Module 1- Introduction to Educational Research

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Module 1:Introduction To Educational Research

FACILITATOR: DR. SOON SENG THAH

TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN UC

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY FOR POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

13 & 20 SEPTEMBER 2014

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Objectives

To provide an understanding of research processes in the social sciences (education);

To enable participants to know, understand and apply elements of research methodologies in a practical-based framework;

To inculcate knowledge and skills needed to conduct a proper research based on established principles and norms; and

To enable participants to know the techniques of writing a research proposal and report.

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Coverage

The whole course comprises 6 modules:

Introduction to research;

Formulating the research problem;

Reviewing the literature;

Research methodology;

Quantitative and qualitative data analysis; and

Writing the research report.

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Reference Books

Ary, D., Jacobs, L.C., & Razavieh, A. (2002). Introduction to research in education. 6th Ed. Belmont: Wadsworth.

Christensen, L.B. (2007). Experimental methodology. 10th Ed. Boston: Pearson

Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (2011). Research methodology in education. 7th Ed. New York: Routledge.

Creswell, J.W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. 4th Ed. Boston, MA: Pearson.

Creswell, J.W. (2009). Research Design: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Method Approaches. 3rd Ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

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Reference Books

Creswell, J.W. & Plano Clark, V.L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. 2nd Ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Gay, L.R. & Airasian, P. (2000). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and applications. 6th Ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

Johnson, B. & Christensen, L. (2000). Educational research: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Kerlinger, F.N. & Lee, H.B. (2000). Foundations of behavioral research. 4th. Ed. Forth Worth: Harcourt College Publishers.

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Reference Books

Mitchell, M.L. & Jolley, J.M. (2010). Research design explained. 7th Ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Tuckman, B.W. (1999). Conducting educational research. 5th Ed. Forth Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Wiersma, W. & Jurs, S.G. (2009). Research methods in education: An introduction. 9th Ed. Boston: Pearson.

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The Nature of Educational Research

Gay & Airasian (2000) Educational research is the systematic application

of a family of methods that are employed to provide trustworthy information about educational problems.

Creswell (2012) Research is a process of steps used to collect and

analyse information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue. At a general level, research consists of three steps: i. pose a question ii. collect data to answer the question and iii. present

an answer to the question.

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Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh (2002) Educational research is the application of scientific

approach to the study of educational problems.

Wiersma & Jurs (2009) The general characteristics of research are:

1. Research is empirical

2. Research should be systematic

3. Research should be valid

4. Research should be reliable

5. Research can take on a variety of forms

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Educational research – 2 types Basic Research

Applied Research

Basic research Aimed at obtaining empirical data used to

formulate and expand theory

Concerned with the relationship between two or more variables

Comprising : Problem identification

Literature review

Constructing hypothesis

Creating research design

Collecting and analysing data

Drawing conclusions

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Applied research Aims to solve an immediate practical problem

Research undertaken in conditions of practice

Synonymous with action research

Conducted by teachers in the classroom for professional improvement in teaching and learning processes

Gay & Airasian (2000) Action research is a process in which individual or several

teachers collect evidence and make decisions about their own knowledge, performance, beliefs, and effects in order to understand and improve them.

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Action research Kemmis (1983)

Action research is a form of self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social (including educational) situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of (a) their own social or educational practices (b) their understanding of these practices (c) the situations in which the practices are carried out. It is most empowering when undertaken by individuals, and sometimes in cooperation with “outsiders”.

Elliot (1991) The study of social situation with a view to improving the

quality of action within it.

In action research, “theories” are not validated independently and then applied to practice. They are validated through practice.

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The action research model (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988) Reflect

Plan

Action

Observe

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Reflection and analysis of current practice

General idea of research topic and context Scanning the literature, discussing

with colleagues

Tentative action plan, consider

different research strategies

Take action, monitor effects,

evaluation of strategy, final

amendment

Narrowing down the topic,

planning the action

Refined topic, formulate research

questions, refined action plan

Evaluation of entire process

Conclusions, explanations.

Recommendations for further research

Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988

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Action Research

Practical Participatory

Studying local practicesInvolving individual or team-based inquiryFocusing on teacher development and student learningImplementing a plan of actionLeading to the teacher-as-researcher

Studying social issues that constrain individual livesEmphasizing “equal” collaborationFocusing on “life-enhancing” changesResulting in the emancipated researcher

Source: John W. Creswell, 2005, Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research, 2nd ed., Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Types of Action Research

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The Scientific Approach

Kerlinger & Lee (2000): “…a systematic, controlled, empirical, amoral, public, and critical investigation of natural phenomena. It is guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among such phenomena.”

