Mitigating ozone depletion and global...

Produced jointly with United Nations Environment ProgrammeDivision of Technology, Industry and Economics

OzonAction Programme

on the occassion of the International Ozone Day

Mitigating ozoneMitigating ozoneMitigating ozonedepletion anddepletion anddepletion and

global warmingglobal warmingglobal warming

IEA Heat Pump CENTRENEWSLETTER

In this issue:

Managing our atmosphere:Two protocols - one world

Interactions and feedback betweenthe Montreal and Kyoto Protocols

VOLUME 19NO. 3/2001

IEA

OECD

heat pumpcentre

In this issueIn this issueIn this issue

Volume 19 - No. 3/2001IEA Heat Pump Centre Newsletter www.heatpumpcentre.org

TOPICAL ARTICLES

Interactions and feedback 10between the Montrealand Kyoto Protocols

Gérard Mégie, FranceChanges in the ozone concentration of theatmosphere can influence global warming, andgreenhouse gases can influence ozone depletion.This article discusses the nature of theseinteractions: a dynamic system of processesinvolving radiation, absorption, emission, physicaltransport and chemical reactions.

Managing our atmosphere: 13Two protocols - one world

Rajendra Shende, FranceThe more we learn about atmospheric processes,the clearer it becomes that we need a dialoguebetween the parties involved in the 200multilateral environmental agreements. Thisarticle discusses what has been accomplished inthe way of collaboration between the partiesinvolved in the Montreal and Kyoto Protocols.

Front cover: Courtesy OzonAction Programme ofUNEP DTIE (United Nations EnvironmentProgramme – Division of Technology, Industryand Economics)

Mitigating ozone depletion and global warmingThis Newsletter was produced jointly with UNEP DTIE (United NationsEnvironment Programme Division of Technology, Industry and Economics)OzonAction Programme on the occasion of International Ozone Day,16 september 2001. The collaboration with this organisation has a traditionof many years, with e.g. contributions from the IEA Heat Pump Centre tothe Montreal Protocol Reassessment/Technical Options CommitteeRefrigeration report. This Newsletter focuses on the interlinkage betweenozone depletion and global warming and successful strategies to mitigateeither or both.

Ozone- and climate-friendly 16technologies: Choices forsustainability

R. S. Agarwal, IndiaHFCs are a major candidate to replace CFCs andHCFCs, but suitable long-term replacements willneed to have a limited impact on global warmingas well. Alternative substances may become thechoice in the future. Specific local circumstancesshould be considered (e.g. in developingcountries) when deciding on the best options.

The Thai Chiller Replacement 18project: Benefiting the economyand the environment

Steve Gorman, USAThe Thai Chiller Replacement Program waslaunched in order to help develop a market inThailand for highly energy-efficient chillers. Theproject aims to save energy as well as reduceozone depletion and global warming. It isfinanced by international institutions that supportthe Montreal Protocol.

HEAT PUMP NEWS

General 4Technology & applications 5Working fluids 7Markets 8IEA Heat Pump Programme 9

FEATURES

Comment 3Books & software 26Events 27National Team contacts 28

COLOPHON

Copyright:Any part of this publication may be reproduced,with acknowledgement to the IEA Heat PumpCentre, Sittard, the Netherlands.

Disclaimer IEA HPCNeither the IEA Heat Pump Centre, nor anyperson acting on its behalf:• makes any warranty or representation,

express or implied, with respect to theaccuracy of the information, opinion orstatement contained here in;

• assumes any responsibility or liability withrespect to the use of, or damages resultingfrom, the use of this information;

All information produced by IEA Heat PumpCentre falls under the jurisdiction of Dutch law.

Publisher:IEA Heat Pump CentrePO Box 17, 6130 AA SittardThe NetherlandsTel: +31-46-4202236, Fax: +31-46-4510389E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.heatpumpcentre.org

Editor in chief: Jos BoumaTechnical editing:Gerdi Breembroek, Raymond Beuken,IEA Heat Pump Centre;Eli Birnbaum, Jac. Janssen, Derix*HamerslagProduction: Novem Support Groupde Vormgeverij, Meerssen

Frequency: quarterlyPrinted: September 2001Distribution in 27 countriesHPC Newletter subscriptions areautomatically renewed unless writtencancellation is received by 1 October

ISSN 0724-7028

The special assistance for this issue of Andrew Robinson and Jim Curlin,UNEP DTIE OzonAction Programme, is gratefully acknowledged.

3


CommentMitigating ozone depletion and global warming

Comparison of TEWI of 20alternative fluorocarbonrefrigerants and technologiesin residential heat pumps andair-conditioners

James R. Sand, Steven K. Fischer,and Van D. Baxter, USA

Recent US studies have shown that the mosteffective way of reducing the emissions of global-warming gases by HVAC equipment is to increaseits energy efficiency. The CO

2 emissions for

powering HVAC equipment dominate TEWI(total equivalent warming impact) by far, ratherthan the refrigerant emissions.

Combined cooling and heating 23using vertical ground heatexchangers

Martin Zogg, SwitzerlandA pilot project was carried out in which wasteheat from cooling processes was used for heatingpurposes. Ground heat exchangers were used tostore the excess heat produced in summer until itcould be used in winter. A planning handbook wasused to design the combined cooling/heatingsystem. Overall energy savings of about 20%were realised.

Highlights of the 2001 24annual ASHRAE meeting

Jos Bouma, IEA Heat Pump CentreThis article presents highlights pertaining to heatpumps, from the ASHRAE meeting in June 2001.Topics include future refrigerant choices, designof ground-source heat pump systems, districtcooling and “heating towers” .

NON-TOPICAL ARTICLES

Mitigating ozone depletionand global warming

Although it is clear that the Montreal Protocol on Substances thatDeplete the Ozone Layer has already achieved considerablesuccess, there remains a number of technical and economicchallenges to be faced. The developed world has successfullyphased out CFCs in virtually all applications, including heat-pumping technologies. Developing countries, however, are justbeginning to confront the substantive issues of control,implementation etc. that will take them down a similar path. Thereis a pressing need for developed countries to share theirexpertise and experience with less developed countries, and toassist them in choosing and implementing sustainabletechnologies. This is all the more pressing because the globalenvironmental issues addressed by agreements like the Montrealand Kyoto Protocols are often interlinked in nature.

One such issue linking the two Protocols is the use of HFC-basedworking fluids in refrigeration, air-conditioning and heat pumpapplications. On a policy level, HFCs are considered desirablealternatives from an ozone protection standpoint but undesirablefrom a climate change perspective due to their global warmingpotential. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) and the Montreal Protocol’s Technology and EconomicAssessment Panel (TEAP) are already cooperating to addresssuch interlinked issues through workshops and informationexchange.

Heat pump technologies in the heating mode offer clear benefitsfor the environment - they can help reduce CO2 emissions byutilising renewable sources of energy and conserving fossil fuels.In the cooling mode, i.e. refrigeration and air conditioning, theyoffer benefits in an indirect, but not less important way, likepreservation of food, reduction of food wastage, climatic comfortand hygienic conditions, etc. To achieve real sustainability, onemust look at the broader picture and not just a few components,which means also considering the design of buildings andstructures as well as of entire community systems. One can thenreduce demand and provide for the remaining demand in a highlyefficient way.

The need to further share experiences and information aboutsuch interlinkages prompted the IEA Heat Pump Centre andUNEP DTIE’s OzonAction Programme to collaborate on this jointissue. In doing so, we wish to encourage continued cooperation,discussion and action by the heat pump community with regard tothe impact of their technology on the environment - both globallyand locally.

Rajendra Shende, Hermann Halozan,UNEP DTIE Energy and IEA Heat Pump ProgrammeOzonAction Unit


4

Heat pump newsHeat pump newsHeat pump newsARI proposes20% efficiency increase in 2006USA - The US Department of Energy (DOE) is expected soon to issue a proposal to lowerthe 30% increase in minimum efficiency standard for central air conditioners and heatpumps to 20%. The 30% increase was previously discussed in Newsletter 19/1. The newminimum efficiency standards will go into effect in 2006.

In a petition filed 23 March, the ARI (Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute)said that the DOE’s new rule requiring theinstallation of equipment that is 30% moreefficient, beginning in 2006, would be socostly to consumers and small businessesthat it “would price many people out of themarket when it comes to purchasingdecisions.” According to the ARI, the 30%rule “would cause many consumers to delay

replacing older, less efficient systems. Thiswould have the reverse of the intendedeffect, by keeping less efficient units inoperation.” Therefore, the ARI asked a 20%increase, in order to encourage conservationof electricity while at the same time easingthe burden on all consumers, particularlylow and fixed income consumers.

Source: Koldfax, April 2001

7

6.5

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P

Water-source

Brine-source

Air-source

1 9 17 25 33 41 49 57 65 73 81 89 97 105 113

Number of tested heat pumps

▲ Figure 1: COP of tested heat pumps 1993 - 2000.

Great potential forgeothermal energyin PragueCzech Republic - The city of Prague energyplan (CPEP), drawn up last year,has provided a wealth of interestinginformation, especially regarding thepotential of ground-coupled energy. Thetotal potential of ground-coupled energy issummarised in Table 1.

Better and better

Switzerland - Since the heat pump testand training centre in Winterthur-Töss wasestablished in 1993, heat pump performancehas improved significantly. About 220 heatpumps have been tested and the resultspublished. The historical data on COPmeasurements show performanceimprovements for all types of heat pumps(air-to-water, brine-to-water and water-to-water) over the past 7 years (Figure 1).

The average steady-state COP of the ‘2000-generation’ of residential heat pumps issurprisingly good:• air-to-water at A2/W35: 3.3• brine-to-water at B0/W35: 4.5• water-to-water at W10/W35: 5.5In this overview A2 = ambient air at 2°C;B0 = brine at 0°C; W35 = water at 35°C etc.

Source: Wärmepumpe News 1/01

The conclusions of the analysis of therenewable energy potential include thefollowing:• ground-coupled energy is the most

important renewable energy sourceavailable, with a lot of high-quality siteslocated in central Prague, where a largenumber of buildings can be heated;

• to improve the environmental situation inPrague, it is advantageous to use heatpumps in places where no natural gas isavailable, particularly for the replacementof fossil fuels (lignite);

• many localities are suitable for the use ofwater-to-water heat pumps; under certainconditions, they can successfully competewith gas heating and, in addition, havezero emission production;

• facilities heated by heat pumps shouldcomply with thermal and technicalstandards to avoid a decrease in theeffectiveness of heat pumps;

• implementation of heat pumps in placeswhere until now direct electric heatinghas been used will allow significantreduction of the power supply system’sload.

Source: News at SEVEn, March 2001Contact: Martin Das̆ek, SEVEnE-mail: [email protected]

▼ Table 1: Technical potential of renewableenergy sources in Prague.

Use of solar energy 431,045 GJ/yearUse of water energy 161,979 GJ/yearUse of biomass energy 891,421 GJ/yearUse of municipal waste energy * 1,650,000 GJ/yearUse of geothermal energy ** 7,776,000 GJ/yearTotal 10,910,445 GJ/year

* used in the Males̆ice incineration plant** of which 1,941,120 GJ/year is necessary for

driving heat pumps

5


Heat pump newsTechnology & Applications

In memory of Dieter WittwerSwitzerland - The HPC Newsletter regrets to report the unfortunate death of DieterWittwer. On 4 June 2001, Dieter made a flight together with a friend in a glider, whensuddenly they collided with a second glider. Dieter and his friend both lost their lives.

Dieter was the successful manager of the Fördergemeinschaft Wärmepumpen Schweiz(FWS), and he put a lot of time and energy into the promotion of heat pumps inSwitzerland. He was also a regular contributor to the HPC Newsletter.

The staff of the HPC extends their condolences to his family, friends and colleagues.

IIR WorkingParties andSub-commissionsFrance - IIR Working Parties bringtogether specialists with expertise in thetopical domains handled by the Institute inall fields of refrigeration. Their aim is topromote development and provideknowledge in these spheres. They providesolutions to problems encountered andgive recommendations.

Members of working parties come fromindustry, university and research-centresettings or are active in the practicalrefrigeration field.

Working Parties cover issues dealt with byone or several Commissions, and operateon a temporary basis. IIR Working Partiespresently active include:

• “Test Stations for Heat Pumps and AirConditioners”This Working Party is chaired by Mr PerFahlen, Sweden ([email protected]) andrelates to Commissions E1 (AirConditioning) and E2 (Heat Pumps,Energy Recovery). Its purpose is toprovide a forum for presentinginformation and experience acquired onthe use of measuring and testingtechniques in refrigeration and airconditioning and on the viability of newmethods and new equipment.

• “Ice slurries” chaired by Peter Egolf([email protected])

• “Frozen foods” chaired by Leif Bøgh-Sørensen ([email protected])

• “Mobile Air Conditioning” chaired byGabriel Haller ([email protected])

IIR Sub-commissions operate on a semi-permanent basis within the scope of oneCommission, for example:• “Refrigerated Display Cabinets”

(Commission D1) chaired by Sietze vander Sluis ([email protected])

• “Test Stations” (Refrigerated transport)chaired by Frans van der Rijst([email protected])

Source: IIRFax: +33-1-47631798E-mail: [email protected]

Use of heat pumpin polar circleNorway - The health care centre in theNorwegian city of Kautokeino, 500 kmnorth of the polar circle, uses two 145 kWheat pumps to supply 3,000 m2 of floorheating.

