Modern history

Core 1 – World War 1 HSC Study Notes

Jessica Walter

Loreto Normanhurst

Table of ContentsWorld War 1 1

Syllabus 21. War on the Western Front

The reasons for the stalemate on the Western Front 3The nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches dealing with experiences of Allied and German soldiers 5Overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including key battles: Verdun, the Somme, Passchendaele 10Changing attitudes of Allied and German soldiers to the war over

time 172. The Home fronts in Britain and Germany

Total war and its social and economic impact on civilians in Britain and Germany 21Recruitment, conscription, censorship and propaganda in Britain and

Germany 25The variety of attitudes to the war and how they changed over time in Britain and Germany 31The impact of war on women’s lives and experiences in Britain 35

3. Turning PointsImpact of the entry of the USA and the Russian withdrawal 38Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive and the Allied Response 43

4. Allied VictoryEvents leading to the Armistice, 1918 47Reasons for the Allied victory and German collapse 47The roles and differing goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson in creating the Treaty of Versailles 49

5. General’s Bio

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1. War on the Western Front

the reasons for the stalemate on the Western Front the nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches dealing with

experiences of Allied and German soldiers overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate

including key battles: Verdun, the Somme, Passchendaele changing attitudes of Allied and German soldiers to the war over

time2. The home fronts in Britain and Germany

total war and its social and economic impact on civilians in Britain and Germany

recruitment, conscription, censorship and propaganda in Britain and Germany

the variety of attitudes to the war and how they changed over time in Britain and Germany

the impact of the war on women’s lives and experiences in Britain

3. Turning points

impact of the entry of the USA and of the Russian withdrawal Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive and the Allied response

4. Allied Victory

events leading to the Armistice, 1918 reasons for the Allied victory and German collapse the roles and differing goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and

Wilson in creating the Treaty of Versailles

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1. War on the Western Front

The reasons for the stalemate on the Western Front

REASONS FOR THE STALEMATE- Failure of the Schlieffen plan- Resistance of the Belgians- Unexpected attack from the British at the Mons. August 23rd, 1914- New weapons introduced making defence better than offence – e.g.

machine guns- Race to the sea c. 17th September – 19th October 1914- French completely stopped the German movements at the Battle of

the Marne 5th – 12th September, 1914- Opposing armies had equivalent access to reinforcements and

supplies through railway networks THE SCHLIEFFEN PLAN

WHY WAS THE PLAN DEVELOPED?- Self-defensive and pre-emptive - Fear of Encirclement – fear of being surrounded by hostile forces- Russia and France were allied to one another and could attack

Germany from both sidesWHAT DID THE PLAN INVOLVE?

1. Element of Surprise2. Expectation that France would be captured quickly 3. Expectation that Russia would remain a ‘sleeping giant’4. A strong right flank5. The assumption that Britain would remain neutral

ELEMENT OF SURPRISE- Surprise France by first invading Holland and Belgium- Not attack through shared border

FRANCE WOULD BE CAPTURED QUICKLY- Belgium and Holland would show little resistance- The Germans would encircle Paris- Hoped to have control of France within 6 weeks

RUSSIA WOULD REMAIN A ‘SLEEPING GIANT’- Russia would take longer to mobilise- The Germans would have already captured France

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A STRONG RIGHT FLANK- Right ‘flank’ of the army had to be strong enough to seize the

channel ports- Required a ‘hammer swing ratio’ of 7:1

BRITAIN WOULD REMAIN NEUTRAL- Not come to the aid of Belgium and France

HOW DID THE PLAN CHANGE?- General Von Schlieffen was replaced in 1906 by the new German

army chief of Staff, General Von Moltke - The plan was significantly modified

TWO MAJOR THINGS CHANGED1. Germany would not invade Holland2. The hammer swing ratio was reduced from 7:1 to 3:1 - More troops defending border with Russia- But impossible to capture the channel ports

WHAT HAPPENED IN REALITY?- Schlieffen plan was not successful and the Germans failed to

capture France- German army invaded Belgium and Luxembourg on the 2nd of

August, 1914THREE IMPORTANT THINGS WENT WRONG…

- Concentration of troops at Liege create a “bottle neck”- Unexpected resistance at Mons- Backed up by the BEF (British Expeditionary Forces) who arrived

quickly Element of surprise was lost

- Russian army mobilised quickly - Forced to send soldiers to defend Eastern border- By the time the full reality of the situation occurred to the French

generals, the Germans were only 48km from Paris- Its failure was one of the reasons stalemate developed on the

Western Front- The Schlieffen plan almost succeeded

WHY DIDN’T THE FRENCH RESPOND QUICKER?- The French had always had intelligence about the Schlieffen plan,

but hadn’t believed it - Plan 17 (Plan XVIII) – attack at their shared border- Saw this as a diversionary tactic - Stayed to defend their border with Germany

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THE BATTLE OF THE MARNE

- Schlieffen plan failed – Germans failed to encircle Paris- Forced to move east and gather their army on the banks of the river

Marne- Allies responded quickly, travelling from London and Paris

DETAILS OF THE BATTLE- Allies attacked the Germans at Marne- Battle lasted from the 6th to the 14th of September, 1914- Ended the month long German offensive

GERMANS ARE FORCED TO RETREAT- Forced to retreat and ‘dig in’ – dig trenches - Began the stalemate that would continue for nearly 4 years

THE RACE TO THE SEA- Both armies raced to gain control of the Channel ports- Involved a series of ‘outflanking’ manoeuvres - Line of trenches grew and was consolidated until it spanned much

of France and BelgiumTHE FIRST BATTLE OF YPRES

- Date: October – November 1914- Culmination of the race to the sea- Results: Western front consolidated as primary theatre of war - Ypres was of strategic importance - Capturing Ypres would have allowed an army control of the channel

ports- Technically an allied victory but both sides sustained heavy losses- Allies remained vulnerable because of a salient that had emerged in

their army - Trenches had expanded

SUMMARY- The Battle of the Marne ended the German offensive- Immediately followed by the race to control the Channel ports – the

race to the sea- Both armies attempted to ‘outflank’ each other – building the

trenches that became the Western Front- The race to the sea culminated in the first Battle of Ypres

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The nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches dealing with experiences of Allied and German soldiers

NATURE OF TRENCH WARFARE

4 MAIN TACTICS 1. Artillery bombardment2. Night raids3. Sniper attacks4. Going over the top/ full frontal offensives

ARTILLERY BOMBARDMENTWhy was Artillery used?

- By 1915: WW1 is a war of attrition. Each side aimed to wear down the other until they surrendered

- One of the ways this was carried out was with artilleryAims:

- Aimed to soften enemy trenches and attack heavily fortified positions

- Artillery bombardment/ artillery barrage usually carried out before a physical attack

Battle:- e.g.: at the Battle of Passchendaele in 1917 - Allies bombarded the

Germans for ten days before they attacked NIGHT RAIDS

- Raiding parties of 30 or so men- Would blacken their faces and inch their way across no man’s land

towards enemy trenches - Raids were extremely dangerous, because any movement could

cause enemy trenches to fire SNIPERS

- Usually highly trained marksmen, ordered to shoot at the enemy - Some snipers would creep into no man’s land and wait all day for a

solider to raise his head above the parapet - Night raids were particularly vulnerable to sniper attacks

GOING ‘OVER THE TOP’Aim:

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- Commanders ordered soldiers to come out of the trenches and charge across no man’s land towards enemy trenches

- Soldiers had to navigate uneven ground and were shot at by enemy soldiers

Battles:- Used at battle such as the Somme in 1916 and Verdun in 1916

WEAPONS - Rifles: guns that had a range between 500 and 1000m - Machine rifles:

one of the key weapons on the Western front could fire rapidly, up to 450 rounds per minute

- Artillery: Huge heavy guns to inflict artillery barrage Effectiveness was limited Needed to be transported by rail

- Grenades and flame throwers: Thrown into enemy trenches Inspired terror Ineffective = limited range

- Poisonous Gas: First used by the Germans in 1915 against the French

army at Ypres Aim:

To clear enemy trenches + allow troops to advance

Types of gas: At first chlorine gas was used – slow death by

asphyxiation Other gases: mustard gas, chloropicrin and

prussic acid Protection:

