Mobile Phone Use in a Developing Country: A Malaysian Empirical Study

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Mobile Phone Use in a DevelopingCountry: A Malaysian Empirical StudyPaul H.P. Yeow , Yee Yen Yuen & Regina ConnollyPublished online: 24 May 2008.

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Mobile Phone Use in a DevelopingCountry: A Malaysian EmpiricalStudy

Paul H.P. Yeow, Yee Yen Yuen, and Regina Connolly

ON the streets of major Asian cities such as Shanghai

and Tokyo consumer use of mobile telephones is com-

monplace. In addition to being a mode of communi-

cation, mobile telephones are often the primary method by

which students and working adults access the Internet and for

many it would be simply unimaginable to live without this tech-

nology. In Malaysia, as of May 2006, there were 16.2 million

mobile phone users registered with the five digital networks,

with the majority of these located in major cities such as Kuala

Lumpur and Malacca. Studies of the profiles of these individuals

have shown that they are likely to have full-time jobs and high

incomes and tend to make more weekly phone calls compared to

those who do not use mobile phones.

Although the literature indicates that numerous studies have

been conducted on the influence, perception, and use of modern

technologies in urban daily life, such as Yeow et al.’s study

which focused on user acceptance of a multipurpose smart identity

card in cities in Malaysia, and other studies by Coates; Brown,

Balepur, and Mokhtarian; Fernandez-Maldonado; Firmino;

Ghere and Rismiller; Huh and Kim; Pons-Novell and Viladecans-

Marsal; and Loo, which have investigated the factors that affect

widespread adoption of the Internet and other information

communication technologies, few have examined the negative

Oliver 1997

“More Youngsters. . .”

Rice and Katz

Journal of Urban Technology, Volume 15, Number 1, pages 85–116.

Copyright # 2008 by The Society of Urban Technology.

All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

ISSN: 1063-0732 paper/ISSN: 1466-1853 online

DOI: 10.1080/10630730802097831

Mobile Phone Use in a Developing Country 85

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aspects of mobile phone usage in urban areas. Such information is

particularly important for urban planners and policy makers in

their efforts to create a conducive and user-friendly environment

for daily mobile phone communications. For example, although

Townsend’s study highlighted the role of mobile telephones in

eliminating the spatial and temporal constraints of human com-

munications, quickening the pace of urban life and increasing

the formation of new decentralized information networks of

urban systems, it does not reveal crucial problems affecting

overall mobile phone satisfaction. Moreover, the limited number

of studies which have focused on negative aspects of technology

adoption, such as the House of Commons Select Committee

report, tend to be narrowly scoped. For example, that study

merely concentrated on the design and placement of antenna

towers in urban areas to meet increasing demands without provid-

ing guidance on how to mitigate the health risks of prolonged

mobile phone use. Other studies, which have examined negative

aspects of mobile phone use have been similarly narrowly

focused and location-specific, for example examining the negative

impact of mobile phone use in cars or public places without

measuring the positive effects, e.g., communication with family

and friends, and family coordination. This study redresses that

imbalance by providing a comprehensive investigation of the

factors influencing citizen’s satisfaction and dissatisfaction with

daily mobile phone use. It suggests a number of solutions to

resolve current mobile phone usage problems. Previous studies

have focused on citizens’ mobile phone dependency in general

without the use of statistical analysis to verify the validity of the

constructs being measured or the relationships between those con-

structs. This study, on the other hand, examines the interrelation-

ships of all tested variables using factor analysis and stepwise

multiple linear regression. It provides a platform for future

research by assisting specialists such as ergonomists, health and

safety practitioners, and academics/researchers in identifying

common mobile-phone use problems before conducting follow-

up studies such as actual laboratory experiments to address those

problems. From a practitioner perspective, this study provides

insights that will be of benefit to central and local government

bodies (who act as city planners) in their efforts to manage and

improve the quality of mobile phone use in large cities such as

Kuala Lumpur and Malacca in collaboration with local telecom-

munication companies. In addition, the findings of this study

provide mobile phone designers/manufacturers with an improved

House of Commons Select

Committee

Boase et al.

Briem and Hedman

Brookhuis and DeWaard

Drory

Haigney and Westerman

Reed and Green

Love and Kewley

Mante-Meijer et al.

Wei and Leung

Kerlinger

Lasen

Ling 2002

Ling 2005

Townsend

86 Journal of Urban Technology/April 2008

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understanding of end-users’ concerns and thus assist them in their

efforts to design contemporary mobile phones that provide a more

satisfactory response to consumers’ needs.

Literature Review

In the literature, the Overall Mobile Phone Satisfaction (OMPS)

construct has been described as “the consumer’s post-mobile

phone consumption evaluative response or judgment that a

mobile phone provides a pleasurable level of consumption-

related fulfillment, including levels of under or over-fulfillment.”

The literature also indicates that OMPS is significantly influenced

by six Mobile Phone Usage Factors (MPUFs). These factors are

now discussed in more detail.

Peer ChattingThe first of these factors, peer chatting, is one of the most obvious

reasons for mobile phone use. Studies indicate that consumers’

preferred mode for informal communication with their friends is

the mobile phone. Moreover, the ability to use short messaging

service (SMS) functionality to alert friends to an interesting item

of news, while saving the details for a phone call or meeting has

been shown to contribute to an increase in user satisfaction with

mobile phones as a communication medium. A recent study

showed that criticism and negative evaluations account for only

5 percent of mobile phone peer chatting time, asking for or

giving advice on how to handle social situations also accounts

for only 5 percent, and the bulk of mobile phone conversations

focus on “who is doing what with whom” and personal social

experiences. Mobile phones are, therefore, an essential facilitator

of these social exchanges.

Family CoordinationThe increased ability that mobile phone use confers on an individ-

ual to coordinate with other members of the family is a significant

but often overlooked factor that increases satisfaction with this

technology. For example, research by Rakow and Navarro has

identified an increase in working adults’ OMPS related to their

ability to use mobile phone communications to contact and super-

vise their children when business commitments delay their return

home. Clearly, parental anxiety is reduced when parents know that

Mano and Oliver

Oliver 1993

Oliver 1997

Eder and Enke

Fox

Jaeger et al.

Japenga

Eder and Enke

Fox

Jaeger et al.

