MODULE : INTRO TO PERSPECTIVE LEARNING
CRITICAL THINKING AND COMMUNICATION THE USE OF REASON IN ARGUMENT
CLAIMS AND
PROPOSITIONCHAPTER FOUR
THE NATURE OF CLAIMS AND PROPOSITIONS
• All arguments consist of claims and propositions• They help to define and focus the direction of a discussion• Argument claims are the end point of an individual argument• They are supported by reasoning and evidence and focus on a
single issue or idea• While arguing, many different arguments may be developed
and each argument has a claim
PROPOSITIONS
• Propositions are main claims that serve as the principal claim of an extended argument
• They are the primary point made by the arguer• They focus the field of discussion• They define and limit the issues available to arguers in a dispute
PROPOSITION ARENAS
• Issues are things to consider when engaged in critical thinking and reflection
• Issues are the various points of potential disagreements related to a proposition
PROPOSITION ARENAS ( contd …)
• They set the boundary of acceptable and reasonable issues relevant to the topic
• This is the propositional arena- the ground for dispute and includes all the issues for controversy within a given proposition
• If irrelevant issues are allowed to become part of an argument, discussions and debates can be sidetracked
USING CLAIMS AND PROPOSITION
• Arguers cannot address every potential issue in a proposition• Some issues may never be addressed , depending on the given
audience, situation and level of dispute• Arguers should respond clearly stating their claim or proposition• Claims are usually stated in the beginning or at the end of the
argument
• USING CLAIMS AND PROPOSITION ( contd..)
• Propositions emerge and are formulated over time• Propositions are initially not confirmed but become refined
as the participants become knowledgeable in vital issues.• E.g . Prosecutors study the case before bringing charges,
doctors study the patients symptoms before issuing a diagnosis.
FORMULATING A PROPOSITION
CONTROVERSIALITY
• All claims and propositions should be controversial ( arguable )• It states a position currently not accepted by the audience• Always choose a subject that will be important and controversial
( otherwise there is nothing to argue about )• Arguers should provide recipients with information about the issues• Arguers should provide sufficient depth to the issues to develop the
recipients capabilities to make reasoned judgements about the arguer• The controversiality of a proposition may depend on what issues are
timely and of significant public interests
CLARITY
• Clarity is how well a claim focuses arguments on a particular set of issues
• People need to know where they are starting so as to decide when they have finished
AMBIGUOS TERMS
• One major confusion in stating propositions is the use of ambiguous (uncertain) terms
• Each party will interpret the proposition differently • Each arguer has a different starting point, and going in a direction
unexpected by the other
DOUBLE BARRELED STATEMENTS
• Double barreled claims advance two or more claims at one time and often leads arguers in separate directions
• The relevant issue for each part of the claim are different• Since they include issues from two or more propositional
arenas, arguers cannot focus and define the area under dispute.
EXAMPLES OF DOUBLE BARRELED CLAIMS
Double-barreled claim : The Malaysian government should cut the income tax rate to stimulate the economy Claim 1 : The Malaysian Government should cut the income tax rate
Claim 2 : Cutting the income tax rate will stimulate the economy
EXAMPLES OF DOUBLE BARRELED CLAIMS ( contd..)
Double-barreled claim : If companies test employees for drugs, they should also test for alcohol, which is the biggest drug of all.
Claim 1: Alcohol is the “biggest”( most frequently used ) drug of all
Claim 2 : Drug testing should be combined with alcohol testing by companies that test for substance abuse
BALANCE• It’s the requirement that the issues for and against a proposition be
included equally in the propositional field• When the topic is clearly stated , both proponents and opponents can
discuss freely• In law charges are stated neutrally and agreed upon before the trial can
proceed• In business management , decision makers usually discuss a specific
policy or course of action
CHALLENGE• Means that arguer’s claim confronts recipients’ existing values, beliefs
or behaviors • A proposition for argument should challenge what people already
believe or do
CLASSIFICATION OF CLAIMS
Type
Fact Value Policy
Expression
Implicit Explicit
Emergence
Emergent Predetermined
Factual Claims
Makes inferences about past, present or future conditions or relationships
• Relatively easy to prove because the needed information is generally available and clear E.g. Hakim weighs more than Len
• Relational Claims - attempts to establish a causal relation between one condition and another , e.g. A diet high in fat will harm your health
Factual Claims ( contd..)
• Predictive Claims – based on assumptions that past relationships and conditions will be repeated in the future, e.g. Every home in Malaysia will have an Internet Connection by 2015
• Historical Facts Claims – rest on the strength of probable evidence to which we have access, e.g. There was no evidence of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq
Value Claims Value Claims assess the worth or merit of an idea, object or practice according to standards or criteria supplied by the arguer
• Values are fundamental positive or negative attitudes toward certain end states of existence or broad modes of conduct such as equality and honesty
• Value claims focus on the values held by the participants in a dispute
• Values govern our choices and indicate what we ought to do
Examples
1. Stem cell research is beneficial to society2. Grading undermines the quality in education 3. Censorship of Internet for religious insults is justified
Policy Claims
Policy claims call for a specific course of action and focus on whether a change in policy or behavior should take place
• The claims focus on action and /or policies
• Frequently deal with complex social. Political and economic problems that rely on an understanding of values and facts
• Policy claims imply dissatisfaction with the status quo or a belief that a change in behavior would be beneficial
Examples
1. Malaysia should legalize gay marriages2. Johor State should pass a 1% sales tax to fund schools3. We should rent this apartment
EXPRESSION OF CLAIMExplicit Claims
Such claims are stated clearly and publicly such that both the arguer and recipient are equally aware of their meaning
Examples :
1. Schools should sack students who bring any weapons to school
2. The drinking age should be reduced to eighteen
3. Ganja should be decriminalized ( still illegal but not treated as criminal offence )
EXPRESSION OF CLAIM ( contd..)
Implicit Claims
Implicit claims are not stated publicly and are understood by the participants engaged in the argument
Example: ( A conversation between a married couple )
John : I can’t believe you are home late again. This is ridiculous Jane : Work has been really busy this month. I can’t help it .John : Work should not define your life . You are always putting in a sixty hour week.Jane : I’ll try to do better , but I need a little patience now.
Implicit Claim here could be :• We need to spend more time together• Because you are not working , I need to work harder to make ends
meet.• You are ignoring your family .