In 1915, soldiers had to breathe through a urine soaked cloth

It was only by 1918 that proper masks were developed

- Tanks: Battles:

First used by the British at the Battle of the Somme, in 1916 but were slow and ineffectual

Features: By 1918, tanks had developed technologically Could roll wire entanglements and break enemy

lines with fire Tanks played a key role Allied victory in 1918 (Battle:

Allied Counter Offensive)

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LIFE IN THE TRENCHES 7 KEYS REASONS

1. Casualty rates were extremely high – soldiers had to watch their friends be killed and wounded

2. Food was rationed and usually inadequate – e.g. bully beef, biscuits and tea

3. Trenches were affected by weather 4. Little rest and work was constant – digging trenches, laying barbed

wire, standing sentry5. Artillery fire was constant – barrage at any time, day or night 6. Lice took over – embedding themselves in clothing and hair7. Discipline was strictly enforced – punishments were severe

CAUSE OF DISEASE - Water collected in the bottom of the trenches- Men lived in close proximity to one another, and the dead

KEY AILMENTS1. Trench Foot:

Soldiers’ limbs swelled from being immersed in water for too long

2. Gangrene: Soldiers’ feet rotted and had to be amputated

3. Gas Gangrene: Wounds became infected by bacteria found in manure. Victims suffered shock, and had to have limbs

amputated4. Frost bite:

Temperatures in the trenches could reach minus 15 degrees

Frost bite was common 5. Shell Shock:

One of the psychological consequences of trench warfare

Cause: constant noise and fear of shelling Symptoms:

Inability to sleep Loss of control of speech Random violent tendencies Blank ‘100 mile stare’

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At first the existence of shell shock was denied – often underrated consequence of trench warfare

Trench Diagram

- Originally rudimentary defences but became more complex and extensive

- Trenches were dug in zig-zags and connected by trenches called ‘communication trenches’

- Only 10% of soldiers at any one time- Sides of trenches were held up by sandbags- Top of the trench is called a parapet- Wire tangle defences constructed in front of trenches

German Trenches British Trenches- German trenches were

more developed and built better

- Had wooden fortifications and sometimes access to electricity and running water

- Partly because the Germans had been dug in for longer

- British forces had better access to food and supplies

- The trenches were not as well constructed

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Overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including key battles: Verdun, the Somme, Passchendaele

PHASES OF WORLD WAR 11914 – Manoeuvre and Frustration1915 – Search for New Solutions1916 – Attrition 1917 – Desperation and Anticipation 1918 – Dénouement STRATEGIES AND TACTICSStrategy:

- Larger, overall plan that can comprise several tactics Tactics:

- Plans, tasks, or procedures that can be carried out; may be part of a larger strategy

THE BATTLE OF VERDUN – FEBRUARY – NOVEMBER 1916

- German Offensive Attack.- General Von Falkenhayn attempted to start a war of movement, with the

plan to take Paris to enable the focus to be on the Eastern Front and Russia.

- Falkenhayn’s aim was to “bleed the French white” through a war of attrition. As Verdun was a symbol of French honour, the French leader General Petain pledged “they shall not pass.”

- This was not successful attempt to break the stalemate because the German tactic of heavy artillery bombardment was not followed through with troops, which resulted in mass casualties and French victory.

A comment by French Prime Minister Briand to General Joffre - “If you surrender Verdun, you will be cowards, cowards! And you needn’t

wait til then to hand in your resignation. If you abandon Verdun, I sack you all on the spot.” – Prime Minister Brian

- This comment demonstrates the serious attitude the French took in defending Verdun

- As Falkenhayn had suspected, the French took desperate actions in order to save the sacred area

- General Petain rotated 259 of France’s 330 divisions through the battle of Verdun

- The intense French pride in Verdun and their enhanced resistance prevented a war of movement occurring as the German’s were unable to break through the French lines

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“BIG BERTHA”- “Big Bertha” was a name adopted by the Allied

forces to describe the heavy German artillery piece ‘Howitzer.’ This weapon was characterised by a short barrel and fired at a steep angle.

- This photograph demonstrates the great scale of artillery used during Verdun in an attempt to weaken the enemy trenches and clear out troops.

- During this battle both sides hurled ten million shells at each other.

- This tactic proved to be unsuccessful as Germany failed to follow bombardment with a mass soldier attack.

- The machinery did however inflict mass casualties on the French Army. PHOTOGRAPH OF FALLEN SOLDIERS

- Verdun resulted in 500,000 French casualties and 400,000 German casualties.

- The introduction of new weapons such as flamethrowers and phosgene gas had devastating impacts of the fighting soldiers who also battled with muddy, wet conditions and shell fire.

- These combined factors created a horrific battle field and marked Verdun as a particularly horrendous historical conflict.

- The intense brutality severely weakened both the German and French armies and further enhanced the war of attrition and prevented a war of movement commencing.

AN ACCOUNT BY RICHARD HOLMES - “Men might be killed instantly, but without apparent damage, by

concussion; blown to tatters by direct hits; cut up as if by some malicious butcher; crippled by flying fragments of their comrades’ bodies or shocked into babbling incoherence by a capricious hit which left them unscathed among the remnants of their friends…”

- During the battle Verdun was often referred to as a “meat mincer” as a result of the horrific battle conditions and suicidal tactics of both sides.

- The source clearly demonstrates this brutality as it describes the impact of defensive machine guns, shells and shrapnel.

- The ground of Verdun became a ‘tragic cocktail of fog, smoke, confusion carnage and destruction.’

- Animals were used as messengers and consequently suffered horrible injuries and loss of life as the fighting soldiers.

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THE BATTLE OF THE SOMME – JUNE – NOVEMBER 1916

- As the devastation of Verdun was heavily weakening the French force, British leader, Sir Douglas Haig attempted to draw German troops to a new offensive near the Somme River.

- The main tactic used by the British was a week-long artillery bombardment from 1350 guns, along with gas shells intended to drive the Germans from their trenches.

- However, this was not a successful attempt to break the stalemate as Haig, underestimated the strength of the often two story German trenches, built in better soil.

- Furthermore, the British retained the outdated military linear formations which proved to be suicidal for allied troops against the defensive German machine guns

- Although the battle did ease the pressure on Verdun, it was not successful in creating a war of movement

MAP OF THE SOMME- The map displays the battles being fought

on Allied land- Haig’s intention of relieving the pressure of

troops fighting at Verdun revealed as successful as the distance between the two battle fronts would ensure that German troops would need to be relocated to the Somme or suffer mass casualties

- If this had of been Haig’s only aim, the battle would have been a success. However his plan for a war of movement to commence failed and both the Germans and Allied forces experienced heavy losses

A WELL-CONSTRUCTED GERMAN TRENCH- This source demonstrates the superior design and

construction of the German trench systems - The supported walls reveal the great strength of

the trenches and illustrate their ability to sustain the week-long artillery bombardment from the British

- German survival during this bombardment is a great factor which contributed to the Somme’s fail as an attempt to create a war of movement. The Germans could not be driven from their trenches and therefore the British could not pass further than no man’s land

ACCOUNT FROM A GERMAN MACHINE GUNNER- “We were surprised to see them walking, we had never seen that before.

The officers went in front, I noticed one of them walking calmly, carrying a walking stick. When we started to fire we just had to load and reload. They went down in their hundreds. We didn’t have to aim, we just fired at them.”

- The source reveals the great confidence General Haig had in the strength of the artillery fire and belief in the weaker German trenches

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- This confidence is further illustrated in British General Rawlinson’s order for troops to ‘walk’ across no man’s land. The newly recruited conscripts were evidently not thoroughly trained soldiers and simply followed the commandments of their superiors

- Historians continue to criticize and debate Haig’s suicidal tactics the battle and questions the heavy casualties that resulted

- The Somme proved to be an unsuccessful attempt to break the stalemate as Haig failed to adapt the aged linear formations and create new strategies to combat the new defensive weaponry

BRITISH USE OF TANKS- “… the tanks broke down or moved too slowly to keep up with the

infantry…The tanks could help break into the German position but, short-ranged, slow, prone to breakdown and ditching, bone-cracking and nauseating for their crews.”

- Tanks were used by the British in an attempt to break the German lines. However, of the forty nine tanks used, just nine actually reached the German front.

