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MODULE
2
PSYCHOLO
GY & S
CIENCE
ANSWERING QUESTIONS
Researchers tend to use three methods
Each one provides different kinds of information
SurveyCase studyExperiment
SURVEY
Way to obtain information by asking many individualsPerson to person, telephone or mailAnswer a fixed set of questions about particular subjects
SURVEY (CONT’D)Disadvantages Information can contain errorsResults can be biasedHow questions are worded and who asks them
AdvantagesQuick and efficient way to collect information on behaviors, beliefs, experiences, and attitudes from a large sample of people
Can compare answers from various ethnic, age, socioeconomic, and cultural groups
CASE STUDY
Case study In-depth analysis of the thoughts, feelings, beliefs, experiences, behaviors, or problems of a single individual
Most often are a Personal case study: testimonial statement in support of a particular viewpoint based on detailed
observation of a person’s own personal experience
There can be errorserror and bias: self-fulfilling prophecy
CASE STUDY (CONT’D)
DisadvantageDetailed information about a particular person may not apply to others
AdvantageDetailed information allows greater understanding of a particular person’s life
EXPERIMENT: USE OF PLACEBOS
Placebo Intervention in experimentEx…….taking a pill, receiving an injection, or undergoing an operation, that resembles medical therapy but, in fact, has no medical effects
Placebo effectChange in a patient’s illness that’s attributable to an imagined treatment rather than to a medical treatment
EXPERIMENT: USE OF PLACEBOS
EXPERIMENT: USE OF PLACEBOS (CONT’D)Researchers believe that placebos work by reducing tension and distress and by creating powerful self-fulfilling prophecies
I HAVE HELP WITH THIS PROBLEM
Individuals think and behave as if the drug, actually a placebo, is effective (HUMANISTIC)
Ex….Teenagers and Alcohol
CORRELATION
CorrelationAn association or relationship between the occurrence of two or more events
Correlation coefficientA number that indicates the strength of a relationship between two or more events: the closer the number is to –1.00 or +1.00, the greater is the strength of the relationship
CORRELATION (CONT’D)
CORRELATION (CONT’D)
Perfect positive correlation coefficient+1.00 means that an increase in one event is always matched by an equal increase in a second event
Positive correlation coefficient Indicates that as one event tends to increase, the second event tends to, but does not always, increase
Increases from +0.01 to +0.99 indicate a strengthening of the relationship between the occurrence of two events
CORRELATION (CONT’D)
Zero correlation Indicates that there is no relationship between the occurrence of one event and the occurrence of a second event
Negative correlation coefficient Indicates that as one event tends to increase, the second event tends to, but does not always, decrease
-0.01 to -0.99 indicates a strengthening in the relationship of one event increasing and the other decreasing
CORRELATION (CONT’D)
Perfect negative correlation coefficient
-1.00 means that an increase in one event is always matched by an equal decrease in a second event
Correlations such as -1.00 are virtually never found in applied psychological research
DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCHWhat is the best technique for answering
a question?
Questionnaires and interviewsLaboratory experimentsStandardized testsAnimal models
DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT’D)
InterviewTechnique for obtaining information by asking questions
ranging from open-ended to highly structured subject’s behaviors and attitudes,
one-on-one situation
QuestionnaireTechnique for obtaining informationSubjects read a list of written questions and check off specific answers
DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT’D)
Laboratory experiments information about the brain, genes, or behavior
least error and bias by using a controlled environment that
allows careful observation and measurement
Standardized testsadministering a psychological test
given to hundreds of peopleshown to reliably measure thought patterns, personality traits, emotions, or behaviors
DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT’D)
Animal modelsexamining or manipulating some behavioral, genetic, or physiological factor
that is similar to some human problem, disease, or condition
Example researchers genetically altered mice to have extra receptors for
brain chemicals involved in schizophrenia
APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNSConcerns about being a subjectHuman and animal
Code of ethicsAmerican Psychological Association (APA) publishes a code of ethics and conduct for psychologists to follow when doing research, counseling, teaching, and related activities
Code spells out the responsibilities of psychologists and the rights of participants
APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT’D)
Ethics of animal research
How many animals are used in research? estimated over 25 million animals used each year in biomedical research
Are research animals mistreated? of the millions of animals used in research, only a few cases of animal
mistreatment have been confirmed researchers support the Animal Research Act
APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT’D)
Ethics of animal research
Is the use of animals justified? researchers are currently using animals to study many things
including epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, fetal alcohol syndrome, schizophrenia, AIDS, and transplantation of brain tissue, none of which is possible with human subjects
Who checks on the use of animals in research? US Department of Agriculture universities hire veterinarians universities have animal subject committees
APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT’D)
Ethics of animal research
How do we strike a balance? many experts in the scientific, medical, and mental health communities
believe that the conscientious and responsible use of animals in research is justified and should continue
• Get into groups of two and get out a piece of paper. Your group member needs to be someone who you have not worked with yet in this class.
• Pretend for a second that you are a psychologist in a university setting that has a budget to perform an experiment. For each of the following types of experiments you need to propose and idea that you that you would like to see tested for each different type of experimental method. Tell me your rational for wanting to see this experiment done.
Questionnaires and interviews
Laboratory experiments
Standardized tests
Animal models
DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH
Questionnaires and interviews
Laboratory experiments
Standardized tests
Animal models