Despite outdoor temperatures as low as-40°C and ground temperatures as low as-10°C, the two heat pumps installed in thehealth care centre work very well, bringingthe indoor temperature to a comfortable21°C. Heat is extracted by 16 vertical piles.A total of 4,600 m of co-axial double pilesare placed up to 145 m in the ground, and5,000 litres of a mixture of water and (30%)glycol circulate through the piles. Themixture enters the evaporator at atemperature of -4°C and returns into theground at a temperature of -10°C. Water at atemperature of 45°C is delivered to the floorheating system in the complex.

The main reason for using heat pumps inthis area, instead of conventional oil or gasheating systems, is climate related. On calmpolar nights, there is a large chance that so-called inverse weather conditions will occur.If accompanied by the production of fossilfumes, such conditions can, even in thinlypopulated areas, lead to smog formation.Such situations can last for weeks. With theuse of heat pumps, this risk is minimised.

Source: KI Luft- und Kältetechnik 4/2001

IIR Dictionary tobe updatedFrance - The IIR has embarked on aprocess to update its Dictionary, which datesfrom 1975. It contains some 3,200 termsthat have been translated in sevenlanguages: English, French, Russian,German, Spanish, Italian and Norwegian.

Several new terms and expressions haveemerged in the field of refrigeration sincethe current version was made, whichjustifies the update. The dictionary currentlyhas chapters relating to air conditioning andrefrigeration, reflecting IIR’s working areas.However, a chapter on heat pumps is notpresent, but will be in the updated version.Member experts from Commissions havebeen invited to collaborate in this importantproject, which should be finalised in about2 years.

More information: IIRFax: +33-1-47631798E-mail: [email protected]

InternationalOzone DayIn 1995, 16 September was proclaimed theInternational Day for the Preservation of theOzone Layer in order to commemorate thedate in 1987 on which the MontrealProtocol on Substances that Deplete theOzone Layer was signed. Parties to theMontreal Protocol are invited to devote thisspecial day to the promotion of concreteactivities at the national level in accordancewith the objectives and goals of theMontreal Protocol and its amendments.

This Newsletter has been published jointlywith UNEP DTIE OzonAction Programmeon the occasion of International Ozone Day.


6

Heat pump news Technology & applications

▲ Figure 1: PrototypeCO2 earth probe.

CO2 ground-coupled probeGermany - Based on the technology of the heat pipe, the ‘Forschungszentrum für Kälte-und Umwelttechnik’ (FKU) in Berlin is developing a novel technique for ground-coupledearth probes (i.e. vertical ground heat exchangers). Aim of the research project is to developa system for heat transfer, based on a CO2-heat pipe that operates with a higher efficiencythan conventional systems.

The probe consists of a metallic pipe, filledwith CO2, which is available both as a fluidand as a gas in the pipe. The probe is placedin the ground vertically. Heat transfer fromthe soil to the fluid CO2 takes place bymeans of thermal conduction. The CO2evaporates and rises in the pipe because ofits low density. Once it gets to the top of thepipe, the CO2 transfers its heat to theevaporator of the heat pump. The gascondenses as it transfers its heat and thefluid CO2 then falls back down the pipe,where it can pick up heat and begin thecycle again.

The following advantages can be attributedto the CO2 earth probe:• environmentally friendly transport

medium with phase change;• no pump energy for the transport medium

required;• small temperature differences between

the transport medium and the workingfluid of the heat pump are possible.

To demonstrate that the principle of the heatpipe also works for the CO2 probe, the FKUbuilt a prototype test plant. A heat pump wasconnected to a probe of 3.65 m length. Theground-coupled energy was simulated with a150 W heat output. In various tests, both thestart-up behaviour and the long-termperformance of the system were tested. Thebasic functionality of the system wassuccessfully demonstrated in these tests.

The next step in theprocess was a seriesof field tests with aCO2 ground-coupledearth probe. To arriveat a reliableevaluation of theenergetic efficiencyof the CO2 probe, asecond probe wasinstalled - acommercial probewith brinecirculation. Bothprobes wereconnected toidentical heat pumps. The ground-coupledearth probes used in these test were 18 m long.The results of the field tests confirmed theinitial laboratory tests and indicated that theefficiency of vertical heat exchangers can besignificantly improved using this technique,mainly because there is no need for acirculation pump.

In order to be able to market the earthprobes, a cost analysis is being performedsimultaneously with the field tests. In boththe tests and the cost analysis, theproduction of the probe will be investigatedas well as the installation of the probe intothe ground, in order to show maximumpotential savings.

Source: Wärmepumpe Aktuell 2/2001

Ground-coupled energy for hospitalUS - The condition of the Indian Health Service hospital (which dates back to the 1930s) inAlbuquerque, New Mexico, and the sheer volume of people in the building forced the IndianHealth Service to begin renovating the hospital in 1995. The result is that 56 heat pumps areinstalled throughout the building with more to come.

City hall ZurichSwitzerland - The oldest working heatpump in Switzerland is located in the cityhall of Zurich (a protected monument) anduses the water of the river Limmat, whichruns underneath the building. It has been inuse since 1937. The last time the heat pumpwas renovated, together with the ventilationsystem, was in 1983-84. The heating capacityof the installation is about 70 kW at source/sink temperatures of 6/48°C; the coolingcapacity is 55 kW at 20/12°C. The workingfluid used in the heat pump is R-12. Theenergy performance of the heat pump is only50% of that achieved in modern systems. Inorder to provide the maximum heatingrequirement of 160 kW, the input of a105 kW electrical backup system is needed.

The cost of maintaining the installation andsupplying the electricity required wasextremely high. The electronic componentsin both the ventilation and the heatingsystem have become obsolete. As a result,the obsolete measurement and controltechnology as well as the heating andventilation system will be renovated in thesummer of 2001. A new heat pump will beinstalled. The old heat pump will beretrofitted and will use R-134a as the newworking fluid. The electric backup systemwill no longer be needed, as it will bereplaced by the retrofitted older heat pumpas backup system.

Source: Wärmepumpe News 1/01

When the renovation began, the hospital hadasbestos insulation that needed to beremoved. As the project got underway, it wasdecided to replace the mechanical heatingand cooling system as well. The hospital’ssteam-based heating system was veryexpensive to maintain and the air-conditioning systems were beginning to fail.The system chosen was based on ground-

coupled heat pumps. This technology isefficient and provides the hospital with theflexibility it needs. As the project proceeded,the system was able to meet changing roomconfigurations and changing loads.

At present, 56 heat pumps are installed,with each one heating and cooling adifferent zone in the building. If one area of

the hospital is too cold or too warm, onlythat part of the building is heated or cooled.The four-story, 4,500 m2 hospital and the1,100 m2 adjacent building use heat pumpsvarying in size from 1.8-10.5 kW. Plans callfor 13 or 14 more heat pumps to be installedby the end of the year. The closed loopsystem that supports these heat pumps restsunderneath the hospital’s parking lot. TheIndian Health Service hopes to finishrenovating the hospital by December 2001.

Source: Earth Comfort Update, Volume 8, Issue 2

7


Heat pump newsWorking fluids

Italian manufacturers requestunrestricted usage of HFCsItaly - Co.Aer, the Italian Association of Air Treatment Equipment Manufacturers, togetherwith the Association of Refrigerating Plant and Equipment Manufacturers, have issued aposition paper on refrigerants, May 2001. In the paper, intended for discussions at a Europeanlevel, they plead for no phase-out of HFCs. Both issuing organisations are affiliated to Anima,the Federation of the Italian Associations of Mechanical and Engineering Industries.

In the statement, the industry makes it clearthat it has a tradition of actively improvingequipment, for example in terms of energyefficiency. Recently, it has completed theswitch from CFCs and HCFCs to HFCs.The industry points out that the use of CFCsin old equipment is by no means over, andthat the decision to change the phase-out

dates for HCFCs in the EU has led toconsiderable difficulties.

The Italian industry holds an importantposition in Europe, and the markets forsome product types are growing by 20% peryear. This favourable prospect could turnsour very quickly if more restrictive

measures on HFCs, such as those inDenmark, are implemented.

The industry is aware that ozone depletionand global warming need to be mitigated.However, it pleads for real solutions,opposes expensive changes within a limitedtime frame, and underlines the need forviable alternatives. Ammonia andhydrocarbons have disadvantages for use inresidential and small commercial air-conditioning systems, and CO2 has not yetreached the commercial stage. HFCs,however, provide a high operating energyefficiency which helps mitigate globalwarming. Containment is the keyword.

Source: Letizia Ambrosoni, AnimaDownload: http://www.anima-it.com/coaer/ita/index.html

Purity ofhydrocarbonrefrigerantsGermany - Because of the environmentalbenefits involved, the hydrocarbonsisobutane and propane are often used asalternatives for HFCs and HCFCs, in spiteof their flammability. This is especially truefor smaller refrigerating systems and heatpumps. Isobutane 2.5 (R 600a) and propane2.5 (R 290) are often used in this context.Although these compounds are generallyavailable at low cost, their cost is increasedby the high purity of 99.5% specified forrefrigerants by DIN 8960.

It was demonstrated that commercial gradehydrocarbons of lower purity can be usedwithout detrimental effects on machine wearor ageing of machine oils. Modelcalculations on the commercially availablehydrocarbons isobutane and propane withdifferent levels of purity show no significantdifference in performance (purity between88.9 and 99.6%).

Source: KI Luft- und Kältetechnik 6/2001

Update on Denmark’senvironmental plansDenmark - In early March 2001, the Danish Ministry of Environment and Energy notifiedthe European Commission of its intention to implement regulations banning the followinggreenhouse gases: HFCs, PFCs and SF6. This was reported on in HPC Newsletter 19/1.

The new regulations stipulate: "import, saleand use of the specified greenhouse gases -new and recovered - and new productscontaining these gases are prohibited after1 January 2006." For certain products usingHFCs, e.g. "vaccine coolers, mobile coolingplants, air conditioning in cars, medicalspray cans" or certain applications suchas "servicing of cooling plants, airconditioning in cars and heat pumps," nodate for prohibition has been specified dueto the unavailability of commerciallyavailable alternatives.

Over a three-month period, the EuropeanCommission will be able to consider itsposition and other member states will be

able to make their views known. Followingthe notification of the Danish intentions, theEuropean Partnership for Energy and theEnvironment (EPEE) has made clear itsconcerns to the European Commission andthe press. EPEE stresses that HFCs areviable and safe refrigerants, provided theiremissions are reduced through responsibleuse and end-of-life recovery.

In the meantime, EPEE’s secretariat hasreceived information that the Danish Tax onHFCs has entered into force as of 1 March2001.

Source: IIF-IIR Newsletter, May 2001; EPEENews, Newsletter Vol. 2 No. 4, 2001

Zero leakage - minimum chargeSweden - The first announcement and call for papers for the IIR conference, “Zero leakage -minimum charge; efficient systems for refrigeration, air-conditioning and heat pumps” , isout. It is available online at http://www.egi.kth.se/zero/.

The conference will be held in Stockholm,26-28 August 2002, at the Royal Institute ofTechnology. The conference aim is topresent and discuss research results andprogress concerning systems andcomponents that have a minimal impacton the environment.

A policy meeting may also be organised, butno plans have yet been confirmed.

More information: Per Lundqvist, organisingcommitteeE-mail: [email protected]: +46 8 20 30 07


8

Heat pump news Markets

900

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0

Tota

l cap

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W)

’87Year

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Water heaters

’88 ’89 ’90 ’91 ’92 ’93 ’94 ’95 ’96 ’97 ’97 ’99 ’00

60,00050,00040,00030,00020,00010,000

0’98 ’99 ’00 ’01 ’02 ’03

Year

Uni

tsThe world marketfor RACs & PACsFor the year 2000, world shipments of roomair conditioners (RACs), used mainly forindividual rooms, and of packaged airconditioners (PACs), used for lightcommercial service and for entire houses,were estimated to be 39.7 million units.This represents an increase of 1.4 millionunits compared to 1999. The number ofRACs shipped was 29.9 million units, andthe number of PACs, including unitary types(applied mainly in the US), was 9.8 millionunits.

The main reason for the increase in 2000 isthe fact that the USA and China have bothbecome huge markets. Total shipments inthe US in 2000 alone numbered 13.2 millionunits, an increase of 0.4 million units over1999. The rapid growth of the Chinesemarket and manufacturers is almost asimportant. It is estimated that about9.2 million units were shipped in China in2000. In the last few years, air conditionerproduction in China seems to haveincreased at a rate higher than 20% per year.This upturn is continuing through 2001.Since Chinese production is expanding at ahigher rate than the Chinese domesticmarket, manufacturers will have toconcentrate more on export.

The Japanese market recovered to7.7 million units in 2000, up about 9% from1999. The Japanese market has become amature market that will not grow much interms of numbers. The European marketalso showed stable growth in 2000. It isestimated to have grown to 2.5 millionunits, up about 3.2% compared to 1999.If the US market continues to be stable andthe markets in China, Europe and Indiacontinue to grow, the total world market isexpected to reach 40 million units in thenear future (Table 1).

▼ Table 1: Estimated RAC/PAC shipmentsfor 2001.

Country/area Estimated units 2001 (million)Europe 2.7Middle East 1.8Africa 0.5China 10.0India 0.7Japan 7.4Other East Asia 3.7Oceania 0.5US 11.8Central/South America 1.9

Source: JARN, May 25, 2001

Japanese gas-fired heat pump marketgrowing steadilyJapan - Demand for gas-fired heat pump air conditioners (GHPs) is growing nicely (seeFigure 1). For 2001 (Oct. 2000 ~ Sept. 2001) an increase of 3.6% is expected compared to2000. The total increase in shipments expected over the period 1998 to 2001 is almost 28%.

Austrian market keeps growingAustria - Sales of heat pumps for space heating have risen by 8% in Austria in 2000compared to 1999. A total of 1,986 heat pumps for space heating with a capacity of up to40 kW were installed in 2000. Also, 39 heat pumps for space heating with a capacity of over40 kW were installed, as well as about 93 heat pumps for dehumidification of swimmingpools. Finally, some 2,690 heat pump water heaters were installed in the same year.

