be in the ranks of developed nations. The Ministry of Higher Education found itself in the midst of massive changes in the institution’s elements and components which resulted in strategic plans developed by the ministry. The Ministry informed the universities about these changes to enable them to face the outcome of those systematic changes.
The most prominent transition faced by the universities in the Kingdom is the increased demand for higher education as a result of population growth and the high requirements of the productive and the service sectors, the needs of the development process and the labor market. The effects of these plans were the expansion of the education for citizens through opening a large number of universities and colleges in many parts of the Kingdom, in addition to join colleges from other sectors to the universities in major cities. Despite of the positive aspects of this expansion, it is a challenge to the major universities which found themselves managed by the same old mechanisms that may not fit with such an expansion.
Hence there was a need to find a suitable mechanism for the management of the provincial colleges (branches) by the universities to which they belong. The study focused on
Dr. Einas Suliman Al EisaDr. Sinaa Abdulmuhssen Al ageelDr. Hana Ibrahem ALsobayelDr. Majda Ibrahim Aljaroudi
56 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
analyzing the current situation to figure out the weaknesses. Furthermore the study approach focused on studying samples of international universities which have succeeded in finding this balance between effective management and quality of output. The study then finds an administration model to link the branches to the mother university to fit the higher education system in the Kingdom.
The study began by analyzing the current situation in the provinces’ colleges, followed by a poll, among experienced groups and decision makers in universities, about the current situation and the future vision for improving the link between colleges and universities.
The study also included a comprehensive survey of the literature published on the objectives, goals and higher education policies in numerous counties, and models of colleges’ management. The study also reviewed previous scientific theories and studies on higher education’s governance, and the guiding principles for designing a new model for universities’ governance. The study of these models is the first step in the search for better alternatives to solve the problem of linking university’s branches with the mother university. This step will be followed by several steps to ensure the optimal application of the model and apply it in our universities.
University governance models:
Faculty / Academic Governance
Traditional governance models assumed that faculty members (also known as academic administration) should run the universities. This usually happens by granting broad administrative powers to the heads (managers) of the university or for the university to be well represented on boards of directors or a combination of both ways.
Corporate Governance
Governance model Supporters suggests that trained professionals and policy experts, who are capable of effective management, should manage the universities.
Trustee Governance
This model is based on the management of the university by the Board of Trustees, who own shares in the university and work for a group of beneficiaries.
Stakeholder Governance
In this model, Governance delegates the decision-making to a wide range of beneficiaries (students, faculty members, partners, government, and society in general) locally and abroad.
Amalgam Model
Amalgam Model for university governance is a mix of faculty governance, the corporate and trustee models, and governance of the beneficiaries.
57The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
Virtual Organization
The concept of «virtual organization» appeared in 1993. It is one of the models of modern governance which aims to link the components of the organization in a flexible manner to allow them to adapt and quickly respond to the requirements of the beneficiaries. The idea of a «virtual organization» is considered as one of the most common concepts in contemporary management theory. Its popularity may come from the need to create more flexible working procedures and structures. There are three types of virtual organizations:
• Cellular Organization
The idea of cellular pattern is based on the dynamic organization that is capable of adapting, and is consisting of «biological “cells. Each cell has the ability to change its function and direction. In traditional universities, such «cells» can be a group of departments and researchers. It works within the organizational structure of the University, and interacts with other cells.
• Patching Organization
This concept “patching” by Brown and Eisenhart refers to smoothly transform (patching again) the organization resources and boundaries in order to accommodate the new opportunities. It means moving activities, abilities and resources that are being “cut and re – patched”. Through this process of rearranging, the organization
becomes a mixture that is able to adapt and change.
• Boundaryless Organization
The idea of boundaryless organizations is based on the vision of organization elements, such as the size, the role clarity, specialization and control, which was traditionally understood as a contribution to the organizational success, whereas it may be an obstacle in achieving the objectives of the topic. Managers begun to realize that speed, flexibility, innovation, and integration are more important than the size, and that flexible management is vital to success.
Therefore, universities can compare their governance models with other institutions as long as they are aware of the need of adopting their own path, needs and practices. Those governance models may work differently for other cultural organizations. A long history of autocratic management of a team of directors or presidents can result in an uncooperative pattern of governance, though the form was submitted as collaborative style.
By reviewing the literature on this field, we find that when applying or modifying the models of governance, the first step is to determine what we are searching for, how to apply it, and when to do it. This requires recognizing deficiencies in the existing model of governance in the organization and what amendment can be achieved, which
58 The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
can be as follows:
- Trustee governance is the most appropriate mode to rebuild confidence if the problem is a crisis, misconduct or failure.
- Corporate model is appropriate if it is a financial problem.
- The academic governance model is appropriate if the problem is related to the quality of the academic programs.
- The amalgam model is appropriate if the problem is a mixture of different issues.
The study also reviewed the experiences of a number of universities that have been selected to shed light on their successful management experiences with a special focus on the management of its colleges and branches. The governance system in universities is the result of many factors, including the state policy and higher education priorities. Therefore it is important to recognize the developments that occurred in higher education, which in turn brought the successful changes in universities’ structure and management. The study reviewed higher education developments and the impact on the organization administrational structure in USA (University of California, University of Virginia, University of Michigan, and University of North Carolina) in Europe (University of London, Vienna University
of Economics and Business) and East Asia (University of Singapore, University of Hong Kong).
The study showed the relationship between colleges and their mother universities in three categories:
First: University System
The major university system which is dominated by the government is applied in most state universities in the USA. Academic governance and trustee governance models are predominantly applied in major multi-branch universities, where branches are administratively linked through the Board of Regents and academically through Academic Senate.
Second: Collegiate System
London University branches are considered the best model to demonstrate the administrative independency of the branches, and its academic link with the mother university. Corporate governance model is predominantly applied in this system through the board of directors whereas trustee governance model is through the board of trustee.
Third: Constitutional Autonomy
The University of Michigan is considered a pioneer in this system as it guaranteed its policy independence from the state. The stakeholder governance model should
59The Saudi Journal of Higher Education - Issue No.10 - Nov.2013
be followed in this system where there
are representatives from the community,
state, students and faculty members in the
university administration.
The study made a number of
recommendations based on analyzing
of the current situation, global models
and previous scientific studies. These
recommendations will reduce the problems regarding administration connection. It will also ensure boosting the branches’ academic level and quality performance. The most prominent recommendation is forming executive councils in the region and the university, which aim to reduce centralization of the university, and give more autonomy to the parties concerned.