- Although the British could easily produce large numbers of tanks at their successfully organised home front, the unpredictability and poor performance of the tanks mean that their impact was not greatly felt until later in the war.

- The failure of new offensive weaponry and equipment such as tanks contributed to the disaster of the Somme as a British attempt to break the stalemate.

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NIVELLE OFFENSIVE – 16 TH APRIL 1917

WHAT WAS THE AIM OF THE OFFENSIVE?- The aim of the offensive was to send in infantry and tanks behind a

“creeping barrage” which would destroy the German defences and free the road to Berlin. It was the result of a French version of the British debacle on the first day of the battle of the Somme in the past July. Sixty French divisions, attacked near Reims and on the Chemin des Dames, which was a deeply defended ridge between two river valleys in the Aisne.

WHO WERE THE KEY PLAYERS?- General Robert Nivelle- Phillip Petain

WHAT WAS THE COST IN TERMS OF CASUALTIES?- The cost in terms of casualties for the Nivelle offensive were detrimental

to the French Army. Within the first 3 days, the French Army lost 40,000 men killed, 90,000 wounded and 5,000 taken as prisoners.

WHAT WAS THE IMPACT ON THE FRENCH MORALE?- The impact on the French Morale, of the Nivelle Offensive was

detrimental. It lead to mutinies, where 30,000 – 40,000 rebelled, 679 were condemned to death but only 75 were executed.

WHAT WERE THE SIGNIFICANT IMPACTS? - Nivelle was replaced - Defence became the French strategy

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PASSCHENDAELE (YPRES) – JULY – NOVEMBER 1917

- The Third Battle of Ypres or Passchendaele was another major British offensive attack with the intention of starting a war of movement.

- General Haig aimed to cross the German front and capture the German U Boat ports to prevent the sinking of British supply ships

- The battle began similar to the Somme, with heavy artillery bombardment on German areas. However the conditions of Passchendaele were far worse. A ‘nightmare battlefield’ was created as no man’s land was destroyed by massive craters that quickly filled with mud and water as a result of the heaviest rain the area had received in thirty years

- Passchendaele was a failed attempt to break the stalemate as Haig continued to employ outdated tactics that were easily resisted by German defensive weapons such as machine guns and mustard gas

- The horrific conditions also greatly prevented a war of movement occurring, as British soldiers struggled to even cross the quagmire to no man’s land

WHAT WAS PASSCHENDAELE?- A British offensive against German Lines- Date: June – November 1917- Place: Ypres, Flanders in Belgium. This was the Third Battle of Ypres

AIM:- To relieve the French after losses and mutinies during the year- To take the Belgian ports of Ostende and Zeebrugge- To further wear down the German through attrition - It is suggested by J.Laffin in British Butchers and Bunglers of World War 1

that Haig pushed on with the offensive, even after it was bogged down in the Flanders mud, to avoid sharing glory for the defeat of the Germans with the Americans who would be arriving in battle in 1918

HAIG’S LETTER TO GENERAL PLUMER- “… That is to break through the enemy’s trench system and get to open

fighting with the least possible delay so as to defeat the troops immediately available before they can be reinforced.” – General Haig

- This is source reveals Haig’s original proposal for a quick, intensive battle aiming to break the German line’s and secure the German U Boat ports

- Evidently, Haig did not intend to prolong the battle as long as he did. Today, historians remain critical of Haig’s military leadership as the General continued to send soldiers across no man’s land in the impossible conditions of Passchendaele

THE CONDITIONS AT PASSCHENDAELE- The combination of intense rainfall,

artillery bombardment and extended

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war period resulted in the horrific battlefield of the Battle and Passchendaele

- From this photograph it is clear why the word “Passchendaele” became synonymous with “mud” during the war

- The conditions at Passchendaele were nightmarish as a soldier could easily drown or become engulfed in mud at a single wrong step

- This horrifying quagmire was the greatest factor which prevented the British breaking the stalemate at Passchendaele.

JOHN LAFFIN’S COMMENT ON THE CONDITIONS- “He [Haig] was proposing to push his men through a slimy, corpse-filled

swamp so dreadful that infantry units took five hours to cover one mile, even without having to fight. Supplies and ammunition would only be taken forward by donkeys or men, who collapsed under the effort. Up to a dozen bearers were needed to get one stretcher to the rear.” – John Laffin

- The source further demonstrates the slow process of moving troops across the crater filled area between trench lines

- The casualty figures of Passchendaele are disputed by the historians, as a result of the conditions in which the men fought in. As the source suggests, along with injuries related to weaponry, many men drowned, collapsed or were lost in efforts to rescue fallen troops

- The impossible conditions were most significant in preventing a war of movement restarting as it was extremely difficult for a single soldier to cross no man’s land, let alone an entire army force

‘MEMORIAL TABLET’ – POEM - “Squire nagged and bullied till I went to fight, (Under Lord Derby’s

Scheme). I died in hell – (they called it Passchendaele). My wound was slight, And I was hobbling back; and then a shell Burst slick upon the duck-boards; so I fell Into the bottomless mud, and lost the light’ – Siegfried Sassoon

- Along with the physical conditions of the battle field and the effect this had on the troops, this source also explores the psychological impact of the horrific battle

- The reference to Passchendaele as “hell” clearly displays the everlasting impact the conditions had on the soldiers

- Although the battle failed to break the stalemate on the Western Front, it did enhance the already present war of attrition and greatly damaged the German army in numbers and morale. As German General Ludendorff stated his army “no longer displayed the firmness which I… had hoped for.”

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Changing attitudes of Allied and German soldiers to the war over time

BRITAIN

What was the attitude of soldiers at the start of the war? Why did they hold these views of the war? What caused the attitude to change? What sources show the change in attitude?

THEMES OF ATTITUDES FOR THE TRIPLE ENTENTE AND THE CENTRAL POWERS

- 1914 Enthusiasm/Christmas Truce- 1915 Disillusionment - 1916 ‘Lions led by donkeys.’- 1917 “Mud and Mutiny.”- 1918 “Victory and Defeat.”- “A land fit for heroes?”

WHY DID THEY JOIN?- They thought it would be a thrilling adventure and that it would all be

over by Christmas. There was no understanding of the type of warfare that would develop.

- They would be with their mates – especially in the British ‘Pals’ battalions.

- They would be paid for having an adventure and dishing it out to Jerry (Fritz, The Boche, and The Hun).

- It was a just cause: Germany had violated the rights of a neutral nation (Belgium).

- Peer pressure, the desire to impress women and the prestige that came from wearing a uniform and ‘doing your bit’.

- The propaganda campaign. This emphasised two things initially: the patriotic duty to join (e.g. Lord Kitchener poster); and the justice of the cause, as the Huns not only

AUGUST 1914: ENTHUSIASM AT WAR’S OUTBREAK- The war was greeted with enthusiasm by young men in Britain and

Germany. Sometimes known as the ‘August Madness’- Britain relied on volunteers to join the army and they joined up in their

hundreds of thousands Germany had conscription (compulsory military service), yet many young men also joined voluntarily

- Only a minority opposed to war. They included socialists, conscientious objectors and religious values questioned the justification of killing or wounding other human beings

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CHRISTMAS TRUCE- For some soldiers, a change in attitude was brought about by the unofficial

Christmas truce in some sections of the front in 1914. Soldiers sang and exchanged presents and address with ‘enemy’ soldiers, and realised that they were no different from themselves.

1915 – DISILLUSIONMENT - By 1915, experienced soldiers and newly arrived volunteers could no

longer automatically associate participation in war with ideas of ‘glory’ and national ‘greatness’.

- They forced to deal with the harsh realities of trench warfare and doing what they could find humour in difficult situations. It was often easier to make fun if the hardships of war than focus on its grim reality.

1916 – LIONS LED BY DONKEYS - Attempts to achieve a breakthrough (Verdun, Somme) in 1916 called into

question the skills of the commanders. In the post-war decade, English speakers began to refer to the relationship between soldiers and their commanding officers as ‘lions led by donkeys’

- The battles of 1916 were a turning point in relation to soldier’s attitudes. From questioning leadership many turned to questioning why they were there and who indeed was the real enemy – The generals of your own army or the soldiers themselves from opposing armies.