Total domestic demand for GHPs, whichtotalled 39,393 units in 1998, is likely toreach 50,350 units in 2001. GHP shipmentsin 2000 totalled 48,593 units. The GHPmarket is predicted to grow continuously atan annual average rate of 3.8%, reachingabout 54,300 units in 2003.

Source: JARN April 25, 2001▲ Figure 1: Gas-fired heat pump shipmentsand forecasts in Japan.

In 2000, 37 MW of heating capacity wasadded to the installed capacity of heatpumps for space heating in Austria (seeFigure 2). By the end of 2000, the totalstock was 632 MW for space heating, whilethe stock of heat pump water heaters was155 MW.

The positive developments in the Austrianmarket have convinced the producers of heatpumps to raise production. In the year 2000,a total of approximately 1,800 heat pumpsfor space heating (+13%) and approximately1,900 heat pump water heaters (+3%) wereproduced.

Source: LGW Aktuell, 2/2001

▲ Figure 2: Total installed capacity in Austria, 1987-2000

9


Heat pump newsIEA Heat Pump Programme

16

Ongoing Annexes

2625

27

Red text indicates Operating Agent.

Annex 16IEA Heat Pump Centre AT, JP, NL,

NO, UK, USAnnex 25Year-round Residential Space FR, NL,Conditioning and Comfort Control SE, USUsing Heat Pumps

Annex 26Advanced Supermarket CA, DK, SE, UK, USRefrigeration/Heat Recovery Systems

Annex 27Selected Issues on CO2 as a CH, JP, NO,Working Fluid in Compression Systems SE, UK, US

IEA Heat Pump Programme participating countries: Austria (AT), Canada (CA), Denmark (DK),

France (FR), Germany (DE), Italy (IT), Japan (JP), Mexico (MX), The Netherlands (NL), Norway (NO),

Spain (ES), Sweden (SE), Switzerland (CH), United Kingdom (UK), United States (US).

The programme of the 7thIEA Heat PumpConference “Heat Pumps –Better by Nature” , whichwill be held 19-22 May2002 in Beijing, China,

has been finalised and will be distributedwidely. It will also be available onhttp://www.heatpumpcentre.org.

The goal of the conference is to promote theworldwide implementation andimprovement of heat pump technologiesthrough discussion and the exchange of

information. Relevant information focuseson technical aspects, standards, marketissues, and policy choices with regard to theenvironmental and energy benefits providedby these technologies.

The programme includes the followingsessions:• opening plenary session, with regional

reports on status and trends;• energy and environment;• technology (including components and

systems for heat pumps, air-conditioningand refrigeration);

• applications (absorption machines, icestorage, retrofit heat pumps etc.);

• working fluids (selection, naturalworking fluids, conservation, safety etc.);

• ground-source heat pumps;• technical and market developments in

China.

To register for the conference, pleasecontact the conference secretariat, or go tohttp://www.heatpumpcentre.org.

Source: IEA Heat Pump CentreConference secretariat: see page 27

Programme 7th IEA Heat Pump Conference available

Annex 28 “Sorption and heat recovery” seeks participantsThe Netherlands/Norway - An international collaborative project on sorption technology and heat recovery will start soon, as Annex 28to the IEA Heat Pump Programme. The Netherlands and Norway will be joint project leaders.

The new Annex aims to stimulate themarket for heat recovery with sorptionsystems, where such applications areeconomically and environmentallyadvantageous. The Annex starts whereAnnex 24 (Ab-sorption systems for heatingand cooling in future energy systems) leftoff. Possible activities include:• establish methods to assess the

environmental and economic benefits ofintegrated sorption systems;

• survey existing design tools and developstrategies to fill the gaps;

• establish a database of possible projects;• provide a platform for discussions

between manufacturers, end-users andsystem designers.

The work programme is still open fordiscussion and comments are welcomed.A document that discusses background andproposed work in more detail is available

from http://www.heatpumpcentre.org.

A meeting of participants from all countriesthat are interested will be held in theNetherlands. The provisional dates are4-5 October 2001.

Source: Onno Kleefkens, the NetherlandsFax: +31 30 2316491E-mail: [email protected]

ProceedingsAnnex 26workshopnow available!Annex 26 “Advanced supermarketrefrigeration/heat recovery systems”workshop proceedings are available fromthe IEA Heat Pump Centre. Sixteen paperspresented at a workshop held in Stockholm,Sweden, October 2000, are available onCD-ROM, with additional information onAnnex 26, its participating countries and theIEA Heat Pump Programme.

Please go to http://www.heatpumpcentre.orgfor more information, or consult page 27 forordering information.

Source: IEA Heat Pump Centre


Topical articles Mitigating ozone depletion and global warming

10

leads to an increase in visible andultraviolet radiation reaching thetroposphere, which increases the globalwarming effect. However, ozone in thelower stratosphere also absorbs theinfrared radiation emitted by the earth,effectively trapping it and preventing itfrom radiating into the outer layers ofthe atmosphere, thereby increasing theglobal warming effect, see Figure 1.A loss of ozone in these layers willtherefore decrease global warming atthe same time. In support of this lattereffect, there is continuing evidence of along-term cooling of the lowerstratosphere over the past decade or so.

The reduced emission of infraredradiation from stratosphere totroposphere as a result of ozonedepletion is, at least in simple models,the dominant factor. The net effect ofstratospheric ozone loss is thus areduction of global warming. Usingextrapolations based on observed ozonetrends until 1994, one can estimate thatthe changes in stratospheric ozone sincethe late 1970s have had a net negativeeffect on global warming equal to-0.2± 0.15 Wm-2. Stratospheric ozonedepletion may thus have offset, by about30% or more, the global warming effectdue to increases in other greenhousegases for the period since 1979.

Secondary effectsIn addition to influencing the globalclimate through direct changes in thebalance of atmospheric radiation,absorption and emission, changes instratospheric ozone can exert an effectby influencing the tropospheric

Interactions and feedback betweenthe Montreal and Kyoto Protocols

Gérard Mégie, France

Changes in the ozone concentration of the atmosphere can influence global warming, and greenhouse gasesinfluence ozone depletion. The nature of these interactions is fairly complex and is shaped by a dynamicsystem of processes involving radiation, absorption, emission, physical transport and chemical reactions.The Montreal and Kyoto Protocols are in fact linked, and decisions made under one Protocol have animpact on the aims of the other.

IntroductionThe decrease in chlorine abundance inthe stratosphere, which should resultfrom compliance with the MontrealProtocol and its Amendments andAdjustments, should lead to a recoveryof the ozone layer by the middle of the21st century. However, otherenvironmental changes such as climatechange may impact the time frame ofthis recovery. Ozone depletion andclimate change are actually linked inmany ways.

The interactions between ozoneconcentration and climate change arethe result of a host of dynamicprocesses involving radiation,absorption, emission, atmospherictransport and various chemicalreactions. These processes take placeboth in the troposphere (atmospheric

layer between 0 and 10-16 km altitude)and the stratosphere (atmospheric layerbetween 10-16 km and 50 km altitude).Some of the feedback effects arepositive, meaning that they eitherreduce ozone depletion or globalwarming, whereas other effects may benegative. The issue of the physical andchemical linkages that exist in naturebetween the Montreal and KyotoProtocols is a complex one, of whichmany aspects are not yet fullyunderstood or quantified.

Atmospheric ozone depletionand climate changePrimary effectOver the past decade, increasingattention has been given to the effectson our climate of the observed ozonechange. A loss of ozone in the lowerstratosphere (where it is most abundant)

▲ Figure 1: Primary effect of ozone depletion on climate change.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Alti

tude

(ki

lom

eter

s)

Ozone amount (pressure, mPa)

A thinner ozone layer passesmore ultraviolet (UV) radiationwhich raises the earth’s temperature

Increased surfaceultraviolet harmfulto living things

A thinner ozone layer emitsless infrared radiation whichlowers the earth’s temperature

Str

atos

pher

eTr

opos

pher

e

UV

IR

11


Topical articlesMitigating ozone depletion and global warming

abundance of other radiativelyimportant constituents. The primarymechanism by which stratosphericozone influences the troposphere isthrough control of the ultravioletradiation reaching the troposphere. ThisUV radiation produces the hydroxylradical (OH) via tropospheric ozonephotolysis. OH is an important speciesin the troposphere as it is highlyreactive. It acts to cleanse theatmosphere of pollutants and affects theconcentration of a number of radiativelyimportant gases (e.g. methane and thehydrofluorocarbons). An increase in theUV flux reaching the troposphereincreases the OH concentration, whichin turn reduces the lifetime of methanein the troposphere. This reductionresults in a decrease in global warmingin the order of 30-50% of the decreaseassociated with the primary effect ofozone depletion.

Another way in which tropospheric OHcan influence climate is through itsinvolvement in the production of cloudcondensation nuclei (CCN) and theresultant modification of cloud albedo(reflectance). The production of CCN isthought to be controlled by theoxidation of sulphur dioxide anddimethyl sulphide by OH to yield liquidsulphuric acid particles. These newparticles can then grow to become cloudcondensation nuclei. An increase in theproduction rate of sulphuric acidparticles (due to less stratosphericozone and therefore more troposphericOH) could produce more CCN andincrease the albedo of, for example,marine clouds, which would lead tomore radiation being reflected and adecrease in global warming. Thispotential climate impact of troposphericOH on the number of CCN could begreater than the impact of OH on themethane lifetime.

Finally, the basic circulation of theatmosphere is such that air enters thestratosphere primarily in the tropics andreturns to the troposphere at higherlatitudes. Reductions in ozone amountsin the lower stratosphere could thereforeresult in less ozone being transported

into the troposphere at mid and highlatitudes. This would partly offset anyincreases in tropospheric ozone causedby changes in the chemicalconcentrations of gases such as thenitrogen oxides or methane.

Greenhouse gases andozone depletionCO

2

Carbon dioxide is the major contributorof infrared radiation in the stratosphereas it is 70 times more abundant thanwater vapour in this region. In fact, theglobal radiative equilibrium achieved inthe stratosphere results from the balancebetween heating via the absorption ofsolar radiation by ozone and cooling viathe infrared emissions of carbon dioxideand, to a lesser extent, of ozone andwater vapour. Therefore an increase incarbon dioxide concentration will leadto a cooling of the stratosphere. Thiscooling will have two opposing effects.On the one hand, lower temperature

will slow down reaction rates and thusozone destroying catalytic cycles in gasphase chemistry. On the other hand, itwill also increase the probability ofoccurrence of polar stratospheric cloudsand thus enhance chlorine activation(and resulting ozone destruction)through heterogeneous processes in thepolar atmosphere, and to a lesser extentin middle latitude regions, byaccelerating hydrolysis reactions onstratospheric aerosols. Calculationsshow that the latter effect will dominatein the lower stratosphere at highlatitudes and thus induce net ozonelosses. The first effect, a slowing downof the gas phase catalytic cycles, willonly influence ozone concentration inthe 40 km altitude range where ozoneabundance has already decreased by anorder of magnitude compared to themaximum value in the 20-25 km altituderange. The net effect of an increase incarbon dioxide concentration in thestratosphere will thus be increasedozone depletion. Therefore, limiting theincrease in carbon dioxideconcentration as planned in the KyotoProtocol will have a positive long-termeffect on ozone depletion.

MethaneMethane is one of the sources ofhydroxyl radicals (HOx) in thestratosphere. These radical speciesinclude the OH radical which caninduce ozone destruction throughcatalytic cycles in the upperstratosphere and in the mesosphere(atmospheric layer outside thestratosphere). However, the ozoneconcentrations in these regions are verylow and thus the effect will be verylimited in terms of total ozone content.At lower altitudes, an increase inmethane will induce an increasedproduction of HCl through reaction withchlorine atoms. This effectivelysequesters active chlorine in a reservoirof inactive HCl, which in turn leads toreduced catalytic chlorine destruction ofozone and a reduction of ozonedepletion.

The oxidation of methane in thestratosphere also leads to the formationof water vapour. As this process occursin the lower stratosphere, increasedmethane concentration could induce anincrease in the frequency of polarstratospheric cloud formation and inaerosol growth at middle latitudes, thusleading to chlorine and bromineactivation and enhanced ozone depletion.

At present, the net effect of the abovetwo processes is thought to be areduction in ozone depletion. Limitingthe increase in methane emissions, asplanned in the Kyoto Protocol, couldthus have a negative long-term effectson ozone depletion, although themagnitude of such an effect is largelyuncertain.

Nitrous oxideOxidation of nitrous oxide is the mainsource of NOx radicals in thestratosphere. The effects of theseradicals on stratospheric ozone arestrongly differentiated with altitude.Above about 30 km, gas phase ozonedestroying cycles dominate, leading toincreased ozone depletion as a result ofan increase in nitrous oxideconcentration. At lower altitude, thenitrogen-halogen chemistry in both



12

▲ Figure 2: Ozone image Antarctica

homogeneous and heterogeneousprocesses is rather complex. One majoreffect of these interactions is theformation of chlorine reservoirs, such aschlorine nitrate, whereby chlorine istemporarily held in an inactive form.However, the net effect on ozonedepletion is dependent on theenvironmental conditions and is still amatter of debate.

