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LIFE SCIENCES (3)

Plant and Animal Science in Ancient India: A Survey

Ayurveda also represents Life Sciences like Botany, Zoology, Veterinary Science and

Agriculture along with Medicine. Plant Science was known as Vṛkṣāyurveda and Animal

Science as Mṛgāyurveda. Aśvāyurveda and Gajāyurveda represent Veterinary Medicine for

horses and elephants respectively. Agriculture was known as Kṛṣiśāstra.

Plant Science in Ancient India

Antiquity and continuity

Knowledge of plants and agricultural practices are documented in ancient Indian

literature. Discussions on plant science can be seen in Vedic literature, the epics and

various compendia.

Sources

Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya contains very interesting passages relating to the harvesting and

management of crops and crop diseases and very many aspects of agroforestry. Bṛhat

Samhitā of Varāhamihira composed in the 6th century CE has an entire chapter devoted to

Vṛkṣāyurveda. Agni Purāṇa also includes a chapter on the topic. Cakrapāṇidatta, a

commentator of the celebrated Ayurvedic text, Caraka Saṃhitā, puts forth the theory that

plants have feelings and cognitive abilities. There are also independent works on the

subject like Surapāla’s Vṛkṣāyurveda and Upavana Vinoda of Śārngadhara. The legacy of

Vṛkṣāyurveda has also been preserved through folk traditions in oral form. The farming

and tribal communities constitutes the largest repository of the working knowledge of

plant science in India.

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Folios from the manuscript of Vṛkṣāyurveda of Surapāla, a text on plant science composed in the 10th century. (Courtesy: Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad)

Surapāla applied the doṣa theory to plants (see module on Ayurveda for Life,

Health and Well-being) to provide a number of recipes for plant protection and

treatment, depending on the particular doṣa imbalance affecting the plant. Many of the

ingredients he lists have been shown to possess antimicrobial properties. Among them

are milk (elephant milk at times!), ghee, honey, licorice, cow urine and dung, various

liquid manures, mustard, pastes made of various barks and roots, asafoetida, turmeric,

sesame oil, salt and ash; the flesh, fat or marrow from various animals (mammals and

fish) was also recommended in specific cases.

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Scope

Ayurvedic literature refers to plants and their classification into forest trees, other trees,

shrubby plants and herbs. Shrubby plants are either climbers or shrubs as such and

herbs are flowering and non-flowering. Flowering and non-flowering trees are also

distinguished. Vṛkṣāyurveda includes topics like collection,

selection and storage of seeds, germination and sowing,

various techniques of plant propagation and grafting,

nursing and irrigation, testing and classification of soil,

selection of soils suitable for various plants, types of plants, manuring, pest and disease

management, nomenclature and taxonomy, description and classification of plants to

suit varied purposes, favourable and unfavourable meteorological conditions, use of

plants as indicators of weather, water, and minerals as well as botanical marvels.

Preparation of extract from neem kernels to treat crops against pests and diseases. (Courtesy: Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems, Chennai)

How comprehensive are the topics Vṛkṣāyurveda deals with?

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Preparation of extract from garlic, ginger and chilli to treat crops against pests and diseases. (Courtesy: Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems, Chennai)

Validation

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has documented 4,879 indigenous

practices in the field of traditional plant science. A set of 111 indigenous technical

practices were selected and subjected to experimental testing and validation in efforts

that were conducted by several ICAR institutes and state agricultural departments and

Universities across the country. These pertain to various

topics such as pest control, crop protection, farm

implements, weather forecasting etc., and it was shown that

slightly more than 80% of these practices were valid and

about 6% were partly valid. Vṛkṣāyurveda promises many new areas for fresh research

initiatives like the study of meteorological conditions (tithi, nakṣatra) that are suitable for

various agricultural operations in the cultivation of crops, increasing plant growth and

yield, testing and classification of soil and use of plants as indicators for water, minerals

and weather.

What kind of practical applications could ICAR’s conclusions lead to?

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Animal Science in Ancient India

Antiquity and continuity

The branch of veterinary medicine was well developed in ancient India and was devoted

to the well-being of domesticated animals like cows, horses and elephants. Earliest

references can be seen in Vedic literature.

(Left) A veterinary surgeon performing surgery on the eye of a horse. (Right) A veterinary surgeon performing bloodletting on a horse. (Courtesy: Wellcome Library, London)

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Sources

Hayāyurveda of Śālihotra is an ancient textbook of veterinary medicine that classifies

horses and describes treatments for horses apart from providing accounts of anatomy.