WW1 POETRY - The reality of the war, especially their being used as ‘cannon fodder’,

brought about a more bitter reflection of the war- Siegfried Sassoon and Ernest Rhys were to two poets whose work

contrasted sharply with earlier patriotic efforts. - Lost in France

He had the ploughman’s strengthIn the grasp of his hand;He could see a crowThree miles away, and the trout beneath the stone. He could hear the green oats growing And the south-west win making rain.He could hear the wheel upon the hillWhen it left the level road. He could make a gate, and dig a pit,And plough as straight as stone can fall. And he is dead. Ernest Rhys

- Suicide in the Trenches

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I knew a simple soldier boyWho grinned at life in empty joy, Slept soundly through the lonesome dark,And whistled early with the lark.

In winter trenches, cowed and glum,With crumps and lice and lack of rum,He put a bullet through his brain.No one spoke of him again.

You smug-faced crowds with kindling eyeWho cheer when soldier lads march by, Sneak home and pray you’ll never knowThe hell where youth and laughter goSiegfried and Sassoon

1917 – MUD AND MUTINY- The failure and high costs of the 1917 Nivelle offensive had a

devastating and lasting impact on the morale of the French army. French morale was at an all-time low. Troops mutinied, refusing to continue suicidal frontal attacks

- Despite the more negative attitude to the war, the British maintained their efforts without any serious attempts at mutiny

- Even by late 1916 the Russian army was experiencing desertion, mutiny and murder of officers which led to the 1917 revolution

1918 – VICTORY AND DEFEAT- War weariness affected soldiers of all armies in 1918. It resulted from:

o The long period of time that nations had been engaged in waro The apparent futility of many tactics usedo Increased difficulties in maintaining supplies to the battlefront as

the home front of various nations were near collapse- French commanders could no longer rely on troops to go ‘over the top’.

“A LAND FIT FOR HEROES?”- In the aftermath of the war, soldiers felt angry at the slowness of attempts

to repatriate them. Once home, they found it difficult to adjust to everyday life, and may efforts were not sufficiently recognized or rewarded

- Sharing wartime experiences had created a sense of fellowship among one another, has isolated some from the societies and loved ones from which they had come

- Governments failed to live up to soldiers’ expectations that they created, what the British had termed a ‘land fit for heroes’.

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GERMANY

EARLY RESPONSE - Germany had conscription (compulsory military service), yet many young

men also joined voluntarily- Just as eager and motivated as their British counterparts- Germany felt encircled and entrapped by the allies- Stories of Belgian priests shooting German soldiers as they prayed invoked

anger and feelings of retribution - Germans were convinced of the evil atrocities that Britain was

implementing just as the British were convinced of the sameDISILLUSIONMENT

- For German soldiers, who faced the same privations at the fronts as their British counterparts, their attitudes were also affected by the deterioration of the home front with widespread food shortages

- For Germany, there were some mutinies (e.g. Wilhelmshaven August 1917), though these did not become widespread until the final moments of the war (e.g. Kiel Nov 3 1918)

DEFEAT- By 1918, the German home front was no longer either able or willing to

support the war effort. Soldier morale was harsh to maintain in an atmosphere where many had come to question what they were fighting for and why their leaders had not made peace

- Soldier’s home on leave joined anti-war protests in cities all over the nation. Socialist thought had started to take root throughout many soldiers who had fought on the Eastern Front

- By late 1918, it was clear that Germany was facing defeat and that the nation was on the brink of a revolution

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2. The home fronts in Britain and Germany

Total war and its social and economic impact on civilians in Britain and Germany

WHAT IS TOTAL WAR?- Total war: all aspects of the economy and society are directed

towards the war effort. This results in greater government control of the economy and labour.

FOCUS QUESTIONSGermany

1. How did political authority become more centrally controlled in Germany?

2. In what ways did Germany try to overcome the shortage of materials caused by the British blockade?

3. How was food production and distribution controlled during the war in Germany?

4. How did Germany finance its war effort?POLITICAL AUTHORITY

- The patriotic response to the start of the war, and the total support from all major political parties, including the Social Democratic Party, left no opposition to the government

- The Kaiser said “I recognise parties no more. I recognise only Germans.”

- Germany did not have a strong democratic tradition. As the war progressed authority became more centralised

- The role of parliament weakened as the power of the military increased. When Hindenburg took over as Chief of the General Staff in August 1916, with his deputy Ludendorff, he controlled not only the military policy but also had control of all economic decisions and wielded great political influence

ECONOMIC MOBILISATION- The British Naval Blockade meant that Germany faced

shortages of resources essential for the war- The impact of the blockade meant that German civilians

suffered much more than the British, especially in the second half of the war and were under much more government control from the start of the war

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WAR MATERIALS- Walther Rathenau directed- Controlled use and allocation of vital raw materials and

controlled labour- Resources taken from occupied countries- Raw material companies established – could requisition raw

materials and allocate them to manufactures - 1916 Central Purchasing Company – to import materials and

food from neutral companies- Ersatz – substitute materials developed e.g. wood pulp to

make textiles, synthetic rubber- Large industrial firms took advantage of the war to expand

e.g. Krupp, Siemens- The military required ever increasing amounts of armaments

which by 1916 could not be delivered. The war economy became even more centrally controlled:

1. In August 1916, Hindenburg was made Chief of Genera Staff and the General Headquarters took over much of the work on the War Department. The Hindenburg Program was introduced, based on Lloyd George’s Munitions of War Act to massively increase armament production.

FOODS- Food supplies were severely affected by the British naval

blockade- Bread rationing began in Berlin in January 1915 and by June

had been implemented throughout the empire. Eventually restrictions existed on all areas of food production, distribution and consumption.

- 1915 Imperial Grain Office controlled grain supplies, milling and rationing

- October 1915 Imperial Potato Office. There was much bureaucratic overlapping and little co-ordination of policy, resulting in great shortages.

FINANCING THE WAR- The war cost Germany much more than the government was

receiving in taxes- Karl Helferrich – minister for finance – printed more money- Borrowed money: Imperial Loan Fund: citizens were

encouraged to buy war bonds23 | P a g e

- Caused inflation and massive debt- The government expected that this would all be financed by

the defeated countries once the war was over

BRITAIN- Before the war, Britain was a democratic society and had less

government control than Germany, a free press, strong unions and no conscription.

- Therefore government control took longer than in Germany- As the war progressed, the government realised the need for

more control of production, armaments and food- Greater restrictions on freedom developed

8TH AUGUST 1914 – DEFENSE OF THE RELM ACT (DORA)- Civil rights suspended. Control gradually increased:

restrictions on kite flying, feeding bread to animals, permission needed to buy binoculars, no rice at weddings

- The government could buy goods at low prices- Transport could be commandeered for military use- 1915 Drinking was restricted: opening hours shortened, prices

increased, alcoholic content reduced- 1916 Day Light Savings introduced so that people could work

longer hoursCONTROL OF FOOD

- December 1916, Lord Davenport – food controller introduced voluntary food restrictions

- By 1917 there were ‘meatless’ days and restrictions placed on food served in restaurants

- April 1917, bread economy campaign. Due to a bad crop in 1916 and unrestricted sub warfare there were severe food shortages, so civillians were urged to limit food intake voluntarily. In April 1917 there was only 10 days of wheat left.

- Board of Agriculture established the Food Production Department – increased the amount of land available for wheat production

CONTROL OF MUNITIONS

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- The shortage of armaments required a greater production capacity

- May 1915 David Lloyd George became Minister for Munitions. In 1915 Britain was producing 700 artillery shells a day. Germany was producing 250 000 a day. Something had to be done.

- July 1915 Munitions of War Act increased government control of production:

1. Subsides for private companies2. Government started new companies3. Amalgamation of companies encouraged4. Research and development

CONTROL OF LABOUR- There were restrictions on labour:1. Fines for lateness, absenteeism and striking2. Working hours increased3. Leisure activities were restricted4. Leaving certificate: worker were required to obtain a leaving

certificate from their employer before they could leave a job in a munitions factory, otherwise they were not allowed.