CFCs, HCFCs, halons, HFCsCFCs and halons are both ozonedepleting substances and greenhousegases. This is also the case for thehydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs),although their impact is stronglyreduced due to their much shorterlifetime in the troposphere. The ban onthe emissions of CFCs and halons, andin future of HCFCs, will certainly havea beneficial effect on both ozonedepletion and climate change. The mainproblem lies with thehydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which donot contain chlorine. Their timelyintroduction on the market will furtherreduce ozone depletion, as they containneither chlorine nor bromine. However,these compounds are also greenhousegases with a large global warmingpotential due to their radiativeproperties in the infrared wavelengthrange, and are thus included in theKyoto Protocol.

Ozone recoveryWorldwide compliance with theMontreal Protocol and its amendmentsis rapidly reducing the yearly emissionsof ozone-depleting substances. As theseemissions cease, the ozone layer willrecover over the next several decades.This recovery will only be gradual,primarily because of the long timesrequired for CFCs and halons to beremoved from the atmosphere. Therecovery can also be impacted quitesignificantly by the Kyoto Protocol andfuture climate changes.

At present, the main issue in terms ofozone recovery and the possible effectof the Kyoto Protocol and futureclimate change can be summarised asfollows. In the absence of otherchanges, stratospheric ozone abundanceshould rise in future as halogen loadingfalls in response to regulation. However,the future behaviour of the ozone layerwill also be affected by the changingconcentrations of carbon dioxide,methane, nitrous oxide etc. as well aschanges in climate. Thus, for a givenhalogen loading in the future, theatmospheric abundance of ozone maynot be the same as that found in the pastfor the same halogen loading.

Preliminary calculations with coupledchemistry-climate models suggest thatthe recovery of the ozone layer could bedelayed by the presently observedcooling of the stratosphere, which is aresult of the increase in CO2concentrations. This is especially so inthe Arctic regions where wintertemperatures in the lower stratosphereare close to the (lower) threshold forsubstantial chlorine activation, makingArctic ozone concentrations particularlysensitive to small changes in

temperature, and thus to a cooling of thelower stratosphere by increasedgreenhouse gas concentrations.Therefore, it should be possible todetect the onset of ozone recovery fromhalogen-induced depletion sooner in theAntarctic than in the Arctic or globally,as there is less variability in the ozonelosses in the Antarctic.

Estimates of the timing of the detectionof the onset of ozone recovery areuncertain. However, it is clear thatunambiguous detection of the beginningof ozone recovery will be delayedbeyond the time of maximum loading ofstratospheric halogens, which occurredat the turn of the century.

ConclusionsThe issues of ozone depletion andclimate change are linked, and becausethey are, so are the Montreal and KyotoProtocols. Changes in ozone affect theearth’s climate, and changes in climateand meteorological conditions affect theozone layer. Ozone depletion andclimate change are linked through adynamic set of physical and chemicalprocesses. The impact of decisionstaken under one Protocol on the aims ofthe other are summarised in Table 1. Asshown in this paper, decisions madeunder the Kyoto Protocol concerningthe reduction in emissions of carbondioxide, methane and nitrous oxide willmost probably have a positive effect onthe rate of recovery of the ozone layer.Decisions regarding the control ofhydrofluorocarbon emissions, as in theKyoto Protocol, may affect decisionsregarding the ability to phase out ozone-depleting substances in due time, whichis an issue in the Montreal Protocol.

Gérard Mégie, FranceCo-Chair UNEP Science Panel

Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceUniversité Pierre et Marie CurieB102 - 4, Place Jussieu - 75005

Paris Cedex 05 - FranceTel.: +33-1-44-273852Fax: +33-1-44-272358

▼ Table 1: Interlinkages Montreal and Kyoto Protocols

Kyoto Protocol and global warmingCO2 emissions Global warming Ozone depletion CH4, N2O Global warming Ozone depletion ?HFC Global warming Ozone depletion

(if delay in substitution of HCFC)Montreal Protocol and ozone depletionCFC, HCFC emissions Ozone depletion Global warming HFC emissions Ozone depletion Global warming

13



Managing our atmosphere:Two protocols - one world

Rajendra Shende, France

Atmospheric science includes the study of a vast array of interlinked natural processes and is by its verynature complex and multidisciplinary in character. This complexity is further heightened by the extent ofhuman interventions in natural atmospheric processes. In addressing the adverse impacts of these humaninterventions, we seem to be trying to untie each interconnected “knot” as we come across it. However, themore we learn about atmospheric processes, the clearer it becomes that what we really need is a carefullythought out and proactive strategy rather than a “cross each bridge when it comes” approach. UNEP(United Nations Environment Programme) tries to assist in formulating and implementing such a strategy.

Interlinkages: scale ofthe problemInterlinkage and feedback effects betweenenvironmental issues are predicted to beone of the most formidable challengesfor human society in the newmillennium. Almost 200 separatemultilateral environmental agreements(MEAs) already exist and more are invarious stages of being negotiated.These different MEA pathways,including the design, assessment,negotiation and implementation phase,have until now largely remaineddivorced from one another. Separateinstitutions have been created to addresseach environmental issue, and thedialogue between these institutions hasnot yet reached the level required toaddress the complexity of the issuesinvolved. The end result is that eachMEA, focused on a separate issue, canturn out to be a method of solving oneknot only to further entangle others.

Montreal and KyotoProtocols: interlinked siblingsFor very different reasons, two MEAsdealing with atmospheric issues arecurrently receiving much attention:

• The Vienna Convention onProtection of the Ozone Layer (VC)resulting in the Montreal Protocol onSubstances that Deplete the OzoneLayer (MP); co-ordinated through

UNEP, this agreement (1987) isgenerally considered a model ofsuccessful international co-operation;

• The United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocolto the UNFCCC; born during the1992 Rio summit, the 1997 KyotoProtocol has been the subject ofintense political discussion; onlyrecently, after many ups and downs,178 countries meeting in Bonnfinally agreed on a compromise text.

Institutional dialogueTo varying extents, the governingbodies of the above two MEAs, as wellas their subsidiary bodies for theassessment of science and technologyand implementation issues, have beenaddressing the relationships betweenatmospheric issues. The MP assessmentpanels, for example, have beenproviding the necessary scientificinformation to governments. Notably,the Scientific Assessment Panel of theMP (SAP) has been active in exploringthe interlinkages between climatechange and ozone depletion. Its firstassessment in 1989 mentioned this issueand reported the relative globalwarming potential (GWP) of variousozone depleting substances (ODS). Insubsequent reports, published in 1991,1994, and 1998, it closely examined:• The impact of temperature change in

the stratosphere and troposphere, due

to global warming, on the rate andextent of ozone layer depletion;

• The impact of nitrous oxides andother chemical compounds (seepage 10).

In its 1999 report Aviation and the globalatmosphere, the International Panel onClimate Change (IPCC), which from itsinception has collaborated with the SAP,presents a striking assessment of thepotential impact of emissions fromaircraft travel. This is just one exampleof the way in which leading scientistsall over the world are cooperating inanalysing environmental interlinkages.

Within the framework of the MP, theTechnology and Economic AssessmentPanel (TEAP) and its technical optionscommittee have also been active inreporting on the implications of the useof ozone-friendly technologies forclimate change and vice versa. Forexample, the technical optionscommittee on refrigeration and airconditioning and heat pumps hashighlighted the GWP of refrigerants aswell as elaborated in detail the conceptof total equivalent warming impact(TEWI).

Landmark recommendationsand future challengesAs the MP was being implemented andnew technologies were being introduced,it became essential to know whether



14

The bodies responsible forimplementation of the protocols haverecognised the need for harmonisation.Yet, concerted action to addressinterlinkage and feedback issuesbetween the Montreal and KyotoProtocols has been limited to date. Thisis partly due to the fact that the KyotoProtocol has yet to enter into force.In addition, the compartmentalisedmandates and essentially separateterritories of these two MEAs make itdifficult for the Parties to take proactivesteps toward harmonisingimplementation, even thoughassessment debates have demonstratedthat the will to do so is present. Theatmosphere and our environment areclearly the victims of such blockades.

UNEP activitiesUNEP DTIE’s (Division of Technology,Industry and Economics) Energy andOzonAction Unit, is an implementingagency under the Multilateral Fund ofthe MP and the Global EnvironmentalFacility (GEF), as well as the agencyresponsible for promoting sustainableand harmonised solutions toenvironmental problems. As such, itadvises governments and industries indeveloping countries on integratedsolutions to atmospheric problems. Thedelay in implementation of the KyotoProtocol must not be allowed to hold upthe implementation of the MP or anyother MEA. UNEP has embarked on anumber of activities, including aninformation clearinghouse, trainingactivities and networks of nationalozone units, that address interlinkagesbetween MEAs and that help bothdeveloping countries and countries witheconomies in transition to betterunderstand such issues (see Box 3).

ConclusionsThe Montreal and Kyoto Protocols arean excellent illustration of howenvironmental issues and measurestaken in one area can influence those inanother area. There is a real risk thatimplementation of a focussed, single-issue MEA in one sector may come at

Dialogue between siblings: mirror decisions

“Decision X/16 under the MP (1998): Implementation of the MP in the light of theKyoto Protocol.To request, with a view in particular to assisting the Parties to the MP to assess theimplications for the implementation of the MP of the inclusion of HFCs and PFCs inthe Kyoto Protocol, the relevant MP bodies, within their areas of competence:a To provide relevant information on HFCs and PFCs to the Secretariat of the

Framework Convention on Climate Change by 15 July 1999 in accordance withoperative paragraph 1 of the above-mentioned decision;

b To convene a workshop with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change whichwill assist the bodies of the Framework Convention on Climate Change to establishinformation on available and potential ways and means of limiting emissions ofHFCs and PFCs in accordance with operative paragraph 2 of the above-mentioneddecision;

c To continue to develop information on the full range of existing and potentialalternatives to ozone depleting substances for specific uses, including alternativesnot listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol;

d To otherwise continue to cooperate with the relevant bodies under the UnitedNations Framework Convention on Climate Change and IPCC on these matters;and

e To report to the Open Ended Working Group at its nineteenth meeting and to theEleventh Meeting of the Parties to the MP on this work.”

“Decision 13/CP.4 under the Kyoto Protocol (1998): Relationship between effortsto protect the atmospheric ozone layer and efforts to safeguard the globalclimate system.The Conference of the Parties,1. Invites Parties, relevant bodies of the MP, the IPCC, intergovernmental

organizations and non-governmental organizations to provide information to thesecretariat, by 15 July 1999, on available and potential ways and means of limitingemissions of hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons, including their use asreplacements for ozone-depleting substances;

2. Encourages the convening of a workshop by the IPCC and the Technology andEconomic Assessment Panel of the MP in 1999 which will assist the SBSTA toestablish information on available and potential ways and means of limitingemissions of the hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons, and invites the IPCC toreport on the results of such a joint workshop to the SBSTA at its eleventh session,if possible;

3. Requests the secretariat to compile the information provided, including, if available,the conclusions of the workshop, for consideration by the SBSTA at its eleventhsession;

4. Requests the SBSTA to report on this information to the Conference of the Parties,at its fifth session, and to seek further guidance from the Conference of the Partieson this matter at that session.”

Box 1

these new technologies also had aneffect on global warming. Examples ofsuch issues that surfaced include the useof hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) andperfluorocarbons (PFCs) as alternativerefrigerants. As these gases have zeroozone depleting potential, they are asolution to one aspect of the ozoneissue. However, they are also includedin the basket of greenhouse gases whoseemissions the Kyoto Protocol seeks tolimit.

In 1998, the Parties to both theMontreal and Kyoto Protocols took

‘mirror decisions’ on HFCs and PFCs(see Box 1). A dialogue then took placebetween the technical and policy bodiesof both Protocols, which encouragedfurther global discussion on the subject.Subsequently, a joint IPCC/TEAPexpert meeting on options for thelimitation of emissions of HFCs andPFCs was held in May 1999. A taskforce on HFCs/PFCs was also set up tocarry out the assessment requested bythe Parties. Its recommendationsrepresent a milestone in the history ofthe study of interlinkages betweenMEAs (see Box 2).

15



the expense of other MEAs. Nobellaureate Dr. Maria Molina is presentlyworking on models of interrelatedatmospheric issues, as he believes thatatmospheric pollution due toanthropomorphic activity has created ahost of interlinkages between the issueof ozone layer protection and climatechange.

Threats to our finite and fragileecosystems are numerous and stillpoorly understood. For this reason, it isimportant to explore how MEAs areinterlinked and to use this knowledge inimplementing and harmonising MEAs.To do so effectively, it is also necessaryto explore ways of bridging the dividesthat exist with respect to areas ofknowledge, competence and authority.This is essential if we really wish tocreate long-term, robust, integratedenvironmental solutions.