Japenga

Fox


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they can contact and monitor their children regardless of location

and as mobile phone conversation is a direct mouth-to-ear connec-

tion, it provides a perfect channel for direct, intense, family com-

munication between parents and children when the parents are not

at home.

Social InterruptionHowever, it is acknowledged that not all aspects of mobile

phone use are positive and contribute towards consumer satisfac-

tion with the technology. For example, from the viewpoint of

most workers, to receive incoming mobile phone calls and

SMS during an important meeting or a complex/concurrenttask is disruptive. Similarly, most people in meetings and

lecture rooms are disturbed by the presence of loud mobile

phone calls and express their displeasure non-verbally by termi-

nating their social interaction immediately or by redirecting their

gaze away from the caller. Frequent mobile phone interruptions

have also been shown to lead to lower decision accuracy and

the need for longer decision-making time. In addition, Cutrell,

Czerwinski and Horvitz discovered that hearing a noisy mobile

phone ringer increases stress and reduces productivity. The

need to temporarily exit from a concurrent meeting in order

to answer a mobile phone call can lead to task performance

deterioration because it may disrupt the process of brainstorming

and formation of new ideas. In Madrid, students (and lecturers)

always answer a call, even if they have to leave the classroom

because they think that it is rude to let a call go unanswered.

However, answering phone calls immediately during class time

is likely to affect their concentration and academic performance.

Public DisturbanceA second negative factor relates to the noise pollution that results

from increased usage of mobile phone communications. For

example, studies have shown that mobile phone use in public

locations irritates 74 percent of bystanders, primarily because

the speaker was speaking loudly or because the bystanders were

forced to overhear the mobile phone conversation when trapped

in a confined area like a bus or train. Being forced to hear these

conversations distracts the thoughts of surrounding people who

feel awkward and embarrassed at overhearing personal issues

being discussed. Loud mobile phone conversations may make

people feel that, “If I can hear what other people are saying, in

Klamer et al.

Lycett and Dunbar

Rakow and Navarro

Schegloff

Cellier and Eyrolle 1992


Doderick and Larose

Altmann and Gray

Bailey et al.

Iqbal and Bailey

Yeow and Yuen 2004

Adamczyk and Bailey

Altmann and Gray



Hess and Detweiler

Monk et al.

Bailey et al.



Cutrell et al.

Lasen

Kopomaa

Love and Kewley

Mante-Meijer et al.

Wei and Leung 1999

Klamer et al.

Kopomaa


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another situation others would also be able to hear what I am

saying,” which is an uncomfortable reflection of their own conver-

sations being overheard when they use mobile phones in public

places. A factor that contributes to the difficulty of engaging

in mobile phone communication in public places relates to the

background noise caused by the location of the mobile phone

caller and receiver. As discovered by Farah, Monk et al., and

Terrel and Hammel, users need to speak louder on mobile

phones compared with face-to-face communications, since the

low sound quality of mobile phones makes it difficult for users

to hear and understand their counterparts over the phone.

When users are forced to speak loudly through the phone (as a

compensational strategy for the difficulties of hearing due to

background noise or perhaps poor sound quality), it results in

increased public disturbance. Clearly, the advantage of anytime,

anywhere communication that mobile phones confer on end

users contrasts with the irritation and disturbance of those situated

near the end user.

Radio-Frequency Radiation Health EffectsStudies have shown that consumer concerns regarding the occur-

rence of insomnia, brain tumors, dizziness, headache, nausea,

and fatigue due to excessive mobile phone radio-frequency radi-

ation exposure are increasing. Despite the fact that studies to

date have failed to identify a significant link between the length

of mobile phone conversations and possible health hazards, and

despite the fact that levels of exposure have been shown to gener-

ally reduce with increasing distance from the source, consumer

concerns remain significant and are likely to inhibit full adoption

of mobile phone technology.

Road AccidentsAnother disadvantage of mobile phone use relates to the use of the

technology by car drivers. Studies have shown that individuals

who use mobile phones while driving their cars are less capable

of maintaining a constant speed and keeping a safe distance

from the car in front of them. In addition, their tendency to fail

to notice road-warning signs is significantly higher when com-

pared to those who do not use mobile phones when driving. For

example, drivers’ responses to traffic signals have been shown to

be significantly slower and drivers tend to miss more road sign-

boards while using either a hand-held or hands-free phone. In

Lasen

Ling 2002

Ling 2005

Klamer et al.

Lasen

Ling 2002

Ling 2005

Bergvik

Cox and Luxton

Health Council of

the Netherlands. . .

Hocking

Independent Expert

Group. . .

International Commission

on Non-Ionizing. . .

Boase et al.

Briem and Hedman


Drory


Reed and Green

Drory

Reed and Green


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contrast, listening to the radio or a tape does not significantly

deteriorate driving performance. Therefore, it can be concluded

that the driver’s distraction results from his or her active engage-

ment in mobile phone conversations rather than carrying a phone

or listening to the radio in the car.

These six factors that have been identified in the literature,

two of which are positive and four of which are negative,

will form the main basis of this study’s research framework.

They will be treated as independent variables. The significance

of these variables and their predictive influence on the

dependent variable, overall mobile phone satisfaction in Malaysia,

will be examined in detail. Figure 1 outlines the research

framework.

FIGURE 1Research Framework

Bergvik

Boase et al.

Briem and Hedman


Demas and Rosenthal

Drory


Reed and Green

Bergvik

Boase et al.

Briem and Hedman


Demas and Rosenthal

Drory


Reed and Green


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Methodology

In order to test the relationship between the independent and

dependent variables, a sample of three hundred students and

working adults, all of whom were aged between 16 and 55 years

old, were selected as respondents for this study. This sample

was drawn from two urban areas in Malaysia, i.e. Malacca and

Kuala Lumpur, which comprise approximately 50,000 and 1.62

million users, respectively, out of the total 16.2 million mobile

phone users in Malaysia. Malacca is a small city and Kuala

Lumpur is the largest city in Malaysia.

The measurement instrument was developed and pilot-tested

before being distributed to the respondents. Thirty students and 30

working adults were selected as respondents for the pilot test.

