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Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals...

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Page 1: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Monetary PolicyMonetary Policy

Page 2: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics

Monetary Policy

Goals

InstrumentsIntermediate Targets

Discretion

Page 3: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Instruments refer to the policy options the Fed has to control the supply of money…

Open Market Operations

By purchasing or selling US Treasuries, the Fed can alter the supply of bank reserves (MB)

Discount Window Loans

The Fed can also influence reserves by altering the interest rate charged on loans to commercial banks. (MB)

Reserve Requirements

Reserve Requirements influence the ability of banks to create new loans which affects the broader aggregates (M1,M2,M3)

This is the most often used instrument!

Page 4: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Monetary Policy goals address the central bank’s agenda in general terms

The Bank of England Follows an explicit Inflation Target. Specifically, the goal is to maintain 2% annual inflation.

The Bank of China appears to have export driven growth as their primary objective

The ECB (European Central Bank) and the Federal Reserve follow policies of stable prices and maintenance of full employment

Page 5: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Intermediate Targets address the question: “How will I meet my goals?”. Targets are variables that the central bank can more directly control.

For Tiger Woods, the goal is to win the golf tournament

The target is to score 18 under par (the number he thinks he needs to win)

The Bank of China is currently targeting the exchange rate at 8.28 Yuan per dollar

The Federal Reserve is currently targeting the Federal Funds Rate at 2.75%

The Bank of England is currently targeting the repo rate at 4.75%

Goals vs. Targets

Page 6: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Targets can be broadly classified into either “Price Targets” or “Quantity Targets”

Suppose that the Federal Government could influence the supply of oranges and wanted to regulate the orange market

Quantity of Oranges

Price

Demand

Supply

$5/Lb

Lowering the price to $4 (price target) and Raising the quantity to 1,500 (quantity target) are both describing the same policy (expanding the orange market)

1,000 1,500

$4/Lb

Page 7: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Targets can be broadly classified into either “Price Targets” or “Quantity Targets”

Quantity of Oranges

Price

Demand

Supply

$5/Lb

If demand for oranges increases and the Fed is following a price target, they must respond by increasing supply

Target Range

However, your response to demand changes will differ across policies

Page 8: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Targets can be broadly classified into either “Price Targets” or “Quantity Targets”

Quantity of Oranges

Price

Demand

Supply

If demand for oranges increases and the Fed is following a quantity target, they must respond by decreasing supply

1000Lbs

Target Range

However, your response to demand changes will differ across policies

Page 9: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Suppose that the Fed wants to lower its target to 4% (expansionary monetary policy)

Interest Rate (i)M2 = mm(MB)

M P

Md(y,t)

5%

M2 Multiplier = 8

Change in M2 = $2,000

4%

2,0008

= $250

A $250 purchase of Treasuries would be required

Page 10: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Suppose that the Fed is Targeting the Interest Rate at 5%

Interest Rate (i)M2 = mm(MB)

M P

Md(y,t)

5%

M2 Multiplier = 8

Suppose an increase in GDP raises Money Demand

Change in M2 = $1,000

The Fed needs to increase the monetary base by

1,0008

= $125

(An Open Market Purchase of Treasuries)

Page 11: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

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Fed FundsDiscountPrime

During the late 70’s, the federal reserve changed its policy from an interest rate target to a money target. The money target was abandoned in the mid eighties.

Page 12: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Rules vs. Discretion

Should the Federal Reserve “pre-commit” to a particular course of action?

The Chinese have pre-committed to maintaining a fixed exchange rate while the British have pre-committed to a fixed inflation rate.

The ECB (European Central Bank) and the Federal Reserve both follow discretionary policies (i.e. policy is decided at the FOMC meeting)

Page 13: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Rules vs. Discretion

Should the Federal Reserve “pre-commit” to a particular course of action?

Benefits of RulesA states monetary policy rule is easy top forecast (i.e. it has less uncertainty)

Costs of RulesA fixed policy rule allows the possibility of speculative attacks (i.e. exploiting the monetary policy rule for profit)

Page 14: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

For most of its history, the US has followed a gold standard

A Gold Standard has two rules:

The government sets an official price of gold ($35/oz)

The government guarantees convertibility of currency into gold at a fixed price

Assets Liabilities

200 oz. Gold @ $35/oz

$7,000 (Gold)

$10,000 (Currency)

US Treasury

$3,000 (T-Bills)

Reserve Ratio = 70%

Reserve Ratio = Value of Gold ReservesCurrency Outstanding

=$7,000

$10,000

During most of the gold standard era, the Government had a reserve ratio of around 12%

Page 15: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Price

Demand

Supply

$35

Assets Liabilities

200 oz. Gold @ $35/oz

$7,000 (Gold)$10,000 (Currency)

US Treasury (P = $35%)

$3,000 (T-Bills)

Reserve Ratio = 70% Q

By committing to convertibility at $35 an ounce, the government restricted its ability to increase/decrease the money supply