Rajendra ShendeChief Energy and OzonAction Unit

UNEP DTIETour Mirabeau, Quai André Citroën

75739 Paris, Cedex 15, FranceTel.: +33 1 44 37 14 50Fax: +33 1 44 37 14 74

E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.uneptie.org/

ozonaction.html

UNEP OzonAction activitiesundertaken to address the interlinkages between the issues ofozone layer protection and climate change

Harmonising information exchange:• Discussion paper Cross-cutting issues and options (February 1998)• Round Table on Climate change and ozone protection policy - two Protocols, one

response (September 1999)• Issue Paper on Promoting integrated approaches to ozone layer protection and cross-

cutting issues between other environmental conventions (January 2000)• Video on the safe use of hydrocarbons Back to the future (January 2001) (see page 26)• Case studies on the Win-win technologies that contribute to ozone layer protection

and climate change (to be published soon)

Integrated ozone protection/climate change training activities:• Training manual on refrigerant management in the chiller sector that promotes

mitigation of climate change and protection of the ozone layer (1995)• Training courses on refrigerant management in the chiller sectors in Thailand,

Indonesia, the Philippines, Mexico, Zambia and Bahrain (1995-1997). The projects ofthe World Bank for conversion of the chillers in Thailand (see page 18) and Mexicowere approved by the Multilateral Fund of the MP (to finance the ozone layerprotection part of the project) and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) (to financethe climate change mitigation part of the project)

• The importance of military organisations in stratospheric ozone protection and climateprotection, organised in February 2001 in Brussels

Networking relationships between ozone and climate change officers:• Establishment of a network of ozone and climate change officers with financial

assistance from the government of Finland. Three meetings have been held so farand reports are available. (Oct. 1999 -ongoing)

Key Recommendations of HFC and PFC Task Force:

1. Ozone depletion and global climate change are linked through physical andchemical processes in the atmosphere. The Montreal and Kyoto Protocols arefinancially and technically interconnected because HFCs and CO2 are included inthe basket of six gases under the Kyoto Protocol and they are significant substitutesfor some important uses of ODS;

2. Inclusion of HFCs and PFCs in the Kyoto Protocol need not interfere with theimplementation of the MP given careful technology choices that need to beassessed based on concepts like LCCP (Life-Cycle Climate Performance);

3. Countries with economies in transition (CEITs) and developing countries depend oninformation, access to technology and financing to properly address and implementthe inter-linkage issue. Scope of UNEP DTIE’s OzonAction Programme in Paris,which is mandated under the MP to assist these countries to facilitate bilateral andmultilateral co-operation, create environmental awareness and to collect anddistribute up-to-date information, could be expanded to become Climate ActionProgramme; and

4. Further reduction in HFC and PFC emissions is possible through good practicesand responsible use principle.

Box 2

Box 3

Ozonedepletion

Globalwarming

Cre

ated

by

Gar

y La

rson



16

▼ Table 1: Alternative refrigerants for various applications.

Alternative refrigerantsApplication HFCs Other than HFCsDomestic refrigeration R-134a HC-600aCommercial refrigeration• Stand-alone systems R-134a, R-404A, R-507A, R-407C, HC blends, HCFC-22*, CO2**• Central systems R-134a, R-407C• Indirect systems R-404A NH3, CO2** , HCsCold storage, food processingand industrial refrigeration R-134a, R-404A, R-507A NH3, HCFC-22*, HCs, CO2**Unitary air conditioners R-410A, R-407C HCFC-22*, CO2**, HCsCentralised AC (chillers) R-134a, R-410A, R-407C HCFC-22*, HCFC-123*

NH3, HCs, CO2**, water**Transport refrigeration R-134a, R-404A HCFC-22*Mobile air conditioning R-134a CO2**, HCsHeat pumps (heating only) R-134a, R-152a, R-404A, R-407C, R-410A NH3, HCs, CO2**, water**

* Transitional**Advanced development stage

Ozone- and climate-friendlytechnologies: Choices for sustainability

R. S. Agarwal, India

CFCs and HCFCs, which have been used extensively in refrigeration, air-conditioning and heat pumpapplications, are being phased out due to their negative impact on the ozone layer and global warming. In theshort to medium term, HFCs (with zero ozone depletion) are a major candidate to replace CFCs and HCFCs,but suitable long-term replacements will need to have a limited impact on global warming as well. Alternativesubstances such as hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, ammonia and water may, depending on the technologicaladvances made, become the substances of choice in future, but in the meantime it is essential that specificlocal circumstances be kept in mind (e.g. in developing countries) when deciding on the best options.

depleting substances (ODS) withoutresorting to HFC refrigerants.Hydrocarbons and ammonia areexamples of possible replacements.However the use of such substances canresult in a net negative impact on globalwarming. This is because, in someapplications, replacing HFC-basedsubstances by the alternatives results ina lower energetic efficiency of theequipment. The ‘energy penalty’resulting form this lower efficiencyoutweighs the gain achieved by thereduction in HFC emissions. In thiscontext, investigations are in progress toincrease the energetic efficiency andeconomic viability of supercritical CO2cycle-based systems as well ashydrocarbon and ammonia-basedsystems with secondary loop systems.Table 1 gives a summary of the

IntroductionHalocarbon compounds produced byhuman activities are considered to havebeen the primary agent for thestratospheric ozone depletion observedin the past two decades. Thesecompounds are used in manyapplications including refrigerants,foam blowing agents, solvents, processagents, aerosol propellants, fireextinguishers etc., with refrigerationbeing one of the largest users.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) andhydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)have been used in refrigerators and air-conditioners and as blowing agents infoam. CFCs and HCFCs are now beingregulated because of their impact onozone depletion and will have to bereplaced fairly soon.Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) may besuitable as short to medium-termreplacements, but may not be suitablefor long-term use due to their highglobal warming potential (GWP). Therefrigeration and automotive air-conditioning industries have alreadybegun to address the long-termreplacement challenge by developingalternative technologies usinghydrocarbons (HCs) and CO2 for theirrespective industries. Several issueswill dictate the choice of long-termreplacements for CFCs and HCFCs,but in the long term only thosetechnologies are sustainable that can

address the dual challenge ofprotecting the ozone layer andcontaining adverse climate effects.

Recent trends in technologyDepending on the particular application,each alternative to CFCs and HCFCshas advantages and disadvantages.Refrigeration and air-conditioningappliances must often satisfy national,regional and local requirements forenergy efficiency, safety (operation,repair and disposal) and environmentalacceptability. Currently, the mainalternatives are HFCs and HFC blends,although there are potential non-HFCalternatives as well.

In certain applications, it is currentlytechnically feasible to phase out ozone

17



▼ Table 2: Environmental characteristicsof refrigerants and foaming agents.

Refrigerant Atmospheric ODP GWPlifetime (100 year(years) ITH*)

CFCsCFC-11 50+5 1.0 3800CFC-12 102 1.0 8100HCFCsHCFC-22 12.1 0.055 1500HCFC-123 1.4 0.02 90HCFC-141b 9.4 0.11 600HFCsHFC-134a 14.6 0 1300HFC-32 5.6 0 650HFC-152a 1.5 0 140HFC-245fa 7.3 0 820HCsHC-290 (propane) — 0 3HC-600 (butane) — 0 3Cyclo-pentane — 0 3Zeotropes andazeotropesR-404A — 0 3260R-407A — 0 1770R-407C — 0 1530R-410A — 0 1730

* ITH = integrated time horizon

▲ Figure 1: Implementation of hydrocarbon technology in a domestic refrigeration industry

alternative refrigerants for variousapplications.

Medium to long-term solutionsHFCs are free from chlorine and havezero ozone depleting potential (ODP)but relatively high GWP. As a result,even though HFCs are currently themain candidates to replace CFCs andHCFCs, especially in refrigeration, air-conditioning and heat pumpapplications, HFCs have been includedin the Kyoto basket. Although the GWPof most HFCs is lower than that ofCFCs, it is much higher than the GWPof natural fluids such as hydrocarbons,carbon dioxide, ammonia and water.The latter are therefore the most likelylong-term candidates for replacingHFCs. Table 2 gives the environmentalcharacteristics of various refrigerants.

The production and consumption ofHFCs and their blends is continuouslyincreasing in developed as well asdeveloping countries. Efforts are alsobeing made to minimise emissions ofHFCs by adopting recovery andrecycling procedures as well as betterfabrication and servicing practices.There is also a slow but growing trend

towards other alternatives such ashydrocarbons, carbon dioxide andammonia.

Sustainable technologies fordeveloping countriesThe issue of sustainability has to beviewed in a different perspective whenit comes to developing countries. Incontrast to developed countries, most ofthe developing countries have a largeunorganised but innovative informalsector. The informal sector represents asignificant proportion of the totalindustry. It is also a substantialconsumer of ODS and would be a majorstakeholder in the adoption ofalternative refrigerants for sustainablegrowth. Due to the nature of this largeinformal sector, the technology chosenmust be environmentally friendly, costeffective and easy to adopt.

In spite of the highly flammableproperties of hydrocarbons,hydrocarbon technology, accompaniedby appropriate safety measures, appearsto be the best option. Such technologieshave already been adopted by somedeveloped countries, particularly inEurope, and are also slowly penetratingthe formal and informal sectors ofdeveloping countries such as China,India and Indonesia. Figure 1 gives an

overview of the implementation ofhydrocarbon technology in a domesticrefrigeration industry in India.

OutlookHFCs are free from chlorine and havezero ozone depleting potential (ODP).However, their GWP is much higherthan the GWP of natural fluids such ashydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, ammoniaand water. The latter are therefore themost likely long-term candidates forreplacing HFCs. They may well becomethe future standard in their sector in thedeveloped as well as developing regionsof the world. A case in point is the useof supercritical carbon dioxidetechnology for mobile air conditioningand other applications, which is underactive consideration, particularly indeveloped countries.

Prof. R. S. AgarwalMember of UNEP Technology &

Economic Assessment PanelCo-chair UNEP Technical OptionsCommittee for Refrigeration, Air-

Conditioning and Heat PumpsIndian Institute of Technology

Hauz Khas, New Delhi, 110016 IndiaTel: +91 11 666 979 ex 2139/3112

Fax: +91 11 686 2037E-mail: [email protected]



18

The Thai Chiller Replacement project:Benefiting the economy and theenvironment

Steve Gorman, USA

The Thai Chiller Replacement Program was launched in order to help develop a market in Thailand forhighly energy-efficient chillers. The project aims to save energy as well as reduce ozone depletion andglobal warming. It is financed by international institutions that support the Montreal Protocol.

IntroductionThe Thailand Chiller ReplacementProgram Concessional Lending PilotProject will replace existing CFC-chillers (with chlorofluorocarbons asrefrigerant) in air-conditioning systemswith high-efficiency, non-CFC chillers.The project is financed by theMultilateral Fund (MLF) of the MontrealProtocol and the Global EnvironmentFacility (GEF) on a loan basis. This is anexample of new, non-grant or partial-grant financing projects the World Bankhas developed. These projects form analternative approach to the existinggrant-financing scheme for possiblefuture ODS phase-out projects. Theseinitiatives are in response to the requestof the Executive Committee of the MLFto explore new financing mechanisms forfuture projects in order to includecountries and enterprises that might nototherwise be eligible for assistance.

Overall project goalThe primary goal of this project is todevelop a market for highly-energy-efficient chillers in Thailand. In theinitial pilot phase of the project,24 chillers will be replaced. This phase ismeant to demonstrate the economicfeasibility of the new technology (in anon-grant framework) given theperceived risks. If the pilot phase issuccessful, a larger-scale programmewill follow aimed at replacing about30% of the remaining CFC chillers.It is expected that the experience gainedthrough the programme and the positivemessage sent to the markets by its initialsuccess will in turn lead to the increasingadoption of energy-efficient chillers by

the chiller market as a whole. This spin-off effect is difficult to quantify.However, it is expected that a contingent,interest free GEF/MLF loan of $5 millionwill help remove financial barriers andleverage about $85 million in WorldBank and commercial co-financing.Money that will be used to transformThailand’s chiller market from onedominated by low-efficiency CFCchillers to one using more and moreclimate- and ozone-friendly models.

Specific project goalsThe economic goals of the project canbe summarised as follows:• to reduce peak power demand and

thereby free up peak capacity, saveenergy and generate long termfinancial savings for the ElectricalGenerating Authority of Thailand(EGAT);

• lower electricity bills for theconsumers while retaining the sameservice level; according toexperience gained in some OECDcountries, the estimated energyneeds may be about one third lowerfor the new systems;

• economic spin-off from developing anew market for economical,technologically advanced andenvironmentally friendly air-conditioning systems.

In addition to economic benefits, theproject would lead to a significantreduction in greenhouse gas emissions.By replacing CFC chillers with 30%more energy-efficient systems, the CO2emissions from air conditioning canalso be reduced by about 30%. Thiswould translate into a reduction of

about 130 ton Carbon per system peryear. The energy benefits of the projectare shown in Table 1.

In addition to saving energy, the projectwould result in the phasing out of a totalof 220 tons of CFCs, which have quite ahigh Global Warming Potential (GWP)as well as Ozone Depleting Potential(ODP). The proposed substituterefrigerants, HCFC-123 and HFC-134a,also have significant GWP but muchless than that of CFCs. The ODP of theproposed substitutes is very low or zero.The net effect of the project then wouldbe a further reduction in GWP and asignificant reduction in ODP.

The Thai ContextFor fiscal year 1997, peak power demandin Thailand was 14,506,300 kW, a 9%increase from the previous year. At theend of fiscal year 1997, the totalelectricity generating capacity of theEGAT was 14,686,898 kW. Althoughelectricity demand will most likely growless strongly in the near future than inrecent years, the economic crisis has alsolimited Thailand’s ability to expand itspower generating capacity and powershortages could therefore become aproblem.

The chiller sector has grown dramaticallyin the past decade due to the largeamount of building construction that hastaken place. About 1,500 CFC chillersare currently operating in Thailand,more than 80% of which are located inBangkok. Chillers of a wide varietyexist in Thailand, but most (95%) arecentrifugal and utilise CFC-11 as a

19



▼ Table 1: Carbon abatement benefits asa result of energy savings

Parameter ValueAverage cooling capacity of chiller 1,759 kWAverage consumption, baseline chiller 0.26 kWel/kWth*Energy consumption, alternative 0.12 kWel/kWth*Estimated operating time 12 hrs/dayEstimated remaining lifetime 17 yearsCarbon intensity of Thai power sector 0.22 kg C/kWhEnergy savings per chiller per year 591.3 MWhCarbon savings per chiller per year 130.1 ton CInitial reduction in carbon emissions(24 systems) 53.1 kton CLonger term reduction incarbon emissions (444 systems) 981.9 kton C

* kWel/kWth = kW electric / kW thermal

refrigerant for cooling large buildings.CFC-12 is used for most of the others.