These respondents were invited to comment on the items that

they considered as deserving of modification, clarification, or

removal. Their views on the appropriate length of the question-

naire were also examined and taken into consideration during

the preparation of the final survey questionnaire. The results of

the pilot study were analyzed and have previously been presented

in Yeow and Yuen. The final measurement instrument was com-

posed of 27 questions on the six mobile phone use factors

(MPUFs). Of these, three questions examined mobile phone use

for the purpose of peer chatting, three questions related to

mobile phone use for the purpose of family coordination, five

questions related to mobile phone social interruption, three ques-

tions related to public disturbance, ten questions related to

mobile phone radio-frequency radiation health concerns, and

three questions related to road accidents related to mobile phone

use. In addition, a question on Overall Mobile Phone Satisfaction

(OMPS) was included in this measurement instrument. The ques-

tions were rated using a 5-point Semantic Differential Scale

anchored by 1 (Strong dissatisfaction), 2 (Dissatisfied), 3

(Neutral), 4 (Satisfied), and 5 (Strong satisfaction). The research

data were then analyzed using parametric statistical tests including

factor analysis and stepwise multiple linear regression.

Half of the respondents in this study were students and the

other half were working adults as indicated in Table 1. Forty-

two percent of the respondents were males and 58.0 percent

were females, 59.3 percent were Malays, 27.3 percent were

Chinese and 13.3 percent were Indians. Half the respondents

were in the 21 to 30 age bracket while 18.4 percent of the respon-

dents were more than 30 years of age.

Bergvik

Boase et al.

Briem and Hedman


Demas and Rosenthal

Drory


Reed and Green

Yeow and Yuen 2004

Yeow and Yuen 2005


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Results

The results of the factor analysis on the 27 attributes included in

the survey questionnaire are indicated in Table 2. The attributes

can be grouped into six factors, Radio-Frequency Radiation

Health Effects, Social Interruption, Peer Chatting, Public

Disturbance, Family Coordination, and Road Accidents (with an

eigenvalue greater than 1.00, 73.72 percent of the variance

explained). The reliability of each factor was tested using

Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient and the results, which are shown

in Table 2, indicate a high internal consistency in the respondents’

answers (with Alpha coefficients of greater than 0.6). Conse-

quently, no items were removed.

A stepwise multiple linear regression analysis was used to

confirm the criterion validity of this study by establishing relation-

ships between the independent variables (MPUFs) and dependent

variable (OMPS). From the results outlined in Table 3, it can be

seen that the adjusted multiple coefficient of determination

(adjusted R2) clearly explains 51.4 percent of the variance associ-

ated with OMPS, which is considered as highly significant. The

F-ratio is also highly significant at 37.289, confirming that

the variables make a significant contribution to the fitness of the

regression model. The results indicate that Peer Chatting and

Family Coordination factors positively affect OMPS while

Radio-Frequency Radiation Health Effects, Public Disturbance,

Road Accidents and Social Interruption factors negatively affect

OMPS. All six significant MPUFs were found to have very low

TABLE 1Respondents’ Profiles

Frequency Percentage

Subject Class Students 150 50.0Working adults 150 50.0

Gender Male 126 42.0Female 173 58.0

Race Malay 175 59.3Chinese 82 27.3Indian 40 13.3

Age Below 21 95 31.721–30 150 50.0Above 30 55 18.4


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TABLE 2Factor Analysis

Factors

No. Questionnaire Items

Radio-FrequencyRadiation Health

EffectsSocial

InterruptionPeer

ChattingPublic

DisturbanceFamily

CoordinationRoad

Accident

1. MP causes brain tumors .912 1.753E-03 21.341E-02 .115 26.648E-02 .1332. MP causes leukemia .900 26.188E-02 2.588E-02 4.959E-02 21.072E-03 .1003. MP causes fatigue .892 .102 6.902E-03 9.216E-03 2.899E-02 9.808E-024. MP causes variability in

natural heart rate.880 1.452E-05 1.798E-02 8.139E-02 9.051E-03 2.256E-02

5. MP causes dizziness .874 7.972E-02 23.529E-03 9.586E-02 23.163E-02 6.353E-026. MP causes nausea .865 25.389E-02 4.089E-02 21.155E-02 24.582E-02 .1717. MP causes decrease in sperm

count.861 5.868E-02 3.417E-03 8.676E-02 4.484E-02 9.557E-02

8. MP causes earache .860 8.060E-02 2.378E-02 .108 26.956E-02 5.340E-029. MP causes headache .784 .268 3.671E-02 9.502E-02 4.789E-02 .11910. MP causes insomnia .741 .136 .102 4.135E-02 27.335E-02 .189

11. MP causes immediatestopping of communicationwith others whenanswering call

.107 .918 25.325E-02 9.014E-02 1.304E-02 1.717E-02

12. MP causes immediatelystopping of work whenanswering call

8.608E-02 .863 21.686E-02 .123 2.456E-02 21.645E-02

13. MP causes difficulty inresuming social activitiesafter an interruption

6.213E-02 .836 2.110 8.106E-03 2.100 5.902E-03

(Table continued)

Mobile

PhoneUse

inaDevelo

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TABLE 2Continued

Factors



EffectsSocial

InterruptionPeer

ChattingPublic

DisturbanceFamily

CoordinationRoad

Accident

14. MP causes waiting for othersto finish call to continueconversations

5.942E-02 .800 2.113 21.493E-03 4.749E-02 1.568E-02

15. MP causes immediate leavingof meeting rooms/ lecturehalls to answer call

3.615E-02 .710 .186 6.746E-02 2.110 .132

16. MP can be used to avoidparents’ calls to keep awayfrom their control

8.897E-02 28.741E-02 .901 26.761E-03 9.674E-02 5.785E-02

17. MP can be used to spreadrumors among friends

6.157E-02 28.517E-02 .898 9.648E-02 .130 4.059E-02

18. MP can be used to discusslatest mobile phonefunctions with friend

22.713E-03 5.364E-02 .876 2.535E-02 7.653E-02 23.142E-02

19. Ringing of MP in the middleof meeting/lecture/ publicplaces causes disturbance

.166 8.958E-02 5.321E-02 .870 -4.761E-02 5.493E-02

20. People in close proximitytalking loudly on MP in themiddle of meeting/lecture/public placescauses disturbance

.106 9.675E-02 5.004E-02 .850 27.759E-02 .264

(Table continued)