5. Restricted movement of labour FINANCING THE WAR

- Borrowed money through war savings certificates and war bonds

- Increased tax and lowered tax thresholds- Sold overseas investments - Borrowed from the USA

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Recruitment, conscription, censorship and propaganda in Britain and Germany

RECRUITMENT AND CONSCRIPTION IN BRITAIN AND GERMANY FOCUS QUESTIONS:

1. Why was there a need for recruitment campaigns in Britain and Germany?

2. What methods were used to encourage men to enlist?3. How successful were they?4. When and why was conscription introduced?

BRITAINVoluntary Enlistment

- There was no conscription in Britain at the start of the war.- Britain had a relatively small standing army: the BEF (20 divisions –

about 200,000 men) and territorials (reserve army). - Most of the BEF were killed or wounded in the first battles of the war- King George V, PM in 1914 – Herbert Asquith. Formed a

coalition War Cabinet in 1915. Lord Kitchener – War Minister - Very successful – 1.34 million volunteers by the beginning of 1915

and over 3 million by the end of the year. This army became the basis for what became called Kitchener’s Army or the New Army

- Volunteers were encouraged to join up with friends from work or from a club or town. These became known as Pals battalions.

- Physical standards: 168cm and 19-30 years of age- By mid-1915, the number of volunteers began to fall: 22,000 per

month. Standards were lowered: 157cm and 19-40 years of age

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TECHNIQUES FOR RECRUITING SOLDIERS- Recruitment propaganda developed new tactics: influence of

women, shame.- Recruitment drives were held at football matches, in music halls,

even in churches.- Passchendaele recruitment scene. - https://youtu_be/3RITikk4CI - White feather movement

DERBY SCHEME- May 1915 Lord Derby appointed Director or Recruitment: Derby

Scheme to encourage recruitment. All men 18-41 were registered and asked to enlist when required. Enlistment was voluntary. By the beginning of 1916 there were still over 2 million eligible men who had not enlisted.

CONSCRIPTION- Military Service Act – Jan 1916: all single men 18-41. Came into

effect 2 march. There were exemptions.- Military Service Act (revised) – May 1916: all men 18-41- The Military Service Act was revised three more times. In April 1918

it extended conscription from 17-51 years of age. - Conscientious Objectors (Conchies): had to prove their objection

to war. If they failed and did not join up they could be imprisoned. Some took non-combatant roles, e.g. stretcher bearers. Absolutists (people who outright refused to go to war) were scorned and treated harshly.

GERMANYRECRUITMENT AND CONSCRIPTION

- Conscription was already a part of German life before the war. At the start of the war, Germany had 94 divisions and over a million reserve troops.

- July 1914 – martial law was imposed: Germany was divided into 24 districts, each under the total control of a general.

- There was great enthusiasm at the start of the war and many recruits voluntarily joined up.

- Censorship of the press allowed Germany to present the war in a favourable light encouraging recruitment.

DESPERATION

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- The German home front was hard hit by the extremely high casualty rates and increased call-up for military service.

- Requests to release some essential workers from the army to relieve the home front manpower shortages were immediately rejected by German military authorities.

- By 1917, all the combatant nations were in a manpower crisis- Resources such as iron were growing short in around 1916 and so

church bells and iron hooves were melted down to compensate. WORK THIS PERIODYour views:

1. Why would it be difficult for young men to avoid enlistment?2. Why did conscription n become necessary in Britain?3. Do you think young people today would be eager to enlist of a

similar situation came to fruition.

CENSORSHIP AND PROPAGANDA IN BRITAIN AND GERMANY

GERMANY What were the purposes of British and German Propaganda? What were the methods used in propaganda? By what means was propaganda disseminated? How successful was Britain compared to German propaganda? To what extent was censor ship

 PROPAGANDA:

A deliberate attempt to convince people of a particular set of ideas or a point of view.

 PROPAGANDA ON THE HOME FRONT:

Encourage recruitment in the army. To boost the morale of civilians and troops To encourage hatred of the enemy Encourage financial investment on the war effort Encourage active participation in the war effort Encourage acceptance and support of various restrictions, including

rationing Attack those opposed to the war, or those not supporting the war

effort Promote or oppose conscription for military service

 WHICH EMOTIONS DO THEY APPEAL TO?

Community effort, loyalty Strength, excitement, danger, shame Protectiveness, peace, fear, duty, outrage

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PROPAGANDA IN BRITAINPropaganda and censorship in Britain lacked coordination initiallyA number of bodies were formed which conflicted with each other. E.g.

- The War Propaganda Bureau (August 1914 under the control of Charles Masterman); and the Neutral Press Committee.

- In February 1917, the Department of Information was created to centrally control propaganda

- June 1917 National War Aims Committee: produced propaganda to raise morale on the home front

- In February 1918, after criticism of the propaganda effort, the Ministry of Information was created to oversee all propaganda activities. The Minster was Lord Beaverbrook (owner of the London Evening Standard and the Daily Express). Lord Northcliffe (owner of The Times and the Daily Mail) was the director of propaganda

Types of propagandaNewspapers – Articles reporting heroism (war is glorious) and condemning enemy barbarity (the enemy is rightly hated); Editorials; Cartoons; Photographs

- British Headlineso “Belgium child’ hands cuts off by Germans”o “Germans crucify Canadian officer”

- German Headlineso “German doctors infect German wells with plague germs”o “German prisoners blinded by Allied captors”

Newspaper – The Truth?- When the fall of Antwerp became known the church bells were rung

in Germanyo From the German newspaper – Kilnische Zeitung

- ‘According to the Kilnische Zeitung, the priests of Antwerp were forced to ring the church bells when the fortress of Antwerp fell.’

o From the French newspaper Le Matin- ‘According to what The Times has heard from Cologne via Paris, the

poor Belgian priests who refused to ring the church bells when Antwerp was taken, have been sentenced to hard labour.’

o From the Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera

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Pamphlets- Phamphlets promoting war were written by some of the best English

writers including Rudyard Kipling, H.G. Wells and Arthur Conan Doyle. In may 1915, the “Report of the Committee on Alleged German Outrages” was published, with a 320 page appendix of eyewitness testimony (these atrocities were all inevented)

- The propaganda produced by these men resulted in hundreds of thousands of men joining the British Army. Large numbers of these men were killed, including Conan Doyle’s son, Kingsely Conan Doyle. Rudyard Kipling also lost his only son as a result of this propaganda. His response was to write poems about the War Propaganda Bureau:

o Common Form (1918)If any question why we died. Tell them, because our fathers lied.

LeafletsBritain and Germany would distribute leaflets into trenches by balloon or plane drop:

- World War One document archive – http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Propaganda_Leaflets

- http://www.psywarrior.com/GermanWWIPSYOP.html

Other forms included:- Schools- Sermons- Books- Postcards

Success of British Propaganda- Recruitment propaganda allowed Britain to resist introducing

conscription until 1916. The people on the home front responded to the calls to reduce waste, save food and resources, support war occupations and subscribe to war bonds.

- The propaganda after the sinking of the Lusitania (1915) didn’t bring America into the war. It was the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare by the Germans in February 1917 that achieved it.

- One consequence of propaganda was anti-German hysteria: shops attacked, houses firebombed, German people attacked, German shepherds renamed Alsatians, Royal Family changed name – Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor and Battenburg to Mountbatten

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Censorship- In April 1915 The War Office established the Directorate of

Special Intelligence to oversee all censorship. This was replaced in January 1916 by a new Directorate Military Intelligence (M17)

- Soldiers letters home were censored, Soldiers were not allowed to keep war diaries.

- Only the official war photographer and, later, accredited newspaper photographers were allowed to record the trenches and the fighting.