Centrifugal chillers installed before 1993were found to consume significantlymore energy than more recent models:approximately 0.23-0.28 kWel/kWthmore. In order to deal with this withinthe framework of the governmentstrategy for this project, a ministerialorder was established relating to energyconsumption standards for building air-conditioning systems (centrifugalchillers) for existing and newinstallations. Depending on coolingcapacity, the energy consumption ofexisting (centrifugal) chillers may notexceed 0.23-0.26 kWel/kWth, and fornew installations the maximum is0.19-0.21 kWel/kWth.

Perceived risks of the new approach• high up-front costs and lack of

access to commercial credit;• unfamiliarity with the technology/

perceived technology risk undertropical conditions;

• need to demonstrate a track recordthat energy savings will materialise;

• lack of capacity to service andmaintain the new systems.

Risk managementThe following measures can help limitthe risks:• provide a lease-to-own arrangement

with a performance guarantee toowners, allowing consumers tospread the high up-front cost over alonger period;

• provide funding in the form of an

interest-free loan to set up arevolving fund for the installation ofa first series of 24 chillers;

• set up workshops and informationchannels to inform stakeholders inthe sector of developments in thepilot phase;

• seek arrangements with chillersuppliers to provide service andmaintenance as well as sufficienttraining and technical assistance (atpresent, routine maintenance is notcommon for old chillers).

In the pilot phase, emphasis will be putnot only on the investment aspect butalso on the build-out of capacity. Asmentioned above, available capacity ofservicing technicians is also one of therisks. Requiring equipment suppliers toguarantee performance of theirequipment provides an incentive toensure that equipment suppliers’servicing technicians (or those employedby their contractors) are well trained andcapable of handling the new technology.

Criteria for replacementIn selecting CFC chillers to be replacedunder this program, the followingcriteria should be met:• existing centrifugal chillers have

CFCs as refrigerants;• energy consumption of the existing

chillers should be within the range of0.23-0.28 kWel/kWth or higher;

• energy consumption of the new non-CFC chillers (Integrated Part LoadValue, IPLV, or Average Part LoadValue, APLV) should not exceed0.18 kWel/kWth (any heat loss fromcompressors, particularly in theopen-type centrifugal chillers,should be taken into account whencalculating the overall energyefficiency of the system);

• funding priority should be given tochillers with cooling capacity of1,759 kW or more, and preferably inoperation less than 15 years;

• funding priority should be given toreplacement projects that have theshortest payback period;

• existing centrifugal chillers shouldbe replaced by non-CFC units only;

• all chiller replacement proposals

should take into consideration theperformance of the existing chilledwater plants to ensure optimalcooling performance of the new air-conditioning systems.

Criteria for installersChiller replacement should be done bysuppliers or contractors that meet thefollowing preliminary set of criteria:• installation, commissioning, and

after sales service including routinemaintenance shall be carried out bytechnicians certified by the UnitedStates Environment ProtectionAgency or other equivalent agencies;

• suppliers and contractors mustfollow codes of good practice to bejointly established by the industry,the Ministry of Industry, andUNEP’s Regional Office for Asiaand the Pacific;

• suppliers and contractors must havea proper refrigerant recovery andrecycling facility;

• suppliers and contractors mustguarantee performance of theirequipment; they are required toprovide IFCT with a performancebond (the value of the performancebond will be established duringproject implementation).

PerspectivesSuccessful completion of the projectwill yield substantial benefits withregard to designing similar futureprojects elsewhere. The project willprovide economic benefits and helpleverage GEF/MLF funds. Last but notleast, it will benefit the environment byreducing energy consumption, GWPand ODP and help Thailand sustain the1999 freeze in ODS consumptionrequired under the Montreal Protocol.

More information:Steve Gorman

World BankEnvironment Department

Montreal Protocol Operations Unit1818 H Street NW

20433 Washington DC, USATel: +1 202 473 5865

E-mail: [email protected]



20

Comparison of TEWI of alternative fluoro-carbon refrigerants and technologies inresidential heat pumps and air-conditioners

James R. Sand, Steven K. Fischer, and Van D. Baxter, USA

Recent US studies on the impact of alternative refrigerants and HVACR technologies (heating, ventilating,air-conditioning, and refrigeration technologies) on global warming have focused on TEWI, which is thetotal equivalent warming impact. These studies have shown that the largest contributors to global warmingby far are the CO2 emissions, resulting from the generation of electricity or the use of fossil fuel sources(e.g. natural gas) to power HVACR equipment, rather than the emissions caused by leaks of refrigerant inspace-conditioning equipment. It follows then that the most effective way of reducing the atmosphericbuild-up of global-warming gases is to increase the energy efficiency of HVACR equipment.

These studies have provided policymakers with arguments to push forhigher equipment efficiencies as a meansof attacking global warming rather thanmore restrictive laws on the suitability ofvarious chemical classes of refrigerants.In April 2001, the US Department ofEnergy proposed an increase in theminimum seasonal energy efficiencyrating of air conditioners and heat pumps(see page 4). This will give a large pushtoward increasing the efficiency ofunitary cooling equipment in the UnitedStates and reducing their global warmingimpact.

TEWIUse of conventional space-conditioningsystems can lead to the emission ofgreenhouse gases via two differentpaths:• release of CO2 as a result of energy

production;• loss or leakage of refrigerant from

the systems.The concept of TEWI was developed tocombine and compare the effect of CO2released over the lifetime of the system(indirect effect) with the effect oflifetime refrigerant loss (direct effect).

Researchers at Oak Ridge NationalLaboratory (ORNL) conducted a studyto examine TEWI of unitary residentialspace-conditioning equipment in theUnited States. The study compared the

TEWI of conventional R-22-based andR-22-alternative-based vapourcompression systems under the sameoperating conditions.

Refrigerants and systemsexaminedA wide range of systems was analysed(see Table 1), including low- andmedium-efficiency electric heat pumpsand high-efficiency heat pumps. TheR-22 alternatives examined wereR-407C and R-410A. In addition, thestudy analysed the following space-conditioning systems:• gas furnaces in combination with a

centralised, vapour-compression airconditioner;

• a gas-engine-driven heat pump;• a gas absorption heat pump under

development (based on the generatorabsorber heat exchange [GAX]cycle) that uses an ammonia-waterabsorption cycle.

Propane (R-290) and ammonia (R-717),both good refrigerants, are sometimesmentioned in connection with unitaryequipment applications. Propane wasevaluated in combination with asecondary heat transfer loop and fluid,which are needed to keep thisflammable fluid out of the conditionedspace. Any advantage propane mighthave in reducing direct TEWI wasoutweighed by the increases in indirect

effects resulting from the use of moreenergy for the secondary heat exchangeloop. The same would be true forammonia, which would also require asecondary heat transfer loop and fluidbecause of its toxicity. In addition,ammonia’s incompatibility with thecopper currently used in refrigeranttubing and electric motor windingsmakes it a poor choice for unitaryequipment as a replacement for R-22.

AssumptionsSystem efficiency data used forcalculating TEWI values for electricallydriven and gas-powered residential

▼ Table 1: System efficiencies forresidential electric and gas heating andcooling equipment, 1996–1997

EfficiencySPF/PER SPF/PER

System cooling heating andgas furnaceefficiency

Electric systems (R-22 refrigerant)Air-to-air heat pumpsa Minimum efficiency 2.9 2.1b High efficiency 3.5 2.3Premium technologiesc Air-to-air heat pump 4.1 2.6d Geothermal heat pump 4.6 3.5

Gas optionsElectric A/C and gas furnacee Minimum efficiency 2.9 80%f High efficiency 3.5 92%Premium technologiesg Electric A/C and gas furnace 4.1 92%h Engine-driven heat pump (R-22) 1.30 1.26i GAX absorption heat pump 0.70 1.50

21



heating and cooling options are shownin Table 1. Published measurementswere used for SPFcooling (seasonalperformance factor cooling) andSPFheating (seasonal performance factorheating) of R-22 equipment. Unitaryequipment is usually designed to meetSPFcooling and SPFheating targets withappropriate adjustments of hardwareto fit the refrigerant and compressorperformance. The American Gas CoolingCenter listed the 1996 seasonal heatingand cooling performance of a gasengine heat pump as 126% AFUE [1]and a PER (primary energy ratio) of1.28. TEWI values for a gas engine heatpump were computed from thesepublished efficiencies. For the GAXabsorption heat pump, TEWI valueswere calculated using heating andcooling PERs applied in previousAlternative FluorocarbonsEnvironmental Acceptability Study(AFEAS) and TEWI reports of theDepartment of Energy. The GAX PERvalues include electrical parasitic loads.

To calculate the SPF values for R-407Cand R-410A mixtures, steady-statecoefficient of performance (COP) datarelative to R-22 were used (see Table 2).Further development of air conditionersspecifically designed to use thesealternative refrigerants could lead tomore favourable comparisons relative toR-22.

Table 3 shows the assumptions for theemissions from energy production.

ORNL assumed 15-year lifetimes forUS unitary equipment. Based oninformation from member companiesof the American Refrigeration Institute,we used the maximum annualrefrigerant leak rates of 4% for 1996–97residential heat pump and airconditioner equipment. An end-of-lifecharge loss rate of 15% was calculatedfor residential units on the basis ofrecovering 90% of the charge from 95%of the field units, while allowing for a100% charge loss from about 5% offield units.

Seasonal energy use is computed basedon a typical 167 m2 (1,800 ft2)residence with the following heatingand cooling loads shown in Table 4.

ResultsTEWIs for various residential heating/cooling options were calculated forPittsburgh, Atlanta, and Miami; theresults are shown in Figures 1–3. Theupper portion of each figure showsbenchmark systems, i.e. heating/coolingoptions that represent baseline cost for aresidential system in each of thesecities. The lower portion shows optionsthat are significantly more expensivethan the baseline technology. Figures 1and 2 also contain gas heating/coolingoptions for Pittsburgh and Atlanta,which have significant heating loads.

Using Figure 1 as an example, theadvantages of increasing unitefficiencies become quite obvious if theR-22 minimum, high-efficiency, andpremium options are compared. TotalTEWI values for these three heat pumpoptions in Pittsburgh are about 126,000,111,000, and 100,000, respectively.

A 10 to 12% improvement in TEWIresults for each step of efficiencyimprovement. TEWI decreases moresharply as a function of increasedefficiency in climates with a highercooling/heating ratio.

These figures also show TEWI resultsfor the HFC mixtures R-407C andR-410A. In all cases, the directcontribution of refrigerant losses toTEWI is no larger than 7% of the total,with the average direct TEWIcontribution being 3–4%. Essentially,little difference is seen between TEWIfor R-22 systems and for R-407C orR-410A systems because unitefficiencies and global warmingpotential (over 100-year integrated timehorizon) are very similar. The smallercharge sizes per unit of capacity forR-410A and early indications of systemefficiency improvements over HCFC-22will help reduce TEWI for the R-410Aoption.

The reduction of TEWI and relativeenergy savings associated with theadded expense of a geothermal, orground-source, heat pump are duemainly to increased efficiency ratherthan a smaller charge size.Combinations of gas furnaces with anelectric central air conditioner show aslightly lower TEWI than electric air-to-air heat pumps under the conditionsused for these calculations.

In climates with a short cooling seasonand an extended heating season, thegas-fired engine and GAX heat pumpshave a significantly smaller TEWI thanelectric heat pumps with averageSPFcooling (2.9–3.5) andSPFheating (2.0–2.3) ratings. The GAXoption has a TEWI comparable to thevalues for conventional electric-drivencompression systems in climates with

▼ Table 4: Heating and cooling load in a typical residence

Heating load Cooling loadPittsburgh 78.8 x 106 kJ/yr (74.7 x 106 Btu/yr) 17.0 x 106 kJ/yr (16.1 x 106 Btu/yr)Atlanta 36.7 x 106 kJ/yr (34.8 x 106 Btu/yr) 35.7 x 106 kJ/yr (33.8 x 106 Btu/yr)Miami 0 kJ/yr (0 Btu/yr) 86.7 x 106 kJ/yr (82.2 x 106 Btu/yr)

▼ Table 2: Relative efficiencies foralternative refrigerants in residential airconditioning equipment (relative to R-22)

Refrigerant Refrigerant Efficiencycharge sizea relative to R-22

(1996–1997)Cooling Heating

R-22 2.80 kg (6.27 lb) 100% 100%R-407C 2.80 kg (6.27 lb) 100% 100%R-410C 2.30 kg (5.07 lb) 105% 105%

a For a 10.5-kW (3-ton) heat pump or central A/C unit.

▼ Table 3: Assumptions energy production

Emission electrical power plant 0.650 kg CO2/kWh [2](including a 6% transportationand distribution loss factor)

Heat content of natural gas 38,200 kJ/m3

CO2 emission rate natural gas 51.1 g CO2/MJDistribution efficiency natural gas 96.5%CO2 emission rate 53.0 g CO2/MJ

natural gas at point of use [3] (55.9 g CO2/1000 Btu)



22

balanced heating and cooling loads, anda higher TEWI in cooling-dominatedclimates.

Nearly 80% of the direct TEWI resultsfrom the assumptions mentioned earlierwith regard to loss of refrigerant due toleakage, accidents and maintenancepractices. As regulatory proceduresrequiring conscientious maintenanceand repair of leaks as well as strictadherence to refrigerant recoverybecome more widespread, the directeffect will diminish in significance.

ConclusionTotal equivalent warming impacts(TEWI) for residential air conditioningsystems using R-22, R-407C, R-410Aand alternative technologies do notdiffer significantly. In climates withappreciable heating loads, gas furnace/electric air conditioning systems andgas-fired heat pump systems show asmaller TEWI than standardelectrically-driven air-to-air heat pumps.This advantage decreases as the balanceshifts to higher cooling loads.