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TABLE 2Continued

Factors



EffectsSocial

InterruptionPeer

ChattingPublic

DisturbanceFamily

CoordinationRoad

Accident

21. SMS notification in themiddle of meeting/lecture/ public placescauses disturbance

9.680E-02 6.931E-02 2.151E-02 .835 2.106 .133

22. MP can be used to reducehomesickness

2.547E-02 1.556E-02 23.195E-02 8.762E-02 .868 2.160

23. MP can be used to contactparents for transportation

27.762E-02 26.732E-02 .154 2.118 .808 9.689E-02

24. MP can be used to keep trackof children’s activities

23.750E-02 26.044E-02 .259 2.297 .688 4.948E-02

25. MP can cause the followingof wrong route/ making ofmistake

.141 21.666E-02 .132 .114 1.508E-02 .789

26. MP can cause people fallinginto drain/ hitting wall/meeting accident

.252 .105 27.641E-02 9.102E-02 7.464E-02 .699

27. MP can cause vehiclecollision

.243 4.816E-02 22.942E-04 .243 2.132 .685

Eigenvalue 8.43 3.69 2.74 2.51 1.53 1.27Variance (%) 28.22 41.67 51.26 60.39 67.81 73.72Coefficient a 0.9574 0.8846 0.8859 0.8375 0.7220 0.6409

MP-Mobile Phone

Mobile

PhoneUse

inaDevelo

pingCountry

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TABLE 3Stepwise Multiple Linear Regression Analysis

MPUFs BStandardized Beta

Coefficient� t Statistic p-valueVariance Inflation

Factor ValueAdjusted

R square Value

(Constant) 4.871 23.18 ,.001 .5141. Peer Chatting .153 .284 5.71 ,.001 1.0452. FamilyCoordination

.102 .131 2.66 .008 1.022

24. SocialInterruption

2.100 2.130 22.63 .009 1.047

23. RoadAccident

2.151 2.210 23.99 ,.001 1.176

22. PublicDisturbance

2.159 2.222 24.34 ,.001 1.113

21. RadioFrequencyRadiationHealth

2.302 2.442 28.37 ,.001 1.183

�Sorted in descending order. F ¼ 37.289 (p ¼ ,0.001).

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Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values (,10), thus confirming that

the independent variables tested in this study are not highly corre-

lated or inter-related.

Discussion

Factor AnalysisIn this study, a multivariate factor analysis, one of the most power-

ful methods of testing construct validity, was used to develop

factors to measure the degree to which the questionnaire relates

to expectations formed from theoretical or hypothetical constructs.

All attributes in the questionnaire were grouped into six indepen-

dent factors with no attributes dropped and the total variance of

73.72 percent indicates that the questionnaire has been well

designed and is valid (Table 2). The results for each of these

factors are now discussed in more detail.

The Family Coordination factor comprised a number of items

that measured coordination of family activities and maintenance of

the family relationship. (See Table 2.) The result for this factor

confirms that working parents view mobile phones as being par-

ticularly useful tools in assisting them to organize significant

family activities, in maintaining relationships among family

members, and in helping them to perform time-consuming care-

giving roles when they cannot return home on time. This result

is consistent with the belief highlighted in the literature that

parents use mobile phones to keep in touch with their children

and to monitor their behavior during working hours.

The Peer Chatting factor consisted of items that measured

mobile phone use for the purpose of chatty talks and experience-

sharing with friends. (See Table 2.) The results obtained for

this factor confirms findings from the literature that the mobile

phone provides autonomy to discuss any affairs without parental

control. It, therefore, facilitates teenagers and working adults

who wish to talk about personal matters, relationships, and

secrets.

The Social Interruption factor encompassed items that

measure interruption of social activities (e.g., face-to-face conver-

sations, meetings, or lectures) resulting from a ringing mobile

phone. (See Table 2.) The results obtained for this factor

confirm the findings of a previous study that found that mobile

phone users tend to interrupt meetings or lectures when they

leave their mobile phones switched on all the time.

Belsley et al.

Kerlinger

Nunnally and Bernstein

Crabtree et al. 2003


Gillard and Wale

Rakow and Navarro

Riley

Vershinskaya

Vestby



Gillard and Wale

Rakow and Navarro

Vershinskaya

Vestby

Fox

Gillard and Wale

Guendouzi

Jaeger et al.

Japenga

Ling 2005

Brown et al.

Castelain-Meunier

Fox

Gillard and Wale

Guendouzi

Hodge

Yeow and Yuen 2004


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The Public Disturbance factor included items that measured

mobile phone intrusion as experienced by nearby people in

public settings. (See Table 2.) The study finding confirms the find-

ings of previous studies, which indicated that a loud mobile phone

ringer and loud mobile phone communication are considered to

seriously disrupt the privacy of others in public places. Despite

this fact, most users remain indifferent towards the need of the

public for peace and quiet, indicated by the fact that they do not

ensure that their mobile phones are switched off or reverted to

silent mode when they are in public places.

The Radio-Frequency Health factor comprised items that

measured perceived health hazards resulting from prolonged

mobile phone use. (See Table 2.) The findings of this study are

consistent with the results of previous studies that show that con-

sumers have significant concerns regarding the possibility that

adverse health effects like insomnia, headache, dizziness,

nausea, and leukemia may be caused by repeated and acute

exposure to mobile phone radio-frequency radiation.

In this study, the Road Accident factor included items that

measured a road crash and other road errors resulting from

mobile phone use while driving. (See Table 2.) The results for

this factor confirm that mobile phone use in a car is perceived to

slow down the driver’s reactions, divert his or her attention, and

lead to an increase in road accidents—a result that is consistent

with the findings of previous studies.

Key Mobile Phone Usage Factors (MPUFs) That AffectOverall Mobile Phone Satisfaction (OMPS) PositivelyThe study results show that the Peer Chatting factor positively

affects OMPS as it has the highest Standardized Coefficient Beta

value of .284 and the highest t value of 5.71. (See Table 3.)