Śālihotra composed many treatises on horses, which were translated into Arabic, Persian

and Tibetan. A treatise on Gajāyurveda devoted to elephants was composed by Pālakāpya,

which deals with treatment of diseases afflicting elephants. The Mṛgapakṣiśāstra by

Hamsadeva composed in the 13th century CE gives fascinating descriptions of animals and

birds.

Scope

The diversity of animal life has been well captured in the ancient literature of India. The

canons of Caraka and Suśruta classify animals on the basis of their habitat and predatory

behaviour. Animals are classified on the basis of habitat into terrestrial, underground,

aquatic, aerial and marshy types. Animals are prey snatchers (prasaha), peckers (viṣkira)

or attackers (pratuda). In different texts, animals have been classified on the basis of

varied criteria. Animals are reproduced sexually (yonija) or asexually (ayonija). Sexual

reproduction is either through eggs (oviparous) or placenta (viviparous). The texts also

speak of life emerging from moisture and heat as well as from dead vegetation. One

classification distinguishes animals by number of feet and another by the presence or

absence of hoofs. The Matsyapurāṇa classifies animals on the basis of their activity into

diurnal, nocturnal or both. A number of animals have been described in the context of

food and dietetics. The medicinal and nutritional properties of meat from a variety of

animal sources have been documented in the classical texts of Ayurveda. The food web

and food chain have been described highlighting the principle that one form of life is

food for another (jīvo jīvasya jīvanam).

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People of ancient India lived in close proximity with nature and were keen

observers of animal life. It has been mentioned in some texts that the first clues

regarding medicinal properties of plants can be discovered from animal behaviour. Thus,

ancient Indian literature has one of the earliest documented evidence of the practice of

zoo-pharmacognosy, that is, the discovery of medicinal uses of plants by observing how

animals eat specific plants when they suffer from a disease, have worms or have been

bitten by a snake.

The texts of Ayurveda also talk about confirming the toxicity of substances by

administering test doses to animals, perhaps the earliest accounts of animal experiments

in toxicology.

Current status

Gajāyurveda is still practised by traditional experts in states like Kerala. Veterinary

herbal medicines are manufactured and marketed by pharmaceutical firms in India.

Biodiversity and folk traditions

The richness of the biodiversity and the climatic and geographic variations were

highlighted in ancient writings. Different geographical regions were described along

with the cycle of six seasons setting the stage for variations in biodiversity. It is

mentioned in Ayurvedic texts that there is a variation of biodiversity in terms of flora

and fauna as well as human life and habits over a span of 12 yojanās or 96 miles. Ancient

Indians estimated that there are nearly 8.4 million yonis or species of life on earth. This

comes strikingly close to the recent estimate of modern scientists at 8.7 million species.

Suśruta proclaims that one must hunt for natural resources near rivers, mountains,

lakes, forests and even human habitations, for the earth is bountiful everywhere. There

are about 4,600 ethnic communities in India who have lived in close proximity with

nature and nurtured a folk system of medicine. It is estimated that there are one million

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specialized carriers of folk medicine, outnumbering the paramedics on the payroll of the

government.

***

Comprehension

What aspects of Plant Science does Vṛkṣāyurveda deal with?

What disciplines does Vṛkṣāyurveda touch upon besides Plant Science?

Match the following

Vṛkṣāyurveda treatment of elephants

Mṛgāyurveda agriculture

Aśvāyurveda treatment of plants

Gajāyurveda treatment of horses

Kṛṣiśāstra veterinary science

Project ideas

Compile some of the above data to show the intimate understanding of nature we

find in ancient Indians.

Conduct a survey among farmers in a village or two and list some of their practices

that may be called traditional (i.e., chemical free), whether in treating seeds,

plants or crops, planting, harvesting or storing, manuring and managing pests.

Identify in your region one of those ‘ethnic communities who have lived in close

proximity with nature and nurtured a folk system of medicine’; study it and

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prepare a presentation on its knowledge of nature, medicinal plants and other

health traditions.

Extension activities

Write an essay (or prepare a PowerPoint) on the following theme: Organic cereals

and vegetables are growing in popularity; why should it be so? And if the trend

continues, what consequences could it have on agricultural practices in the

country?

Start a small garden of medicinal plants in your school or at home, with at least a

dozen different plants to begin with. Keep a record for each plant, including its

basic botanical characteristics and its medicinal properties.

Records from the 19th century show that in Rajasthan, people sprinkled a mixture

of curd and asafoetida (about 12 g per litre) on trees to prevent powdery mildew —

a term that covers many kinds of fungus attacks. Identify diseased plants in your

vicinity and try it out twice a week. Observe results, if any.