What the above analysis does underscoreare the environmental benefits of themore energy-efficient technologies thatdecrease CO2 emissions to the earth’satmosphere. Initial cost, projectedoperating costs, availability and climate,rather than TEWI, are likely to remainthe principal criteria for selectingresidential heating/cooling systems.However, in mandating higherefficiencies for these widespreadresidential systems, the United States ismoving in the right direction todecrease its global warming impacts.

James R. Sand, Steven K. Fischer, andVan D. Baxter

Buildings Technology CenterOak Ridge National Laboratory

Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831-6070 USATel.: +1 865-574-5819Fax: +1 865-574-9338

E-mail: [email protected]

*refer to table 1

Direct TEWI-refrigerantIndirect TEWI-gasIndirect TEWI-electric parasiticsIndirect TEWI-resistance heatIndirect TEWI-primary electricity

In all figures:

Benchmark systemsR-22 HP, minimum efficiency (a)*R-22 HP, high efficiency (b)*R-22 hi. eff. A/C, elec. heat (b)*R-407C, high efficiency HP (b)*R-410A, high efficiency HP (b)*Gas heating/cooling optionsR-22 A/C, 80% furnace (e)*R-22 hi. eff. A/C, 92% furnace (f)*Premium heat/cool optionsR22 HP (c)*R-22, Ground-coupled heat pump (d)*R-22, Gas engine-driven heat pump (h)*GAX absorption heat pump (i)*

Res

iden

tial h

eatin

g/co

olin

g op

tions

TEWI (kg CO2)0 50,000 200,000100,000 150,000 250,000

*refer to table 1 0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000

Benchmark systemsR-22 HP, minimum efficiency (a)*R-22 HP, high efficiency (b)*R-22 hi. eff. A/C, elec. heat (b)*R-407C, high efficiency HP (b)*R-410A, high efficiency HP (b)*Gas heating/cooling optionsR-22 A/C, 80% furnace (e)*R-22 hi. eff. A/C, 92% furnace (f)*Premium heat/cool optionsR22 HP (c)*R-22, Ground-source heat pump (d)*R-22, Gas engine-driven heat pump (h)*GAX absorption heat pump (i)*

Res

iden

tial h

eatin

g/co

olin

g op

tions

TEWI (kg CO2)

*refer to table 1 0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000TEWI (kg CO2)

Benchmark systemsR-22, minimum A/C (a)*R-22, high efficiency A/C (b)*R-407C, high efficiency A/C (b)*R-410A, high efficiency A/C (b)*Premium cooling optionsR22 SEER = 14, A/C (c)*R-22, Ground-coupled heat pump (d)*R-22, Gas engine-driven heat pump (h)*GAX absorption heat pump (i)*

Res

iden

tial c

oolin

g op

tions

▲ Figure 1: TEWI for residential heating/cooling options, Pittsburgh, Pensylvania, USA.

▲ Figure 2: TEWI for residential heating/cooling options, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.

▲ Figure 3: TEWI for residential cooling options, Florida, USA.

References and comments[1] “AFUE” refers to annual fuel utilisation efficiency, a measure of appliance heating efficiencycalculated by assuming that 100% of the fuel is converted to thermal energy and then subtracting lossesfor exhausted sensible and latent heat, cycling effects, infiltration, and pilot losses over the whole year.AFUE does not include electrical energy used for fans, pumps, ignition, exhaust, or blowers.[2] Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Annual, 1995, vol. 2, DOE/EIA-0348(95)2(Washington, D.C.: US Department of Energy, December 1996).[3] Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, DOE/EIA-0035(97/03) (Washington,D.C.: US Department of Energy, March 1997).


23

Non-topical article

Combined cooling and heating usingvertical ground heat exchangers

Dr Martin Zogg, Switzerland

A pilot project was carried out in which waste heat from cooling processes was used for heating purposes.Ground heat exchangers were used to store the excess heat produced in summer until it could be used inwinter. A planning handbook was used to design the combined cooling/heating system. Overall energysavings of about 20% were realised.

IntroductionThe use of waste heat from refrigerationand air-conditioning plants for thepurpose of space heating and hot waterproduction offers substantial potential forsaving energy. Such a combined systemwill generally be more energy-efficientthan a system in which the coolingprocesses are completely separate fromthe heating processes. For refrigeration(cold storage rooms and coolingcabinets), the cooling requirement isgenerally constant over the year. The heatrequirement for hot water production isalso roughly constant during the year.However, the cooling requirement for airconditioning occurs only in summer, andspace heating is needed only during theheating season. These requirements alsovary with ambient temperature. As aresult, the amount of waste heat availablefrom cooling processes does notgenerally correspond well with the heatrequirement. This is illustrated inFigure 1, in which data are presented fora Swiss restaurant, which was the subjectof the pilot project reported on in thispaper.

Vertical ground heatexchanger - an ideal solutionWhile water storage tanks maycompensate for daily differences insupply and demand, the seasonalimbalance between the amount of wasteheat available and the need for such heatmay be dealt with by applying verticalground heat exchangers - alone or insmall groups. When the heat demand islow or tends to zero, the excess heatfrom the cooling plant’s condenser can

be stored in the ground (typical ofsummer operation). In typical winteroperation, the heat requirement willdominate, and the ground can serve as a(supplementary) heat source. Figure 2 isa diagram of a plant with combinedheating and cooling for a situation that istypical of the commercial refrigerationsector - with refrigeration and deep-freeze units and hot water and spaceheating systems. The plant is of particularrelevance here, having its own group ofvertical ground heat exchangers toprovide the buffer effect. Characteristicsof the plant are: heating capacity at thedesign point, 32 kW; heating capacity forhot water production, 5 kW; coolingrequirement for air conditioning at thedesign point, 62 kW, and forrefrigeration and deep-freeze, 25 kW.

Increase in overall energeticefficiencyThe energetic efficiency of a plantproviding both cooling and heating canbe expressed by the ‘overall coefficientof performance’ . It is defined as theratio of the sum of all cooling andheating energy to the sum of allelectrical energy supplied (all electricsystem). In the example described, thecombined production of cooling andheating using ground heat exchangersresulted in an increase in the energeticefficiency of 21% compared to aconventional plant with separate coolingunits and heat pumps; see Table 1.

Planning handbookA planning handbook prepared onbehalf of the Swiss Federal Office of

Energy deals with the design of thesystems needed for the combinedproduction of cooling and heating. Thedesign process is explained in five mainsteps, using the Swiss restaurant in thepilot project as an example:1. Heat requirement: determination ofthe heating capacity according to SIA(Swiss standard) 384/2, of the heatingequirement according to SIA 380/1, andof the heat requirement for hot water

▲ Figure 1: Measured average monthlyvalues for heating and cooling in arestaurant

▼ Table 1: The energetic efficiency of aconventional unit and a combined unit forthe production of cooling and heating inthe case of a restaurant.

Overall coefficientof performance

Conventional: separate 2.4refrigeration units for cooling,and heat pumps for heatingCombined unit as in Figure 2 2.9

Aver

age

heat

ing

and

cool

ing

requ

irem

ent [

MJ/

m2 ] 50

40

30

20

10

0

-10

-20

-30

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Air-conditioning (cooling)FreezingRefrigeratingHeatingHeating water

Switzerland


Non-topical article

24

production and – where needed – forprocesses with a low-temperature heatrequirement.2. Cooling requirement: calculation ofthe cooling capacity according to SIA382/2, the cooling requirement of the

Highlights of the 2001 annual ASHRAE meetingJos Bouma, IEA Heat Pump Centre

The 2001 annual ASHRAE meeting was held in Cincinnati, USA, 23-27 June. This article summarisespapers and discussions on heat pumps and refrigerants.

building, and the cooling capacity andcooling energy requirement of therefrigeration and deep-freeze units.3. Refrigeration units/heat pumps:determination of the evaporation andcondensation temperatures, and

dimensioning of the refrigeration units/heat pumps based on the maximumcooling and/or heating capacity.4. Dimensioning of the ground heatexchanger group based on the monthlyquantities of heat delivered or extractedand on the peak delivery or extractioncapacity.5. Design of thermal storage (hotwater, heating) to accommodate dailyvariations.

The handbook treats steps 4 and 5exhaustively. It also provides valuableinformation on the selection of systemsfor the combined production of coolingand heating. Ordering information canbe found on page 26 of this Newsletter.

Dr Martin ZoggHead of the Research Program on

Ambient Heat, Waste Heat andCogeneration of the Swiss Federal

Office of EnergyKirchstutz 3

CH-3414 OberburgE-mail: [email protected]

Internet: www.waermepumpe.ch/fe

The new ASHRAE president for theyear 2001-02 is William J. Coad. Thetheme he has chosen for his year is“Accepting the Challenge” , meaningthat “ the greatest challenge to thehuman race in looking ahead to the21st century will be to maintain our[US, ed.] quality of life as we face adwindling reserve of energy resources.The HVACR engineers have created thisquality of life, and they are the ones thathave the knowledge and skill to keep itgoing.”

New refrigerantsIn a US paper an overview was given ofthe most likely candidate refrigerantsfor applied heat pumps of the futureincluding fluorocarbons and naturalworking fluids replacing CFC andHCFC refrigerants. Applied heat pumpscover a wide range of products fromsmall domestic heat pump water heatersthrough unitary-sized water loop andground-coupled systems, up to largecentrifugal systems for use in processindustry.

Heat pumps were given plenty of spacein the meeting programme with:• a symposium on Design Issues for

Ground-source Heat Pumps;• a symposium on Applied Heat

Pump/Heat Recovery Concepts forthe new Millennium;

• a forum on the Impact of MinimumEnergy Efficiency Standards on theIndustry;

• a seminar on RefrigerantEnforcement Issues;

• a seminar on the Responsible Use ofRefrigerants.

▲ Figure 2: Flow diagram of the plant build by KWT, Belp (Switzerland) for a restaurantwith combined heating and cooling, direct evaporation and small group of vertical groundheat exchangers.

Heatingnetwork

Water/glycol

Vertical groundheat exchangers

Evaporatordeep freeze

Evaporatorrefrigerators

Refrigerant

Hot water

Switzerland

25


Non-topical article

It was concluded that HFC-134a willlikely be the refrigerant of choice in awide range of heating applications,ranging from domestic to industrial-sizesystems. The use of ammonia in heatingapplications is likely to be secondary toits use for refrigeration purposes becauseof the high discharge temperatures.Ground-source heat pumps, both water-source and closed loop, will useHFC-410A. The driver behind this is thelarger market for unitary air conditionersand heat pumps. Carbon dioxide willfind use only in larger systems wheresystem efficiency can be optimised in acost-effective manner. Hydrocarbons maybe used only where the flammabilitycan be tolerated, such as in industrialprocesses. For the process industry,HFC-245fa is proposed as the mostattractive candidate, from an energyefficiency viewpoint, for use inmultistage centrifugal systems.HFC-236fa may find use in nicheapplications where its capacitycharacteristics enable a cost-effectivesolution. HFC-134a can be used here aswell in many cases.

Ground-source heat pumpsGround-source heat pumps in thiscontext include both open loop(groundwater) and closed loop systems.Proper designing is a pre-requisite forsuccessful systems. The effect of usingsimple design approaches wasinvestigated. Simple design approachesfor commercial/institutional buildingsprovide opportunities for initial cost andoperating cost reductions, as well as areduction of the number of componentsrequiring maintenance. Traditionaldesign approaches for larger buildingscan be characterised as follows:• use of centralised piping loops;• building loop design separate from

ground loop design;• redundancy and overdesign of the

heat pump and its components;• ground loop design often fell to loop

contractor or piping distributor bydefault.

The simple ground-source heat pumpdesign approach recognises that unitarysystems provide benefits superior tothose of larger central loop systemsbecause they are less expensive toinstall, consume less energy, requireless maintenance, and can be servicedby technicians with modest skills. Theconclusion was that unnecessarilycomplex systems continue to bedesigned and installed in commercial/institutional buildings, and thatmisinformation in this regard hasresulted in excessive costs, lowerperformance and occasional ownerdissatisfaction. Hence, a simple unitaryloop design can be incorporated inmany applications, resulting in lowerinitial and operating costs and requiringless maintenance than many popularconventional heat pump designs. It wasalso recognised that many applicationsmight not be suited for simple unitarydesigns.

The relevance of proper design was alsodemonstrated in another paper. In amilitary base in the southeastern US, ithas been proposed to retrofit more than1,000 family residences with individualground-coupled heat pumps. Eachresidence will have its own heat pumpwith a ground loop consisting of two ormore boreholes. The maximumtemperature of the water entering theheat pumps in the cooling mode will be35°C. A system analysis using theindependent TRNSYS simulation modelrevealed that the designer of the loopsystems employed a number ofexperience-based margins of safety toensure that the designs are conservative.These included:• neglecting the effect of the

desuperheater (some of the heat isrejected to the hot water tank);

• assuming a cooling setpoint of 22°C(uncomfortably cool);

• derating the heat pump by 5%(assuming 5% more input power).

The effect of the safety margins is anoversized (longer) heat exchanger and

higher bore field cost (the effectivemaximum temperature of the enteringwater would be 32°C rather than 35°C).

The key elements of groundwater wellspecifications were discussed in aUS paper. The background of the paperis the general HVAC design engineers’lack of familiarity with the topic, whichresults in wells that are rarelycompleted in the best interests of theowner. The paper discusses the keysections of a well-specificationdocument. Two basic water well typesare covered: the open hole well withoutcasing completed in rock formationsand the well lined with casings, screenand sometimes a gravel pack.