Basic assumptions: There is a world out there which can be studied; There is some degree of “regularity” in the world;

and There is “discoverability”.

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The Scientific Method

American Association for the Advancement of Science (1990) Making empirical observations;

Generating and testing hypotheses;

Building and testing theories;

Attempting to predict and influence the world to make it a better place to live.

Methods in scientific approach: Deductive method

General to specific

Quantitative research

Inductive method Specific to general

Qualitative research

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The Scientific Method

Deductive Method Researcher states a hypothesis based on existing

theory

Researcher collects data to be used to test hypothesis empirically

Researcher makes decision to accept or reject hypothesis based on the data

Inductive Method Researcher makes observations

Researcher studies observations and searches for patterns

Researcher makes conclusions/generalisations

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The “Concept” of Theory

An explanation that discusses “how” a phenomenon operates and “why” it operates in such a way.

A theory allows you to: Explain a phenomenon

Make sense out of it

Make predictions

Examples: Systems theory

Motivation theory

Constructivism

Operant conditioning

Social learning theory, etc

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Systems Theory

Input Process Output

StudentsTeachersFinancial ResourcesInfrastructure

Classroom InstructionPedagogySchool managementCurriculum

Student outcomesIndicators of effectivenessMotivation

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Motivation theory)

Self-Actualisation

Self-Esteem/Recognition

Sense of Belonging/Love

Safety Needs/Protection

Physiological Needs

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A theory is: Tentative

Can be challenged

Can change over time

Johnson & Christensen (2000) say“You should never place too much weight on a single research study. Replication by other researchers should make you more confident about a research finding because the resulting evidence is much stronger.” p.14

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Objectives of Scientific Method

Johnson & Christensen (2000) delineated 5 objectives:

Exploration

Description

Explanation

Prediction

Influence

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Types of Research

3 types of research


Qualitative research

Mixed method research

Questions to ponder:

Which type of research is the easiest?

Which type of research is best?

Which type of research has the most certainty of success?

Which type of research can be carried out in depth?

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Historically, quantitative research dominates educational research or research per se.

Recently, qualitative research is becoming more important.

Many writers advocate both quantitative and qualitative approaches – mixed method.

Quantitative research uses objective measurement and statistical analysis of numeric data to understand and explain phenomena.

Positivism – emphasis on objective techniques of data collection.

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Experimental True experimental

Quasi experimental

Time Series

Non-experimental Survey

Correlational

Ex-post facto

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Qualitative Research

Rooted in phenomenology

Webster’s Dictionary: Study of the development of human consciousness and self-awareness as a preface to or a part of philosophy

Sees social reality as unique

Sees individual and his/her world as inter-connected – one has no existence without the other

Focuses on meanings that events have for the people involved – what people do, think, feel and experience

Results in a comprehensive narrative report

Qualitative researchers do not have advance knowledge on how events will unfold

No hypothesis

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Qualitative Research

Examples Ethnography

Case studies

Document analysis

Naturalistic observation

Focused interviews

Phenomenological studies

Grounded theories

Historical studies

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Comparison: Quantitative & Qualitative Research

Quantitative Qualitative

Purpose To study relationships, cause and effect

To understand social phenomena

Design Developed prior to study Evolves during study

Approach Deductive; tests theory Inductive; generates theory

Tools Uses standardised instruments

Uses face-to-face interaction

Samples Uses large samples Uses small samples

Analysis Statistical analysis of numeric data

Narrative description and interpretation

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The Concept of Variables in Quantitative Research

Definition: A condition or characteristic that can take on

different values or categories

Example:Gender: Male Female

Types: Quantitative variable

Family income: RM________

Categorical variable Ethnicity: 1. Malay 2. Chinese 3. Indian 4. Others

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The Concept of Variables

Independent variable (antecedent variable)

A variable which causes a change in another variable

Dependent variable (outcome variable)

A variable which determines the influence of one or more independent variables

A variable which is “dependent on” the independent variables

Example:

A researcher collects data on an achievement test with student background information.

Dependent - achievement

Independent – gender, SES

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The Concept of Variables

Cause and effect relationship

A change in the independent variable causes a change in the dependent variable

X Y (X=independent; Y=dependent)

Intervening variable

Occurs between two other variables in a causal chain

X I Y (I=intervening)

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Are the data primarily in the

form of Numbers or Words?