***

Further Reading

1. Y.L. Nene, (ed.), Glimpses of the Agricultural Heritage of India, Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad, 2007

2. Y.L. Nene, S.L. Choudhary, (eds), Agricultural Heritage of India, Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad, 2002

3. Nalini Sadhale, Y.L. Nene, (eds), Mrgapakshishastra, Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad, 2008

4. Nalini Sadhale, Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda, Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad, 1996

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5. Nalini Sadhale, Vishwavallabha, Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad, 2004

6. R.C. Saxena, S.L. Choudhary, Y.L. Nene, A Textbook on Ancient History of Indian Agriculture, Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad, 2009

7. Subhashini Sridhar, et al., Vrkshayurveda : Ayurveda for Plants, Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems, Chennai, 2001

Internet Resources (all URLs accessed in May 2012)

Manipulating marmas on a goat: A traditional marma expert is seen paralyzing the limbs of a goat and also putting it to sleep by manipulating vital points or marmas. He revives the goat by performing counter manipulations. www.youtube.com/watch?v=PnEJLlAmZ0A

Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems (follow the links on Vṛkṣāyurveda): www.ciks.org/focus.htm

Asian Agri-History Foundation: www.agri-history.org

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Extracts from Primary Texts

Description of animals and birds

Classifying and profiling species

I have codified the classification of the animals separately here (1). First of all

is described the time of mating and then pregnancy and time of delivery.

Then the playing habits of the offspring are described. Variations in colour,

activity and characteristics are also described. The nature and behavior of the

females are described as well as the life span and death. Finally, the

psychological inclinations of the animals are elucidated. This is the format in

which animals and birds are described in this text (2). There many subtypes

of lions and other animals based on their characteristics and complexion (3). I

have only described the most important species and their varieties(4).

Mṛgapakṣiśāstra, Pūrvapīṭhikā, 30-34 (tr. Dr. P. Ram Manohar).

Notes

1. This passage is an extract from an interesting textbook of animal science called

Mṛgapakṣiśāstra which literally means science of animals and birds. The book was

composed by Hamsadeva who is believed to have lived in the 13th century CE.

2. Hamsadeva uses a structured format to describe a particular species of animal or bird.

He covers the entire life cycle starting with mating behavior and then goes on to

describe pregnancy, delivery, behaviour of offspring, variations within the species,

the life span and death. He describes the behavior of female species separately as well

as the psychological inclinations of the animals and birds. This is a unique text that

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attempts to determine species and characteristics of various animals and birds in

India.

3. Hamsadeva recognizes different types of animals within a species. For example, he

identifies six subtypes of lions — the killer, the majestic, wide-jawed, red-eyed and

yellow.

4. Such a textbook describing animal and bird species is hard to come by. Most of the

available texts on animals deal with veterinary medicine and are utilitarian in nature.

In medical textbooks, animals are described as sources of meat. However, the

Mṛgapakṣiśāstra was composed out of compassion for animals. In the first few verses of

this text, the change of mind that happened to King Shaudadeva is described. When

the King approached the forest with great zeal for hunting, he was suddenly

overwhelmed by the diversity and beauty of the animal kingdom that he beheld. He

exclaimed, ‘What a wonderful creation of God!... How cruel of me to desire to kill these

living beings?’ It was as desired by the King on his return to the palace, that

Hamsadeva composed this text describing the different species that populate the

animal kingdom on earth.

***

Classifying sources of animal meat

Predatory habits and habitats

The snatchers are animals that snatch and eat their prey (1). Burrowing

animals are those that live in pits under the ground. Wetland animals are

those that live in marshy places. The aquatic animals live in water and the

floating animals float on water. Terrestrial animals are those that live on

land. The peckers are those that peck on the ground to pick their food. The

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piercers are animals that pierce and tear their prey before eating (2). These

are the eight type of animals from which edible meat is obtained (3). Caraka

Saṃhitā, Sūtrasthāna, 27.53-56 (tr. Dr. P. Ram Manohar).

Notes

1. This extract is from the Caraka Saṃhitā the earliest textbook of General Medicine

in Ayurveda. Different classes of animals are described in the subsection on meat

and its varieties in the chapter that deals with food substances. Unlike the

Mṛgapakṣiśāstra, the description of animals is purely utilitarian — for use of their

meat as food.

2. The classification is based on two criteria — the predatory habit of the animal or

the habitat of the animal. There are three categories based on predatory habits —

the snatchers, the peckers and the piercers. Five categories based on habitat of

the animals are burrowers, wetland, aquatic, floaters and terrestrial animals.