Propaganda in Germany- All things English were banned, names were changed (Hotel

Westminster to Hotel Lindenhof)- People were encouraged to greet each other with “Gott strafe

England!” (God Punish England) and the response was “Er strafe es!” (He punishes it)

- No speaking of English language - Propaganda was not as well organised as in Britain- Under the control of the Military through the German War News

(Deutsche Kriegsnachrichten) - Propaganda was not as effective as Britain, often poorly targeted

using images which didn’t connect with the common people: St George poster 1915

Censorship in GermanyCensorship was very strong in Germany. The Germans were not told about:

- Military losses and casualties - Desertions- Peace demonstrations in Berlin in December 1915- International peace efforts: Stockholm Peace Conference 1917;

Papal peace Note 1917- International Socialist Conferences in London and Kienthal,

Switzerland

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The variety of attitudes to the war and how they changed over time in Britain and Germany

BRITAIN

EARLY RESPONSE TO THE WAR- In Britain, 299 000 men enlisted in August followed by another 436

000 in September, while 350 000 Frenchmen volunteered in the first week of August alone and comparable numbers flooded recruiting centres in Germany (August Madness)

- This mass support was partly due to the British people’s beliefs in the justice of their cause

- Propaganda had done its work convincing the British of the innocence of Poor Belgium and the need to protect it from the barbarism of the German military machine

- Euphoria was felt at the outbreak of war and was combined with the belief that it would all be over by Christmas and a total ignorance of the true nature of modern warfare, meaning the opponents of war stood little chance of airing their views

- Labour Party leader Ramsay MacDonald professed that this war was “the most popular war Britain had ever fought”

THE APPEREANCE OF OPPOSITION - Real doubts about and opposition to the war did not appear until the

slaughter of 1916 and 1917 – both men in the trenches and the home font population began to express their frustrations

- Generals were seen to be uncompassionate, making orders from their distant chateaux far behind the lines (lions led by donkeys)

- Growing war – weariness developed on the home front as casualty lists in the newspaper lengthened, shortages increased, and ever greater demands were placed on the work force

- The war was brought to home to the ordinary citizen with Zeppelin raids and attacks on eastern coastal cities

- The Battle of the Somme in 1916 was especially poignant in making British change of attitude towards the war

GROWTH OF OPPOSITION TO THE WAR - Early opposition to the war came from groups such as the Herald

League and the workers socialist foundation which espoused the doctrine of the international brotherhood of man, arguing that British workers had no business killing German workers but that both working classes should unite against their capitalist enemies

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- The government also faced fellow opposition from the No Conscription Fellowship (NCF), supported by religious dissenters such as the Quakers and feminists such as Sylvia Pankhurst

LLYOD GEORGE- Strikes were a major symptom of possible growth opposition to the

war. In 1917 there were 688 strikeks involving 860 000 workers- Lloyd George realised that the strike movement was not the result

of opposition to the war itself but rather a protest against the pressures war engendered such as changing war practices dilution (reduction in the value of shareholding) and inflation

- Lloyd George dealt with the situation by attempting to make the workers the partners of the government

- He introduced measured to help the workers and to satisfy women’s aspirations. Wages were increased and women were promised the vote

THE NATURE OF BRITISH OPPOSITION TO THE WAR- Opposition to the war in Britain never reached the level it did in

Russia and Germany, despite casualties and home front hardships- British armies only experienced small scale mutinies, which were

little more than brawls that were dissipated quickly, with men soon back on the front line

- Paradoxically, it seemed that Britain’s democratic regime was better suited to dealing with discontent and war-weariness than its more authoritarian counter parts

- Economic strain felt in Britain was far less than experienced by other countries – this was largly the result of the ability of the navy to maintain an adequate supply of food supplies to the home front

- Under Lloyed George’s leadership the government paid far greater attention to the needs of those working on the home front than was the case in Germany – as a result the government received more cooperation from organised labour

- British propaganda was very effective in maintaining genuine support for the justice of the allied cause

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GERMANY

EARLY RESPONSE TO THE WAR- German reaction to the outbreak of war mirrored that of the rest of

Europe – there was massive and wide spread enthusiasm for what was expected to be a short and exciting adventure

- In 1914, opposition to the war inside Germany was limited and mute – partly due to the fact that most people supported the war but also due to the authoritarian nature of the government, which kept a tight lid on dissent

- From the start of the war, the middle class German Peace Society opposed the war, however this group suffered repression and quickly disappeared

- There were some religious and intellectual opposition but opponents of the war soon ended up in prison

- Under the 1916 Auxiliary Services Law, the state and employers now gave the workers official recognition, which meant they would recognise unions

THE GROWTH OF OPPOSITION- The feeling of war-weariness was both quicker to develop and far

stronger in Germany than in Britain- The failure of the Schlieffen Plan brought about a loss of confidence

in Germany’s war plan from the outset- German authorities paid little attention to the worker’s welfare –

they lacked a Lloyed George figure who understood the necessity of creating a genuine partnership between the state and the union

- Growing discontent was reflected in the German press despite the government’s attempts at censorship – papers carried reports of anti-war demonstrations and called for a negotiated peace

- Largest-scale opposition did not crystallise until the second half of 1916 – the German people were willing to put up with a great deal as long as there was a chance of victory

- By the winter of 1917, the supply of potatoes had runout and the only real alternatives was turnips. This is why the winter of 1916 to 1917 is known as the “Turnip Winter”. Turnips were used as animal food stuff and the thought of eating them repelled many as they were the food of cows, pigs etc.

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- Lack of food had seriously weakened the ability of people to fight off disease. Flu had a terrible impact on Germans as the people had little bodily strength to fight the illness. It is thought that nearly 750 000 died of a combination of flu and starvation

THE STRIKE MOVEMENT- Germany experienced far more and far larger strikes during the war

than did Britain- In April 1917, 300 000 workers were strike and becoming violent- In 1917 there were 562 strikes involving 668 000 workers- January 1918 saw 1 million workers on strike- The authorities responded by imposing martial laws and giving any

ring leaders front line duties- Women were seen to the catalysts of strike actions as men were

quieter and more restrained – they did not have to continue to provide for a family under the circumstances in which food was scarce and quality poor

REVOLUTION- All over Germany, worker’s and soldier’s councils appeared, based

on the model of the revolutionary soviets that has grown inside Russia during 1917

- On the 9th of November the Kaiser was forced to abdicate and he fled to Holland – a republic was declared

- On November 10th a Council Of People’s Commissioners was established, made up of three SPD ( Social Democratic Party) and three USPI (A Radical far left party opposed to war) members – clearly a revolutionary socialist government

- On 11th November, Germany signed the armistice ending the war – war and defeat had destroyed the imperial regime of Kaiser Wilhelm II

- Germany had entered the war as the newly unified economic powerhouse of Europe, and ended it exhausted and impoverished

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The impact of war on women’s lives and experiences in Britain

BRITAIN ONLY

INITIAL IMPACT ON WOMEN’S LIVES- At first the government was not keen to mobilise women and they

had to satisfy themselves with what were considered more appropriate pursuits of nursing and voluntary work

- At the beginning of the war female employment actually fell. Production of luxury products such as dresses and hat making dropped and households dismissed their domestic servants

- Female employment in London fell to 10% in October 1914- Outside of the munitions industry little had changed. - Employers generally did not want female workers. They were seen

as unreliable and difficult to trainWOMEN AND THE MUNITIONS INDUSTRY

- Approximately 1,600,000 women joined the workforce between 1914 and 1918

- The munitions industry saw a rise of over 700 000 women joined its ranks

Number of Women working

Number of women working in munitions work

1914

3.22 million 212 000

1918

4.8 million 950 000

- By july 1918 80% of all British munitions were being produced by the “munitionettes”

- Conditions in the munitions factories were tough, particularly for those women who had left jobs in domestic service and were entering a factory for the first time

- 12 hour shifts- Dangerous – 200 + female munition workers killed during the war- Skin became yellow from the chemicals (sulphur used in TNT) –

nicknamed “canaries”- Despite the dangerous and harsh working conditions, there was no

shortage of women willing to take their place in the munitions factories. The pay was two and three times what could be earned in domestic service

WORK OUTSIDE THE MUNITIONS INDUSTRY

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- Nursing – the preferred work for middle and upper class women- Women’s Land Army – women were encouraged to fill the shortages

of men in agriculture. There were more than 18,000 women on the land by 1918, however it consisted of poor conditions, low pay, resentment from male farmers

- Other work included clerical work and traditional male jobs such as smiths, drivers and grave diggers.