Regular mobile phone chatting with friends fascinates Malaysians

and increases their OMPS. Fox, Hodge, and Townsend discovered

that in fast-paced and fragmented modern cities where friends are

scattered, and even if their friends live nearby, individuals are

often too busy or too tired to visit. Therefore, mobile phones

play a vital role in social bonding. Many teenagers have dozens

of friends, with whom they remain in contact by chatting via the

mobile phone and by exchanging text messages. Studies have

shown that conducting evaluative talk or gossip about a person

who is not present (e.g., celebrities and other public figure such

as royals and politicians) enables the development of social

skills, reinforces shared values, resolves conflicts, and builds

Klamer et al.

Monk et al.

Yeow and Yuen 2004

Klamer et al.

Monk et al.

Yeow and Yuen 2004

Health Council of the

Netherlands. . .

Independent Expert Group on

Mobile Phones

International Commission on

Non-Ionizing. . .

Bergvik

Boase et al.

Briem and Hedman


Demas and Rosenthal

Drory

Guendouzi

Reed and Green

Fox

Ling 2002

Ling 2005


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support networks. Mobile phones facilitate frequent passing

exchanges thus enabling the user to keep up with the small

details of what is going on in people’s lives and ensure that indi-

viduals are connected to their social and support networks. It has

been shown in experiments that the mutual grooming of primates

stimulates the production of endorphins, natural painkilling

opiates for the body. This makes the primates feel relaxed,

reduces their heart rate, and eliminates other signs of stress. It

is, therefore, conceivable that the “vocal grooming” of humans

via mobile phone chatting may have similar effects in alleviating

the stress of modern, fragmented lifestyles through enabling fre-

quent, spontaneous, casual communication to take place at

anytime and anyplace.

Family Coordination is the second crucial Mobile Phone

Usage Factor that is positively associated with OMPS as indicated

in Table 3. When there is an increase in mobile phone use in dis-

cussing and coordinating daily family activities, it will sub-

sequently boost OMPS. Rakow and Navarro found that mobile

phones are often used in organizing schedules to transport children

to various events such as tutoring or co-curricula activities. The

efficiency of daily “pick up” activities increases when working

parents can instantly call their children to meet them at a desig-

nated venue without wasting time anxiously looking for them.

Since mobile phone ownership is common among Malaysian

urban students and working adults, it facilitates working parents

in checking where their children are and in monitoring what

they are doing, thereby increasing their satisfaction with mobile

technology.

Self-esteem can be built through good family communi-

cation. A child knows that he is loved and realizes his capability

through daily communication with family members. Sound

nurturing family communication helps a child to build self-confi-

dence, points out skills and strengths, and makes a child aware of

his worth. Parents in big cities can frequently be too busy to com-

municate with their child in a way that shows affection and affirms

their love. As a result, the childmay not receive adequate nurturing.

Within this context, the mobile phone provides the potential for

increased interaction between busy working parents and their

children. It offers working parents an opportunity to attend to

their children’s problems and improve parent-child understanding

when parents are away from home possibly during business trips.

Before the invention of the mobile phone, individuals who were in

transit could only use public phones to connect with stationary

Brown et al.

Castelain-Meunier

Fox

Hodge

Ling 2005

Fox

Fox

Ling 2005

Monk et al.

Gillard and Wale

Riley

Gillard and Wale

Riley

Riley


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individuals, but they themselves could not be contacted and could

not participate in immediate family discussions. Now, the mobile

phone allows for nearly continuous and ubiquitous communi-

cation, providing a greater degree of freedom for family

members, whether stationary or in transit, without losses in trans-

mission speed and reaction time. It helps in remembering birth-

days and anniversaries, organizing family gatherings, consoling

sick family members, and retelling family history to enforce and

strengthen the social integration of the family. In short, it can

act as a social nurturing tool.

The growing number of married women in the urban work-

force makes the ability to synchronize home and work increasingly

important. The mobile phone allows busy working women to sche-

dule and plan their office and family tasks in advance or to com-

plete their office tasks while at the same time communicating

with family members via their mobile phones. This greater

control over timing assists them in coordinating the demands of

all of their family members quickly without affecting their daily

working performance.

As children grow up and increase the time when they are

absent from the family home, the mobile phone helps to cushion

traumatic experiences or loneliness in foreign or unfamiliar

environments by keeping children connected to their parents.

Short Message Service (SMS) has become particularly popular

with individuals who tend to be reserved with other people.

Urban teenagers perceive SMS as a useful method to communicate

without having to voice feelings and thoughts directly. Perhaps the

demand of brevity in composing the SMS in the absence of the

face-to-face interaction encourages those who are shy to express

themselves and enables them to frankly communicate their home-

sickness and loneliness to family members when they are away

from home. It is also relatively certain that the SMS will be

received by the individual to whom it is sent, without somebody

else taking notice, in contrast with oral telephone calls, which

are completely unpredictable in terms of whether the family

member called will be at home or whether unwelcome third

parties may be present.

Key Mobile Phone Usage Factors (MPUFs) That AffectOverall Mobile Phone Satisfaction (OMPS) NegativelyNot all of this study’s findings are positive. The results in Table 3

show the Radio-Frequency Radiation Health factor to be the

strongest negative factor associated with OMPS with the

Gillard and Wale

Riley

Ling 2002

Rakow and Navarro

Riley

Rakow and Navarro

Riley

Vestby

Rakow and Navarro

Riley

Vestby

Rakow and Navarro

Riley

Vestby

Ling 2002

Ling 2002

Ling 2005

Lasen

Ling 2002

Ling 2002

Ling 2005


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highest Standardized Coefficient Beta value of 2.442 and the

highest t value of -8.37. It, therefore, appears that an increase in

radio-frequency radiation health concerns will subsequently

reduce OMPS. It may be that the media coverage of mobile-

phone-related radio-frequency heath concerns has increased

citizens’ health concerns and awareness of this issue. Several

studies have shown that prolonged exposure to radio-frequency

radiation may result in insomnia, dizziness, headaches, and ear-

aches and it has been argued that radio-frequency radiation may

result in a “unilateral influence” on the vestibular system in the

middle ear and consequently affect users’ health. There are also

concerns about possible effects of radio-frequency radiation on

the brain when the mobile phone is conventionally held close to

the head. Although major telecommunications companies in

Malaysia such as Maxis frequently proclaim the safety of mobile

phone use issuing statements that the levels of mobile-phone-

related radio-frequency radiation are insufficient to cause

adverse health effects while being used, these statements clearly

remain unconvincing for the majority of mobile phone users in

this study.