3. The text lists and describes the nutritional properties of the various animals that

come under these eight groups. The general properties of the meat of animals

coming under a particular group are also described. For example, the snatchers,

the burrowers, wetland, aquatic and floaters share certain general nutritional

properties. The peckers, terrestrial and piercers share certain nutritional

properties in common. The text lists and groups the animals and describes the

common and specific nutritional properties of their meat as well as the

indications and contra indications for use as food.

***

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Plants are conscious

Response of plants to sensory stimuli

Even plants and trees are conscious and respond to sensory stimuli (1). For

example, the sunflower plant changes its orientation in accordance with the

movement of the sun, indicating their ability to perceive light. The lavali

plant bears fruit at the sound of thunder (2). Citrus plants bear fruits

profusely under the influence of the smell of tallow of fox and other animals.

Mango trees bear fruits profusely when fed with fish oil, indicating their

ability to perceive taste. The Aśoka tree becomes laden with flowers when

pretty damsels stamp with their feet, indicating their ability to feel touch

sensation (3). Other ancient texts confirm this inference (4). Caraka Saṃhitā,

Sūtrasthāna, 1.48, Cakrapānivyākhyā (tr. Dr. P. Ram Manohar).

Notes

1. This extract is from the commentary by Cakrapanidatta on a passage from the

Caraka Saṃhitā that distinguishes the living and non-living entities in the world.

Caraka defines the ability to respond to sensory stimuli to be the characteristic of

conscious forms of life. Cakrapanidatta explains that plants are also conscious

because they can respond to sensory stimuli. He then goes on to explain how we

can infer that plants respond to specific sensory stimuli of the special senses.

2. Though it is not clear whether plants can ‘hear’ the sound of thunder, botanists

and scientific experts opine that lightning can be beneficial to plants, because it

adds special gases to rainfall. After a thunderstorm, gardens appear to be vibrant

and lush because they get nitrogen-rich rain.

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3. The description of the effect of the stamping of feet by pretty damsels on the

Aśoka plant may seem to be poetic, but scientific studies have shown that human

visitation and touch influence plant growth. These observations have been

published in research journals.

4. Here Cakrapanidatta is referring to texts like the Manusmṛti, which also discuss

about the conscious nature of plants. The descriptions of Cakrapanidatta remind

us of the experiments conducted in modern times by Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose.

From the analysis of the variation of the cell membrane potential of plants under

different circumstances, he deduced that plants can ‘feel pain, understand

affection’, etc.

***

Diseases of plants

Treatment for plants

Trees may acquire disorders of Vata, Pitta and Kapha (1) by exposure to bitter,

dry, astringent, pungent, hot, salty, sweet, sour and oily substances. Just like

human beings, trees also suffer from diseases due to imbalance in Vata, Pitta

and Kapha. As such, I shall describe hereunder, their symptoms and remedies

(2).

If broken by strong wind, affected by age, hurt due to rubbing (against

branches of closely planted trees, etc.), if shifted to another location, and if

too many birds take shelter on them, if too sparsely spread out, if affected by

any corrosive, acrid or saline substance, if troubled with too much

medications, if wrongly treated or diagnosed, if starved, and if imbalance in

wind, etc. occurs (3).

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These are the chief causes leading to the suffering of trees. So every effort

should be made to find out the cause of suffering and to adopt corrective

measures.

There are some trees and creepers originally belonging to other countries.

They just do not grow here after planting saplings or sowing seeds. That is

due to unsuitability of this soil, of (indigenous) seasons or of its natural

properties, and due to lack of complete knowledge regarding their nurturing

and care or due to god’s will (4). Viśvavallabha, 8.1-8 (tr. Dr. P. Ram Manohar).

Notes

1. This extract is from the text Viśvavallabha, a book on plants and horticulture that

was composed by Cakrapāṇi Miśra around the 16th century CE. The available

manuscript is damaged and not legible in some places. It is still possible to extract

the overall meaning of the verses.

2. The theory of the three doṣas is applied as such not only to humans but also to

plants and animals. Detailed descriptions of plant diseases are given elsewhere in

the text.

3. After listing the etiological factors that are similar to those that affect humans,

the specific causative factors that affect plants and trees are enumerated.

4. It is interesting to note that the text refers to difficulties in nurturing plants that

belong to other countries. The possibility of growing such plants introduced from

other parts of the world by proper understanding of their nurturing and care is

also hinted at.

***

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Comprehension

1. What criteria does early Indian literature use to classify animals?

2. What are the main causes for diseases in trees according to Cakrapāṇi Miśra?

3. What criteria does Caraka use to establish that plants are conscious?

4. Taking several of the above extracts into consideration, what features of

Vṛkṣāyurveda would you use to establish that the constitution of plants and that of

humans have some commonalities?

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