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Numbers Words

Quantitative

Does researcher have

control over an

independent variable?

Yes

No

Experimental

Is random

assignment used?

Qualitative

Yes

No

Quasi-Experimental

Non-Experimental

Is the study

investigating how

variables change

together? No

Yes

Is the direction

and strength of

the relationship

of two or more

variables among

the same subjects

or paired subjects

studied?

Yes

No Ex-post

Facto

Correlation

True

Experimental

Survey

Figure 5: Types of quantitative educational

research (Ary et al., 2002 p.26)

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Mixed Method Research

Why use mixed method research?

Richness of evidence

Variety of tools can be used to collect data

Use of multiple paradigms (beliefs and values) rather than typical association of certain paradigms in quantitative and qualitative research

It is “practical” where researcher is free to use all methods possible to address the research problem

Triangulation of data/evidence

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Principles

Mixed method design can be fixed and/or emergent

Identify approach to design

Typology-based approach – selection and adaptation of particular design to one’s purpose

Dynamic approaches – focuses on design process - inter-relates multiple components of the research design

Match design to research problem, objectives and questions

Be explicit about using mixed method

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Prototypes of Mixed Designs (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011)

A) The convergent parallel design

Quantitative data collection and analysis

Qualitative data collection and analysis

Compare or relate

Inter-pretation

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B) The explanatory sequential design



Follow upwith

Inter-pretation

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C) The exploratory sequential design



Builds to Inter-pretation

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D) The embedded design

Quantitative (or qualitative) Design

Quantitative (or qualitative) Data Collection and Analysis

Qualitative (or Quantitative) Data Collection and Analysis (before, during, or after)

Inter-pretation

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E) The multi-phase design

Study 1:Qualitative Informs

OverallProgramObjective

Study 2:Quantitative Informs

Study 3:Mixed Methods

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Stages in Educational Research

Step 1: Selecting a problem

Step 2: Review literature

Step 3: Design research

Step 4: Collect data

Step 5: Analyse data

Step 6: Interpret findings

Step 7: Report results

Step 8: Viva

THEORY

Steps in Educational

Research

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“Threats” to Quantitative Research

Ethics

Dishonesty

Validity and Reliability Issues

Statistical Procedures

Sampling

Illogical Arguments & Unsystematic Presentation of Facts

Inconsistency

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Research Proposal

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Review of related literature

Chapter 3: Methodology

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Selecting an appropriate research title

Create a title which is interesting, concise, precise and meaningful

The relationship between pupils’ socio-economic status and their reading ability in the learning of English as a Second Language

The effect of TAR UC’s Virtual Learning Environment system on students’ communication with lecturers

Your research title must be grammatically correct Examples of grammatically incorrect titles:

Study of Big Book method in ESP practise Relations of student achievement and teacher motivation in

teaching of TESL

The grammatically correct titles should be: A study of the Big Book approach in ESP practices A study of the relationship between students’ achievement

and teachers’ motivation in teaching English as a second language

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Try not to include the name of your institution or the research locale in your title

Comparing the Big Book and Small Book Approaches in Improving Students’ English Performance in TAR UC

A better alternative would be: Comparing the Big Book and Small Book Approaches in

Improving Students’ English Performance

However, if you are conducting a case study pertaining to a school, then you may include the school name.

Do not provide an explanation in a title Using newspapers in teaching ESP so that students can

learn English better

In research, you are not sure about the findings at the proposal stage

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Use a title which can “capture” the key elements of your research

If your sample concerns Final Year students in which you’re teaching them ICT and you want to study motivational factors among them, then you may want to include these key elements in your title.

Your title can be “Motivational factors in learning ICT among final year B. Sc. (Hons) students”.

Do not include everything you want to study in your title

An example of a “long-winded” title: Studying the roles of lecturers in relation to their

qualifications, experiences and cultural beliefs including their oral competency in enhancing final year students’ ICT abilities and family background indicators in ascertaining ICT competency

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Do not create your research title in the form of a question

This is because in your research proposal, there is already a section called “research questions”.

E.g. Do TAR UC “A” level students perform better than XYZ UC students in the science subjects?

Refer to Appendix A of Module 1 for numerous possibilities when choosing research titles.

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What next?

Formulating research problem

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Module 1- Introduction to Educational Research

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