Besides concern about personal health, Yeow and Yuen

found that Malaysian mobile phone users are also concerned

about the health of their friends and family members. According

to the Health Council of the Netherlands, the Independent

Expert Group on Mobile Phones, and the International Commis-

sion on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), a portion

of the population such as elderly people, infants, and young chil-

dren are less tolerant of radio-frequency radiation exposure and

face elevated risks in experiencing mobile-phone-related health

problems due to potentially higher radiation sensitivity. Therefore,

more confirmative studies examining the radio-frequency radi-

ation tolerance level of these population groups are necessary if

the worries of mobile phone users are to be alleviated. Further-

more, mobile phone users in Malaysia are also possibly unclear

about mobile phone radio-frequency radiation exposure limits

due to insufficient information on the official web sites of govern-

ment agencies such as those of the Ministry of Health and of the

MalaysianCommunicationandMultimediaCommission (MCMC).

This contrasts with other countries such as England, where

national guidelines on radio-frequency radiation exposure have

been issued by the ICNIRP. In addition, there is a standard

testing procedure in the United Kingdom for the measurement of

the specific energy absorption rate (SAR) of different mobile

British Medical Association

Health Council of the Netherlands

Yeow and Yuen 2004



Mobile Phones

Maxis

Yeow and Yuen 2004


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phones (SAR is the average mobile phone radio-frequency

radiation exposure time on a specified mass of tissue or tissue

region). However, in Malaysia, there are currently no widely

adopted radio-frequency radiation exposure limit guidelines or

SAR testing method. It is also difficult for mobile phone users to

acquire information relating to the SAR measurement due to

limited publicity of such information. Different mobile phones

cannot be compared at the point of purchase nor can a customer

take preventive measures to mitigate excessive radio-frequency

radiation because there is not enough information available.

The Public Disturbance factor is the second factor that is

negatively associated with OMPS, with a Standardized Coefficient

Beta value of 2.222 and t-value of 24.34. (See Table 3.) In large

fragmented cities, women and men of all ages make and receive

mobile phone calls on the streets or even in places where mobile

phone use is publicly banned such as in cinemas, concert halls,

classrooms, and planes. These individuals maintain that any dis-

turbance resulting from the use of their mobile phones is of far

less importance than their need to answer the phone call. This atti-

tude of indifference results in users speaking on their mobile

phones in public places without any consideration of the disturb-

ance that may cause to the people nearby.

In Malaysia, there is currently no national law to restrict users

from answering mobile phone calls at public places. Conse-

quently, on streets, in cinemas, shopping complexes, and restau-

rants, it is commonplace to find someone speaking loudly on her

mobile phone. The government, mobile phone designers, and tele-

communications companies have yet to determine ways to

improve the sound quality of mobile phone receivers and restrict

loud mobile phone calls at designated public places to protect

the public from mobile phone disturbance. Until such interven-

tions take place, the problem is likely to persist.

The third MPUF that is negatively associated with OMPS is

the Road Accident factor. It has a Standardized Coefficient Beta

value of 2.210 and t value of 23.99. An increase in Road Acci-

dents will subsequently lower OMPS. (See Table 3.) Research by

Demas and Rosenthal Injury-Attorneys discovered that 87 percent

of users believed that mobile phones impair their ability to drive.

Hand-held or hands-free mobile phone use in cars possibly

reduces the driver’s awareness and ability to detect and

respond to potential dangers on the road such as bumps, barri-

cades, carts, and branches. Dialing a telephone number in city

traffic has been shown to significantly impair steering wheel


Non-Ionizing. . .



Mobile Phones


Non-Ionizing. . .

Klamer et al.

Ling 2002

Ling 2005


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movements. Drivers experience a heavier mental workload due to

the need to attend to concurrent mobile phone tasks in the car,

which may lead to more road accidents. In 2004, the number of

Malaysians caught using their mobile phones without hands-free

kits were 47,247 (with an average of 129 people being caught

daily). The summonses issued increased by 6,002 copies from

41,245 copies in the previous year. Perhaps implementation

flaws in the road safety demerit point system make drivers feel

that they can easily escape being punished. According to MCA,

the main weakness in the road safety demerit point system is

that the point will only be deducted when a motorist pays his

traffic summons or court fines. If the motorist chooses to ignore

the summons, he will remain unaffected by the demerit system.

Drivers’ perceptions that they can escape from the penalties

associated with the use of mobile phones while driving can be

detrimental as it can result in the continuance of reckless driving.

Another factor contributing to the escalation of mobile phone

summons relates to the lack of road safety concepts or familiarity

with road regulations. Many drivers do not realize the danger of

pulling over to the road shoulder or emergency lane to answer a

phone call and do not think of it as a serious offense. Despite

many road safety campaigns to improve mobile phone awareness,

the results remain unsatisfactory. Although the use of mobile

phones with hands-free kits is allowed in Malaysia, Brookhuis

and De Waard and the World Health Organization recommend

that both hand-held and hands-free phones should be banned

because even if the drivers are using a hands-free mobile phone,

they still need to divert part of their attention to manipulate the

phone while operating the vehicle and respond to the constantly

changing road and traffic conditions. This can impair their ability

to maintain car speed and respond to changing road conditions.

The Social Interruption factor is the fourth factor that is nega-

tively associated with OMPS. It has a Standardized Coefficient

Beta value of 2.130 and t value of 22.63. (See Table 3.) Mobile

phone social interruption is a common problem for urban users

since they tend to keep their phones switched on all the time.

The Malaysian Chinese Association discovered that 57 percent

of Malaysians did not have a fixed-line phone and relied entirely

on mobile phones to keep in touch with family and friends. This

high reliance on mobile phones increases the chance that the

social activities of users will be interrupted by incoming mobile

phone calls and SMS, which are more difficult to control than out-

going phone calls and SMS. For example, when the mobile phone

Boase et al.

Briem and Hedman


Demas and Rosenthal

Malaysian Chinese Association

(MCA)






Adamczyk and Bailey

Altmann and Gray

Bailey et al.



Cutrell et al.