- Women also became part of the police force during the war. They were involved in crowd control, dealing with ‘inappropriate behaviour in pubs and parks’ and assisting during air raids

WOMEN IN THE MILITARY- Women filed non-combatant roles in the military:

o Clerkso Telephonistso Cookso Drivers

- Special branches of the armed services were established for women:o WAAC – Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps – formed in 1917 and

renamed Queen Mary’s Armyo WRAF – Women’s Royal Air Forceo WRNS – Women’s Royal Naval Service

- Women did not have the same military status as men:o They were enrolled rather than enlistedo They would be tried in civil court rather than military courto They were not given military ranks

WOMEN’S SUFFURAGE- The suffragette movement was suspended at the beginning of the

war. Emmeline Pankhurst took an active role encouraging enlistment and encouraging women to work in munitions

- In February 1918, Parliament passed the Representation of the People Act. This gave women over 30 the right to vote.

- It also widened male suffrage to include all male house holders over 21 – previously here were property restrictions

- There is debate about whether this was a reward for the efforts made by women during the war, or whether it was a natural development of social policy that had been occurring in other countries.

- Women did not get equal voting rights with men until 1928

SOCIAL IMPACT OF THE WAR ON WOMEN- The war certainly improved the position of women in society. - They had gained greater self-respect and their contribution to the

war effort was applauded by people from Lloyd George down

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- The press also played up female patriotism- The war had freed many middle class women from the restraints of

the home. For these women had a major impact- Middle class women were far more literate than working class

women and thus after the war it was their accounts of war time experiences that tended to get into print

- The war certainly did leave many women with a restless feeling- They wanted to continue enjoying the freedom they had known

during the war- The loosening of attitudes in the 1920’s reflect this- It was now more possible for a girl to be seen out dining alone in a

restaurant without a male friend. - Some women began to smoke in public.- The new freedom affected looks and fashion too – shorter skirts and

hair – more suitable for a changing lifestyle- It took them out of the confines of domesticity, made higher pay

possible and finally the government was convinced to give them the vote

- Women became recognised as an essential prat of the nation’s economy

- After the war women were encouraged to return home or to traditional female jobs

- In 1921 female employment rates were no higher than they had been in The Restoration of Pre-War Practices Act 1919 actually tried taking jobs from working class women

- The Sex Discrimination Removals Act 1919 did make it easier for women to work in the professions but this benefitted only middle class women

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3. Turning Points

Impact of the entry of the USA and of the Russian withdrawal

AMERICAN ENTRY INTO WORLD WAR 1

Main Issues- Reasons for the US entry into the war- Impact of the American Entry into the war

AMERICAN NEUTRALITY- US didn’t want to get involved:

o Isolation policyo “It’s Europe’s problem”

- Good for the economy:o - Business could sell supplies to both sideso Banks could loan money to both sides

- 1/3 of Americans are immigrants or children of immigrants (German or Irish)

o Supported both sides of the warGERMAN U-BOATS AND ENGLAND

- Since the beginning of the war… Germans used U-Boats to attack cargo ships in the Atlantic

o They hoped to cut off supplies to the Allies in Europe- Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

o Attacking any ship in the combat zone around England UNRESTRICTED SUBMARINE WARFARE

- May 7th, 1915… German U-Boat sinks the British passenger ship Lusitania

o 1,198 deado 128 were American citizenso Germans claim that the Lusitania was carrying ammunitions

- USA is outraged- Demands Germany stops Unrestricted Submarine Warfare… which

they do until 1917

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PREAREDNESS (AKA MOBILIZATION)- In 1915 US Army = 80 000 men- Teddy (Teddy bear) Roosevelt (former president) led the

Preparedness Movemento Being prepared for war was the best way to guarantee peace

- President Wilson eventually began preparing for waro Double the size of the armyo Begin Construction of new war shipso Wilson is elected again in 1916 because of this idea

preparednessUNRESTRICTED SUBMARINE WARFARE ROUND #2

- Germany resumes Unrestricted Submarine Warfare January 31st 1917

- The Germans hope to starve England out of the war before the USA intervenes

ZIMMERMANN NOTE- February 1917 England intercepted a telegram from Germany to

Mexico called the ‘Zimmermann’ note- This ‘note’ suggested that if the USA declares war on Germany that

Mexico would invade the United StatesUNITED STATES DECLARES WAR

- Germany continues to sink American and neutral ships throughout March 1917

- Russia drops out of the war, many Americans feel that the Central Powers will win the war

- Anger over U-Boat attacks, and the Zimmermann Note causes Americans to scream for action

- Congress votes for war on April 2, 1917- President Wilson signs the war declaration on April 6th, 1917 and the

US enters World War 1IMPACT OF THE AMERICAN ENTRY

- US industry had supplied much of the war material for the Allies throughout the first three years of the war

- There was immediate impact on the seas. The American Navy organised the convoy system of protecting merchant shipping.

- The naval blockade of Germany was strengthened while Britain and France could now be freely supplied.

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- In January 1918, a mine barrage blocked off the North Sea. German U-Boats could no longer get into the Atlantic

- The biggest impact was the large number of fresh troops the Americans would add to the Allied lines

- By 1918, Germans didn’t have such reserves of fresh troops- The impact of these troops was not immediate - It was mid 1918 before they went into the fighting in large numbers.

By then there were two million American troops in France- In March 1917, after the withdrawal of Russia from the war, the

Germans launched their Spring Offensive a last ditch massive offensive aimed at France before the full impact of the American troops could be achieved.

- Allied moral increased. They now believed that they could win the war

- 275 000 American troops participated in the 2nd Battle of the Marne, July 1918. The failure of the German’s Spring Offensive and the prospect of many more American troops were disastrous for German morale. They lost hope of victory

- America would now have a place at the peace conference following the war

- Wilson hoped that following the defeat of Germany there would be a just and lasting peace, based on his fourteen points

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RUSSIAN WITHDRAWAL FROM WORLD WAR 1

RUSSIA WITHDRAWS- Russian revolutions of 1917: a series of revolutions led by Vladimir

Lenin that dismantle the Tsarist monarchy and bring about an era of communism

o February revolution March 1917 Provisional government takes over along with socialists.

Unstable, lots of protests Russian army suffered a series of defeats in the war,

widespread mutiny o October Revolution

Bolsheviks unhappy with provisional government. Lenin leads an overthrow

Bolsheviks assume power in October, 1917 They soon sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, ending

Russian aggression TREATY OF BREST-LITOVSK

- Russia declared armistice with Germany in December 1917- Initially Russia refused to ratify the treaty however due to Germanys

threat of continued aggression they were forced to sign the treaty in February 1918

- The clauses of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk were very punitive:o 300 million gold roubles to be paid as compensationo Territorial losses – Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Finland, Poland

and the Ukraine – 750 000 square kilometres of land which included:

32% agricultural land 54% of industrial plant 25% of its industrial resources including:

89% of all coal deposits Virtually all Russia’s oil and cotton 34% of its population

IMPACT FOR THE GERMAN FORCES- The end of fighting on the Eastern Front freed up fifty two German

divisions, men whom Ludendorff then used in his great Spring Offensive of March 1918 on the western front (operation Michael)

- The punitive nature of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, however, was that such that Germany was forced to keep men in the east to maintain control and the battle weary Germans sent ot the western front were given no leave before being sent again into battle

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IMPACT ON THE ALLIED FORCES- The withdrawal of Russia from the war was therefore not as

damaging to the Allied military position as first anticipated- This led to much more successful allied counter offensive-

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Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive and the Allied Response

THE LUDENDORFF OFFENSIVE

1. Why did the Germans choose to launch an offensive now?2. What were storm troopers?3. Describe the 3 main offensive strategies the Germans were

planning on using?4. What are some of the main features of the Spring Offensive?