Heat islandIn a paper from Japan, a solution waspresented for the heat building up incities caused by the discharge of heatfrom residential air-source heat pumps.The proposed system is meant fordensely populated residential areas andconsists of a new district heating andcooling network that uses water-sourceheat pumps and a large-scaleunderground thermal storage tank.Electricity consumption can besignificantly reduced compared withindividual air-source systems.

Heating towersA Chinese paper presented a proposalfor converting standard water-coolingtowers so that they can be operated inreverse mode for heat extraction. Theheat is used in colder seasons fordomestic water heating to supplementheat recovery from air-conditioningsystems in buildings with reducedcooling loads in subtropical regions.This eliminates the need for a back-upheating system. Tests have shown thatthe system can be used satisfactorily toproduce hot water at around 55°C.

Jos BoumaIEA Heat Pump CentreAddress see back cover

The Netherlands


Books & software

26

Back to the Future - Working safely with hydrocarbonsVideo and bookletUNEP TIE OzonAction Programme, 39-43 Quai Andre Citroen,75739 Paris, FranceFax: +33-1-4437-1474, E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.uneptie.org/ozonaction.html

This 20-minute video highlights the necessary safety practices in theuse of hydrocarbons as refrigerants and insulation foam-blowingagents. The main objective of the video is to help developingcountries, via local refrigeration manufacturers, to understand anduse hydrocarbons as an alternative to CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs indomestic and small commercial refrigeration, especially regardingthe safety aspects involved.

The video and booklet are available in English, French, Spanish,Portuguese, Chinese, Arabic, and Russian. This is a co-productionof UNEP, GTZ, and Greenpeace International, executed by theTelevision Trust for Environment (TVE) with funding under theMultilateral Fund of the Montreal Protocol.

Combined Production of Cooling and Heating using Heat Wells:Handbook of Planning ProceduresJ. Good, A. Huber, P. Widmer, Th. Nussbaumer, D. Trüssel, Ch.Schmid; Swiss Federal Office of Energy, 2001; Price CHF 40(USD 23) under ENET number 210001 obtainable from ENET,Egnacherstrasse 69, CH-9320 Arbon, Switzerland.Fax: +41-71-440-0256, E-mail: [email protected]

This planning handbook, prepared on behalf of the Swiss FederalOffice of Energy, deals with the design of the systems needed forthe combined production of cooling and heating. The designprocedure is explained in five main steps, based on a practicalexample of the plant described in the article on page 23 of thisNewsletter:1. Heating requirement2. Cooling requirement3. Refrigeration units/heat pumps4. Dimensioning of the ground heat exchanger group5. Design of storage

The handbook treats steps 4 and 5 exhaustively. It also providesvaluable information on the selection of systems for combinedcooling and heat production.

Het warmtepomp variantenboek – The heat pump options bookNovem, May 2001; Price NLG 33 (~USD 13),order number 2WPAL01.04, obtainable from Novem,Postbus 17, 6130 AA Sittard, the Netherlands.E-mail: [email protected]. Language: Dutch.

The heat pump options book introduces you to the world of possibleheat pump systems: combinations of heat source, heat pump(monovalent, bivalent, reversible etc.), and heat sink, for individualapplications or for small or large groups of buildings. The conceptof the book makes it possible to combine various options with eachother and encourages an open mind for potentially successfulcombinations. It is also beneficial for those who do not read Dutch,since illustrations are the heart of the book. The book concludeswith a few case studies.

Cool thermodynamics: The Engineering and Physics ofPredictive, Diagnostic and Optimization for Cooling SystemsJeffrey M. Gordon and Kim Choon NgPrice GBP 50 (USD 71), postage and packing GBP 3 (UK), GBP 4(Europe), GBP 5.50 (World). ISBN 1898326 908, June 2000, 261 pages.Cambridge International Science Publishing, 7 Meadow Walk,Great Abington, Cambridge CB1 6AZ, UK. Fax: +44-1223-894539,E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.demon.co.uk/cambsci/homepage.htm

In this book, analytical thermodynamic models are developed for awide range of operating conditions. These models are easilyimplemented in the field or laboratory. Although the authors focusupon mechanical (electrically-driven) chillers - primarilyreciprocating and centrifugal machines - there is also substantialmaterial on heat-driven absorption chillers. Heat pumps and heattransformers are also addressed. A few less common chiller typesare also treated, such as thermo-electric, thermo-acoustic andvortex-tube units.

Retrofitting with heat pumps in buildingsG. Eggen, G. Breembroek, IEA Heat Pump Centre, the Netherlands,90 p. Price NLG 80. Only available in AT, JP, NO, NL, UK, US(from 1 July 2003 available without restriction). Please use theattached response card when ordering HPC products.

The market for heat pumps in new buildings has been expandingrecently in some countries. Attention to the retrofit market is alsoincreasing, in the wake of the market for heat pumps in newbuildings. Several initiatives are also being undertaken to removemarket barriers to increased heat pump deployment in retrofitapplications.

The market potential for heat pumps in retrofit situations issubstantially larger than for new buildings. Yet this potential is farfrom being realised in many countries, largely due to the highdistribution temperatures required in existing heating installations.To achieve a worldwide reduction of CO2 emissions, increaseddeployment of heat pumps for retrofitting is essential.

The report “Retrofitting with heat pumps in buildings” discussesmarkets, market barriers and technological developments, andconcludes with several examples of successful retrofit projects usingheat pumps. It will inspire market parties to stimulate the use of heatpumps for retrofit applications.

Energy conservation and alternative sources of energy in sugarfactories and distilleries (2001)P.J. Manohar Rao, P.J. International Group Consultants,A-101 Yamuna Apartments, Alaknanda, New Delhi – 110 019, India,Fax: +91-011-6474514, E-mail: [email protected]. 780 pages.Price: USD 110 (outside India).

This book covers the following subjects:1. Energy conservation in sugar factories and alternative sources of

energy2. Energy conservation in distilleries3. Non-conventional or renewable sources of energy and their

possible uses in sugar factories and distilleries.One chapter is dealing with the use of heat pumps for energyconservation in these industries.

27


Events

2001

Thermophysical Properties and TransferProcesses of New Refrigerants3-5 October 2001 / Paderborn, GermanyCo-sponsored by IIR, Commission B1Contact: Dr Ing Andrea LukeUniversität Paderborn, Warburger Straße 100D-33098 Paderborn, GermanyTel.: +49-5251-60-2392, Fax: +49-5251-60-3522E-mail: [email protected]

2nd International Conference on EnergyResearch and Development (ICERD 2)5-7 November 2001 / Kuwait City, KuwaitCo-sponsored by IIR, Commission B2, E1, D2Contact: Conference secretariatFax: +965-484-7131E-mail: [email protected]: http://kuc01.kuniv.edu.kw/~icerd

Symposium on the Analysis andApplications of Heat Pump andRefrigeration Systems(2 Sessions) ASME Congress11-16 November 2001 / New York, USAContact: B.G. Shiva PrasadFax: +1-607-937-2390E-mail: [email protected]

2002ASHRAE Winter meeting, Absorption/sorption heat pumps and refrigerationsystems12-16 January 2002 / Atlantic City, USAContact: Jesse KillionProgram Chair, ASHRAE TC 8.3Department of Mechanical Engineering2025 H.M. Black Engineering BuildingIowa State UniversityAmes, IA 50011-2161Tel.: +1-515-2940856, Fax: +1-515-2943261E-mail: [email protected]

International Compressor EngineeringConference at PurdueInternational Refrigeration and AirConditioning Conference at Purdue16-19 July 2002 / West Lafayette, USContact: Reena L. Fleischhauer, coordinatorConference Division, Purdue University1586 Stewart CenterWest Lafayette, IN 47907-1586, USTel.: +1-765-494-9499Fax: +1-765-494-0567E-mail: [email protected]

Next IssueAdsorption anddesiccant systemsVolume 19 - No.4/2001

PLEASE USE THE ATTACHEDREPLY FORM TO ORDERHPC PRODUCTS

NEW: IEA Heat Pump ProgrammeStrategy Plan 2001-05HPP Brochure, August 2001Order No. HPP-BR07. Free-of-charge.To order please contact the IEA Heat PumpCentre, address see back cover.

NEW: Advanced supermarketrefrigeration/ heat recovery systemsCD ROM Workshop proceedings, April 2001Order no. HPP-AN26-1, NLG 180 orNLG 80 in CA, DK, SE, UK, US.

NEW: Retrofitting with heat pumps inbuildingsHPC Survey report, July 2001Order no. HPC-AR9, NLG 80. Onlyavailable in AT, JP, NL, NO, UK, US up to1 July 2003.

Considerations in the design and selectionof Domestic heating and coolingDistribution and ventilation systemsand their use with residential heat pumpsHPC Survey report, June 2000Order no. HPC-AR8, NLG 80. Onlyavailable in AT, JP, NL, NO, UK, US up to1 June 2003.

Selected issues on CO2 as working fluid incompression systemsWorkshop proceedings, January 2001Order no. HPP-AN27-1, NLG 180 orNLG 60 in JP, NO, SE, UK and US.

Ab-sorption machines for heating andcooling in future energy systemsAnnex 24 final report, November 2000Order no. HPP-AN24-4, NLG 100.Only available in CA, IT, JP, NL, NO, SE,UK and US up to 1 December 2002.

Available from the HPC

IEA Heat Pump Programme events

Utilities’ experiences with heat pumps inbuildings10-11 October 2001 / Arnhem, theNetherlandsHPC/IPUHPC (International Power UtilityHeat Pump Committee) joint workshopContact: Ms Minie Wilpshaar, HPCNovem, the NetherlandsFax: +31 46 4510 389E-mail: [email protected]

7th IEA Heat Pump Conference19-22 May 2002 / Beijing, ChinaChina Academy of Building Research(CABR)Post code 100013, P.O. Box 752, Beijing,ChinaTel: +86 10 84270568, 84272233 ext. 2331Fax: +86 10 84283555, 84284720E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.chinahvac.com.cn (Chinese)

For further publications and events,visit the HPC Internet site athttp://www.heatpumpcentre.org

Zero Leakage - Minimum Charge26-29 August 2002 / Stockholm, SwedenContact: Per LundqvistIIR conferenceRoyal Institute of TechnologyFax: +46-8-20-30-07E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.egi.kth.se/zero/

International Sorption Conference 200224-27 September 2002 / Shanghai, ChinaContact: Dr Wang WenInstitute of Refrigeration & CryogenicsShanghai Jiao Tong University1954 Huashan RoadShanghai 200030, ChinaFax: +86-21-62933250E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.sorption.sjtu.edu.cn

Mitigating ozoneMitigating ozonedepletion anddepletion and

global warmingglobal warming

National Team Contacts

AustriaMr Hermann HalozanTU Graz, Inffeldgasse 25A-8010 GrazAustriaTel.: +43-316-8737303Fax: +43-316-8737305E-mail: [email protected]

JapanMr Takeshi YoshiiHeat Pump & Thermal StorageTechnology Center of JapanKakigara-cho F Bldg.(6F)28-5, Nihonbashi Kakigara-cho 1-chomeChuo-ku, Tokyo 103-0014, JapanTel.: +81-3-56432401Fax: +81-3-56414501E-mail: [email protected]

The NetherlandsMr Edward PfeifferNovem, PO Box 82423503 RE UtrechtThe NetherlandsTel.: +31-30-2393631Fax: +31-30-2316491E-mail: [email protected]

NorwayMr Rune AarlienSINTEF Energy ResearchRefrigeration and Air ConditioningN-7465 Trondheim, NorwayTel.: +47-73-593929Fax: +47-73-593950E-mail: [email protected]

United KingdomMr Jeremy TaitETSUHarwell, OxonOxfordshire OX11 0RA, UKTel.: +44-1235-433611Fax: +44-1235-433727E-mail: [email protected]

USAMs Julia KelleyOak Ridge National LaboratoryBuilding 3147, PO Box 2008Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6070, USATel.: +1-865-5741013Fax: +1-865-5749329E-mail: [email protected]

IEA Heat Pump CentreNovem, P.O. Box 176130 AA Sittard,The NetherlandsTel: +31-46-4202236Fax: +31-46-4510389E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.heatpumpcentre.org

International Energy AgencyThe International Energy Agency (IEA) wasestablished in 1974 within the framework ofthe Organisation for Economic Co-operationand Development (OECD) to implement anInternational Energy Programme. A basic aimof the IEA is to foster co-operation among itsparticipating countries, to increase energysecurity through energy conservation,development of alternative energy sources,new energy technology and research anddevelopment.

IEA Heat Pump ProgrammeInternational collaboration for energy efficientheating, refrigeration and air-conditioning

VisionThe Programme is the foremost world-widesource of independent information &expertise on heat pump, refrigeration andair–conditioning systems for buildings,commerce and industry. Its internationalcollaborative activities to improve energye f f i c i ency and min imise adver seenvironmental impact are highly valued bystakeholders.

MissionThe Programme serves the needs of policymakers, national and international energy &envi ronmenta l agenc ies , ut i l i t ies ,manufacturers, designers & researchers. Italso works through national agencies toinf luence instal lers and end-users.

The Programme develops and disseminatesfactual, balanced information to achieveenvironmental and energy efficiency benefitthrough deployment of appropriate highquality heat pump, refrigeration & air-conditioning technologies.

IEA Heat Pump CentreA central role within the programme is playedby the IEA Heat Pump Centre (HPC). The HPCcontributes to the general aim of the IEA HeatPump Programme, through informationexchange and promotion. In the membercountries (see right), activities are coordinatedby National Teams. For further information onHPC products and activities, or for generalenquiries on heat pumps and the IEA HeatPump Programme, contact your National Teamor the address below.

The IEA Heat Pump Centre is operated by

Netherlands agency for energy and the environment

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