Hess and Detweiler

Iqbal and Bailey

Lasen

Plant

Schegloff


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rings, users face a dilemma of choosing to answer the phone

immediately or ignoring the call and continuing their social inter-

action with co-located friends. In cities such as London and Paris,

users choose to quickly pause or withdraw from their social inter-

action in order to answer the phone call. The face-to-face inter-

action is interrupted, and users and their co-located friends act

as if they are not together anymore. As a result, they may experi-

ence difficulty in resuming their social activities subsequent to

answering the call.

Users who conduct loud mobile phone conversations in meet-

ings and classes may have a low willingness to pay attention to

other co-located people’s needs relative to their own real-time

mobile phone communication needs. They possibly have a low

self-monitoring ability, prefer to act according their own emotions,

and do not control their mobile phone use despite its situational

inappropriateness. Perhaps they do not notice the tension and

dissatisfaction caused by noisy mobile phone ring tones, which

distract the attention of their co-located partners.

Recommendations

Suggestions to Promote Mobile Phone Peer ChattingSince urban mobile phone users show a high interest in peer

chatting by ranking it as the most important factor affecting

OMPS, telecommunication companies should promote economi-

cal mobile phone calls, SMS, and Wireless Application Protocol

(WAP) for the benefit of users with lower incomes. The network

service coverage areas should be expanded to facilitate nationwide

and international peer chatting. Some free talk time could be given

as promotion items and campaigns to promote chatting interests

could be organized. Users with good chatting experiences could

be invited to share in talk shows. All these programs are beneficial

to telecommunication companies as they help to increase their

revenue and broaden their market share.

Current WAP chatting services are considered cumbersome

and frustrating because of poor connection links and innumerable

keystrokes. To encourage WAP chatting, mobile phone designers/manufacturers should ensure that the WAP page is well structured

via clear category links and requiring fewer keystrokes. In order to

sustain better mobile phone call chatting, the sound quality of the

mobile phone should be improved and background noise elimi-

nated as much as possible.

Terrell and Hammel

Wei and Leung

Ling 2002

Ling 2005

Klamer et al.

Lasen

Ling 2002

Ling 2005

Lasen

Ling 2002

Buchanan et al.

Hedbring


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Future studies to verify the most-acclaimed stress alleviation

benefit of mobile phone chatting should be jointly conducted by

ergonomists and health practitioners. If it is proven in future lab-

oratory experiments that mobile phone chatting helps in effec-

tively reducing work-related stress and boosting body immunity,

blue and white collar workers in the government and private

sectors should be given moderate freedom of mobile phone chat-

ting in their workplaces (on the basis that it would not reduce pro-

ductivity) to ensure that workers are able to lead healthy lives.

Telecommunications companies could then highlight the benefits

of mobile phone chatting through advertisements, brochures, and

pamphlets.

To prevent money and time being wasted on low-value

mobile phone chatting, local and central government should

advise citizens to conduct constructive mobile phone discussions

with friends. Users should be made aware of the danger of reveal-

ing their personal information such as e-mail addresses, home

addresses, or landline phone numbers or arranging face-to-face

meetings with mobile phone acquaintances since newly known

people on the other end of the phone may not be as honest as

they portray themselves to be. Mass media should highlight

mobile phone crimes in order to create greater user awareness of

the need for circumspection when using the mobile phone.

Citizens in well-developed, fast-paced modern societies such

as Japan experience high stress levels, which possibly contributes

to the high suicide rate in recent years. In our fragmented modern

world, social bonding becomes even more important but also more

difficult because people no longer live in the kind of small, close-

knit communities that are conducive to such bonding. Mobile

phone chatting restores urban people’s sense of connection and

community, and provides an antidote to the pressures and alien-

ation of modern life. Therefore, it should be promoted widely in

big cities of both developed and developing countries.

Suggestions to Promote Mobile Phone Family CoordinationSince self-esteem and self-confidence can be built through good

family communication, the Ministry of Women, Social, and

Family Development, telecommunications companies and mass

media should accentuate the benefit of mobile phones for

regular communication with family members. This can be

achieved through seminars, campaigns, advertisements, and even

television dramas. Parents should be encouraged to use mobile

phones more often to check their children’s whereabouts and

Fox

Gillard and Wale

Riley


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ensure that they are safe. Working parents should be encouraged to

listen to their family members’ problems and share life experiences

with family members through the use of mobile phones. Intro-

verted working adults who are shy and have difficulty expressing

their homesickness during business trips may also be encouraged

to make use of the SMS and WAP service to communicate with

their families. Such effects may certainly boost the role of mobile

phones as a useful tool for social cohesion and family bonding.

It is common for married women in developed countries such

as the United States and Australia to participate in the labor force.

Since mobile phones allow working parents to conveniently cater

to the needs of their children during working hours and during

business trips, the benefits of mobile phone use for the purpose

of family bonding should also be promoted in the developing

countries under discussion.

Suggestions to Reduce Health Concerns Associated withMobile Phone Radio-Frequency RadiationDesigners and manufacturers should design the mobile phone to

minimize users’ radio-frequency radiation exposure at the level

necessary for the device to function. Watchful examination of

radio-frequency radiation exposure should be carried out in com-

pliance with the existing standards by the Health Council of the

Netherlands and the International Commission on Non-Ionizing

Radiation Protection to ensure that only qualified and safe

mobile phones are introduced into the market. SMS and WAP

use should be promoted through advertisements, seminars, and

conferences since radio-frequency radiation exposure levels

while using the SMS and WAP services are significantly lower

than those of mobile phone calls. Users should also be educated

to minimize and shorten the period of time they spend engaging

in mobile phone calls especially in areas where the signal is

poor because a weak signal from the base station causes handsets

to increase their broadcasting power and radiation exposure.

The Ministry of Health and the Malaysian Communications

and Multimedia Commission should work closely with ergono-

mists and health and safety practitioners to set up studies on the

general health complaints of mobile phone users. Local laboratory

research should be conducted to determine whether those who use

mobile phones for longer periods experience a higher health threat

compared with those who use them for shorter periods. The pro-

gress of the research should be closely monitored and the findings

should be disclosed upon completion. Citizens who need to make



Non-Ionizing. . .

British Medical Association


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numerous prolonged daily mobile phone calls for unavoidable

social relations maintenance purposes should be educated to alter-

nate between using both ears throughout the conversation to distri-

bute stress more evenly, and to give each ear a chance to rest.