WHY NOW?- The Germans realised their only remaining chance was to

defeat the allies before the Americans joined the war- They also had the advantage of extra resources which could

be freed now that the Russians had surrendered (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk)

TACTICS

OFFENSIVE TACTICS (GERMANY)- Storm troopers:

o The Germans had developed ‘storm trooper’ units who were the fittest and best soldiers in each battalion.

o They would storm ahead and attack the enemies strongest points, leaving the infantry to ‘mop up’ after them

o Main Aim: To attack and disrupt enemy headquarters,

artillery units and supply depots in the rear areas To occupy territory rapidly

THREE PHASES TO GERMAN ATTACK- Destruction of artillery - Smash front line infantry defences- Attack enemy command and communication

DEFENSIVE TACTICS (ALLIES)- The allies had developed defences in depth (similar to the way

the Germans had developed their defences e.g. prior to the Somme)

- 3 levels to the allied defence:1. Outpost zone lightly held by snipers, machine gun posts

and paroles2. Battle zone the offensive was firmly resisted here

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3. Rear zone reserves held ready to counter attack or seal off any penetrations

WHAT WAS THE OFFENSIVE?- There were four separate attacks codenamed:

o Michaelo Georgette o Gneisenauo Blucher-York

- There was also a Final Offensive which was really a last act of desperation on the part of the Germans

GERMAN SUCCESS- Allies taken by surprise by the size of attack - Foggy conditions gave the Germans a great advantage - Storm troopers penetrated deep into Allied positions- After 2 days the British Fifth Army in full retreat - 255 000 allies killed

GERMAN FAILURES- Ludendorff failed to follow correct storm trooper tactics- Troops exhausted after 3 days- Troops had little support- Newly won territory of little use (mainly no mans land)- Failed to capture important strategic points- The German casualties were mostly storm troopers i.e. their

strongest and fittest menGEORGETTE 9TH APRIL – 29TH APRIL

- This was an attempt to cut off the British from their supply line across the English Channel

- Again, the Germans could not capitalise as they could not get their supplies through in time and had to retreat as the British, French and Australians counter attacked

BLÜCHER-YORCK 27TH MAY – 4TH JUNE - The idea was to split the British and the French forces before

the Americans could arrive to back them up- The German’s had a huge deal of success here as the French

and British were not ready. They almost made it as far as Paris- The United States forces arrived just in time to foil the

German advance

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GNEISENAU 8TH JUNE – 12TH JUNE- The idea here was to draw more Allied reserves south and link

with the Germans at Amiens- The French were tipped off by German Prisoners and were

ready for the massive artillery bombardment - Eventually a French counter0attack drove the Germans back

FINAL OFFENSIVE 15TH JULY – 17TH JULY - Again the Germans tried to draw the Allies south - The French launched a successful counter attack again,

threatening to cut off the Germans who just escaped - By now the Offensive was on its last legs

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ALLIED COUNTER OFFENSIVE AUGUST 1918 – NOVEMBER 1918

- Began July 18th across the River Marneo Allies used aircraft, tanks in masso Germans retreated in an orderly manner even though

morale was lowo Germans disheartened by amount of Allied supplies and

equipment - 2nd Allied Attack on August 8th – ‘Black Day’ for the Germany

army: surrenderedo Germans fell back to the Hindenburg lineo German soil not touched yet

- By the end of Septembero Ludendorff demanded that the politicians sue for peace

- Ludendorff resignation on the 26th October signals the German government’s disarray at the time

KIEL MUTINY OCTOBER 29TH - Orders were given to the navy on 27th October to do Battle

with Britain- Sailors at Kiel Harbour refused to obey officers and abandoned

ship to demonstrate in the town - Citizens joined the soldiers demanding a democratic

government and revolution spread as far and wide as Munich - Germany is now spiralling out of control – both the navy, the

workers and soon the army will be in open revolt ABDICATION OF KAISER WILHELM (9TH NOVEMBER)

- Kaiser flees to Holland where he dies in exile in 1940. The Social Democrats take power

- A government is now in power in Germany wo are committed to ending the war; but by doing so they are accused of ‘stabbing the German army in the back’

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4. Allied Victory

Events leading to the Armistice, 1918

Reasons for the Allied victory and German collapse

REASONS FOR THE ALLIED VICTORY AND GERMAN DEFEAT

COLLAPSE OF THE GERMAN HOMEFRONT- Demands of war economy, Allied blockade and inflation led to

food shortages by 1916. By 1918 some were starving - German High Command shifted from agriculture into industry

and military which led to decrease in food production- A political truce in the Reichstag since 1914 had broken down,

by 1917, the Reichstag was keen on peace- Industrial action increased from 1000 strikes a month (1915)

to 100 000 a month in late 1918 THE FRONT LINE

- Russia’s surrender and early success of the Spring Offensive offered some hope but once the advance was stopped, the Germany Army had run out of reserves and was vulnerable to Allied counter offensive

- Allied commanders had finally worked out how to co-ordinate the different weapons (tanks, artillery and infantry) at their disposal

- General Foch was appointed C-in- C to co0ordinate the Allied Forces

- Although large parts of the German Army fought determinedly, war weariness and declining moral affected many before the Allied Offensive began in August

- By October 1918, the German High Command admitted to the Reichstag that it could not win the war

US ENTRY INTO THE WAR- Perhaps the critical factor: massive potential in man power,

industry, resources and capital. This was a huge blow to the German moral

- When US soldiers arrived in France, they moved into the front line to give British and French troops a rest. This allowed the Allies to have fresh, veteran troops to go on the offensive

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- US troops were well-equipped and fed, even if they were inexperienced. There were 187 000 Americans inn France at the end of 1917. By the war’s end, there were 830 000 +

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS- Victory was inevitable. The German Spring Offensive broke the

stalemate and threatened the whole Western Front. Even after it was halted, there was no immediate prospects of victory

- The Allied naval blockade slowly strangled the German economy. Whilst the U-Boat campaign of unrestricted warfare brought Britain down to 6 weeks food supplies at one stage, this helped bring the USA into the war on the Allied side

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The roles and differing goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson in creating the Treaty of Versailles

TREATY OF VERSAILLES

- Great Britain, America and France were the three most powerful Allies and they wanted to exert their influence upon the Treaty of Versailles. Yet they wanted different things

LLOYD GEORGE (UK)- Germany to be justly punished but not too harshly- Germany to lose their navy and colonies as these were threats

to Britain’s own navy and empire- Germany and Britain to become trading partners- There was pressure at home to make Germany pay:

o Had he been too soft he would been voted out as PM- Lloyd George hated the Treaty, however “Hang the Kaiser”

and “Make Germany Pay” were two very common calls in the era immediately after the end of the war

- Lloyd George, looking for public support echoed these views- He liked the fact that Britain got German colonies and the

small German navy helped British sea-power- Although many British people wanted to “make Germany

pay”, Lloyd George thought that the Treaty was too harsh and that it would start another war in 25 years’ time

CLEMENCEAU (FRANCE)- To cripple Germany so it couldn’t attack France again- Wanted Germany broken down into smaller states (weakened)- France had suffered the most during the war, so Clemenceau

was under great pressure from the French people to make Germany pay

- Clemenceau liked the harsh things that were in the Treaty, especially reparations, because they would weaken Germany while helping France recover

- He had one very simple belief – Germany should be brought to its knees so that she could never start a war again

- France had been invaded by Germany before inn 1871- He liked the idea of a small German army, and the

demilitarised zone in Rhineland because he thought that this would protect France from attacks in the future

- He was pleased that France received Alsace-Lorraine as this had been taken of France by Germany in 1871

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- He wanted the Treaty to be harsherWILSON (USA)

- A better and more peaceful world- A League of Nations that would help care and support each

other and help to promote world peace- The right to self-determination. The right to decide which

country you wish to be governed by- Wilson got self-determination for the Peoples of Eastern

Europe and a League of Nations but he was disappointed with the Treaty because few of his ‘Fourteen Points’ were acted upon

- Wilson went back to America, and the senate refused to join the League of Nations and refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles

- In America there was a growing desire for the government to adopt a policy of isolation and leave Europe to its own devices

- Wilson believed that Germany should be punished but in a way that wold lead to European reconciliation as opposed to revenge

THE TERMS OF THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES- 8 million people had been killed- Cost of the war was roughly 6.6 million pounds- Destruction of land, homes, farms and factories was huge- Millions more died after the war due to famine and disease - Germany had to accept total responsibility for starting World

War 1o Was called the War Guilt Clause or Act 231

- Germany had to 6.6 million pounds in reparations to cover war damages and other Allied losses

- This accounted for about 13% of all her land and six million of her people who lived there

- Germany was to have her colonies taken away from her- These colonies were to become mandates run by the Allies on

behalf of the League of Nations- The German army was to have no more than 100 000 men

and the navy was limited to 15 000 soldiers - There was to be no air force and no submarines - He German navy was only allowed six battleships and

Germany was forbidden to buy any more weapons and other war materials

- An Allied Army was to occupy the Rhineland for a period of fifteen years

- No German troops were to be allowed into the occupation zone

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