Users should also be taught to not put their phones too near their

heads when making or receiving a mobile phone call. The

maximum radio-frequency radiation exposure limits should be

set for all mobile phones and the methods of measuring, minimiz-

ing, and monitoring radio-frequency radiation exposure should be

announced through media mass, seminars, and conferences to alle-

viate health concerns. Telecommunication companies should

ensure that accurate and understandable radio-frequency radiation

information is readily accessible to consumers at the point of sale

and on companies’ web sites to facilitate comparisons and evalu-

ations on the safety of different types of mobile phones.

The proliferation of mobile phone use in cities in China such

as Shanghai and Beijing may increase the possibility of users suf-

fering from adverse health problems. Laboratory research should

be conducted in those cities to verify whether frequent mobile

phone use carries a higher health threat. All the abovementioned

prevention measures should be taken by practitioners to protect

the health of mobile phone users.

Suggestions to Reduce Mobile Phone Public DisturbanceKopomaa stated that “the mobile phone was not only adapted to

our way of life, but our way of life was changed by it as well.”

The lives of urban dwellers are very different from the lives

they had before mobile phones. They can communicate and be

communicated with 24 hours a day, and personal contacts can

be conducted at any time, anywhere, including public places.

Mobile phone public disturbance is not unique to Malaysia. In

other big cities worldwide (e.g., Shanghai, Hong Kong, Cairo,

and Tokyo), citizens are disturbed by noisy mobile phone conver-

sations in public places. Therefore, the authors believe that the fol-

lowing recommendations can be applied not only by local

practitioners but also by practitioners all over the world to effec-

tively minimize mobile phone public disturbances in cities.

Soothing mobile phone ring tones should be introduced to the

urban community to mitigate public disturbance of mobile phones.

The sound quality of mobile phones needs to be improved in

order to keep users from having to raise their voices in public

places. To promote a courtesy culture, mobile phone users

should be educated to apologize to bystanders before conducting

Plant

Plant


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a phone conversation and to lower their voices during the conver-

sation out of respect for bystanders. Mobile phone call use should

be prohibited in public places that require high concentration such

as cinemas, libraries, and churches, and all users should be

required to switch their phones to voice mail services and silent

mode in these places. Signal jamming devices could be introduced

in these places to ensure that no calls can be received or made.

Suggestions to Reduce Mobile Phone Social InterruptionBoth students and working adults should be advised to turn their

phones into silent or vibrating mode if they insist on switching

on their mobile phones during meetings or lectures to prevent

the noisy mobile phone ringer from interrupting the flow of meet-

ings or lectures. SMS should be introduced as an alternative

method of response to reduce social interruption in meeting

rooms. In circumstances where detailed mobile phone conversa-

tions are needed, users should completely leave their concurrent

social activities and keep their mobile phone calls short to mini-

mize the adverse effects of social interruption. Otherwise, they

should be advised to switch off their phones or direct the incoming

calls to voice mail services.

Since users in London and Paris also experience similar

social interruption problems when they keep their phones switched

on all the time, the abovementioned recommendations also apply

to practitioners in European cities where intensive seminars and

campaigns should be organized to educate users on when and

where is appropriate to engage in mobile phone conversations.

Suggestions to Reduce Mobile Phone-Related Road AccidentsAs a preventive and precautionary measure against mobile-phone-

related road accidents, health and safety practitioners should

advise users to initiate their mobile phone calls, SMS, and WAP

service only when their vehicle is parked in a parking area. For

an unexpected incoming call, users should be taught to make a

prudent judgment in choosing where to stop the vehicle to

receive an incoming call. They should be made aware that while

it is offensive, it is also very dangerous to pull over onto the

road shoulder or emergency lane to answer a phone call. When

it is inevitable that a driver must stop the vehicle to answer a

call, the driver should keep the call short to reduce the risk of

road accident. Schools should teach future drivers about the

danger of engaging in mobile phone conversations while driving.

Lasen


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Information about mobile phone road accident casualties and

photographs of road accidents caused by mobile phone use should

be published on mass media as a reminder to drivers. In addition,

legislation should be enacted to impose stiffer punishments

against errant drivers who continue to use mobile phones while

driving, and enforcement personnel should be allowed to confiscate

mobile phones from such drivers. The use of hands-free car phone

kits should be banned since part of the drivers’ attention is diverted

when trying to manipulate the kits while operating the vehicle. All

mobile phone users should be made aware of the danger of hands-

free kits through seminars, talks, and advertisements.

Despite the fact that studies to date have failed to identify a

direct link between the rate of mobile phone adoptions and road

accidents, the abovementioned measures should be adopted by

policy makers in big cities with high mobile phone proliferation

to prevent loss of life due to driver negligence.

Limitations of the Study

The results of this study are generalizable only in relation to

Malaysian urban students and working adults. However, it is poss-

ible that they may also be applicable to urban mobile phone users

in other Asian and non-Asian countries. Whether this is the case

remains to be determined by future studies. Another study limit-

ation relates to the fact that citizens aged above 55 years are

outside the scope of this study due to their small percentage

(less than 20 percent) of mobile phone ownership. Finally, this

study did not examine the effects of demographic variables such

as gender, race, subject class (student or working adults), etc.

The effects of these variables were not examined in this paper

because of space constraints and because the stated objective

was to focus on a limited number of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

related constructs. However, the influence of these variables on

end users’ satisfaction responses will be presented in future papers.

Conclusion

This study examined the factors that influence consumer satisfac-

tion with mobile telephone use in Malaysia. The validity of the

study’s constructs, criterion, and content was confirmed. Construct

validity was verified through the factor analysis with a total


Bergvik

Boase et al.

Briem and Hedman


Demas and Rosenthal

Drory


Reed and Green

“More Youngsters Using

Handphones”


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variance of 73.72 percent explained by all six independent factors.

Content validity was verified with the development of the

independent and dependent variables based on the definitions of

the constructs from various national and international literature,

while criterion validity was confirmed through the stepwise mul-

tiple linear regression analysis between dependent and indepen-

dent variables. The study findings show that an increase in

mobile phone peer chatting and family coordination will signifi-

cantly increase OMPS while an increase in mobile phone radio-

frequency radiation health concern, public disturbance, social

interruption, and road accidents will significantly decrease OMPS.

Acknowledgment

The authors thank the respondents and Multimedia University for

their cooperation and support in this research.


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