Suppose that the Treasury purchased gold to increase the supply of currency outstanding (i.e. increase the money supply)

100 oz. Gold @ $35/oz $3,500 (Currency)

Page 16: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Price

Demand

Supply

$35

Assets Liabilities

200 oz. Gold @ $35/oz

$7,000 (Gold)

$10,000 (Currency)

US Treasury (P = $35%)

$3,000 (T-Bills)

Reserve Ratio = 70%Q

By committing to convertibility at $35 an ounce, the government restricted its ability to increase/decrease the money supply

As the market price rises above $35 (due to increased demand), households start buying gold from the Treasure @ $35.oz and sell it in the open market. This reverses the original transaction

Page 17: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

The gold standard and prices:

Recall that in the long run, the price level is directly proportional to the ratio of money to output:

ytikP

M s

),(

M = $35(Gold Reserves)

Reserve Ratio

With a (relatively) fixed supply of money, prices remained stable in the long run

Page 18: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Price

Demand

Supply

$35

Assets Liabilities

200 oz. Gold @ $35/oz

$7,000 (Gold)

$10,000 (Currency)

US Treasury (P = $35%)

$3,000 (T-Bills)

Reserve Ratio = 70%Q

The gold standard and the supply of gold:

From time to time, new gold deposits were discovered. This increased supply would push down the market price. In response, households would buy the cheap gold and sell it to the Treasury for $35. This would increase the money supply.

100 oz. Gold @ $35/oz $3,500 (Currency)

Page 19: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Price

Demand

Supply

$35

Assets Liabilities

200 oz. Gold @ $35/oz

$7,000 (Gold)

$10,000 (Currency)

US Treasury (P = $35%)

$3,000 (T-Bills)

Reserve Ratio = 70%Q

The gold standard and the business cycle:

Typically, during recessions, the price of gold would rise (flight to quality). High gold prices would cause households to buy gold from the Treasury to sell in the market. This would force the treasury to lose reserves and contract the money supply.

(-) Gold (-) Currency

Page 20: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Gold Standard: Long Run vs. Short Run

Long Run: By restricting the long run supply of money, the gold standard produced constant, low average rates of inflation (bankers are happy)

Short Run: By forcing monetary policy to be subject to fluctuating gold prices, the gold standard exacerbated the business cycle (farmers are unhappy)

Page 21: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

FF = 2% + (Inflation) + .5(Output Gap) + .5(Inflation – 2%)

Currently, the Fed follows an interest rate target. The target interest rate (Fed Funds Rate) is adjusted according to a ‘Taylor Rule”

1% Cyclical Unemployment = 2.5% Output Gap

FF = 2% + (Inflation) - 1.25(Unemployment – 5%) + .5(Inflation – 2%)

Page 22: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Currently, the Fed follows an interest rate target. The target interest rate (Fed Funds Rate) is adjusted according to a ‘Taylor Rule”

FF = 2% + (Inflation) - 1.25(Unemployment – 5%) + .5(Inflation – 2%)

Long Run: When the economy is at full employment ( Unemployment = 5%) and inflation is at its long run target (2%), the Fed targets the Fed Funds Rate (Nominal) at

FF = 2% + (2%) - 1.25(5% – 5%) + .5(2% – 2%) = 4%

Short Run: During recessions (when inflation is low and unemployment is high), the Fed lowers its target. During expansions, when inflation is high and unemployment is low), the Fed raises its target.

Page 23: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Case study: Productivity Growth during the late 90’s

i S

I + (G-T)

4%

iMs

4%

MdM

P

Loanable Funds

During the late 90’s, rapid income growth and productivity raised consumer spending (savings falls) and raised investment spending. Higher spending raised the demand for money. As unemployment dropped to 4.5% (above capacity), prices began to rise.

Page 24: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Case study: Productivity Growth during the late 90’s

iS

I + (G-T)

4%

iMs

4%

MdM

P

Loanable Funds

The Fed responded by raising interest rates (contracting the money supply). The Fed was able to “slow down” the economy before inflation became a problem.

Page 25: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

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Fed FundsDiscount

End of 1992 Recession

Late 90’s Expansion

Asian Financial Crisis

Stock Market Bubble

Page 26: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Case study: Stock Market Crash and Liquidity Shocks

iS

I + (G-T)

4%

iMs

4%

MdM

P

Loanable Funds

After the market crash, demand (primarily investment) slowed down and interest rates started falling. Further, the economy was operating well below capacity (Unemployment hit 6%) and inflation was hovering around zero.

Page 27: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

Case study: Stock Market Crash and Liquidity Shocks

iS

I + (G-T)

4%

iMs

4%

MdM

P

Loanable Funds

Lowering the Fed funds target allowed the fed to increase the money supply and stimulate spending.

Page 28: Monetary Policy. Monetary policy can be categorized by four characteristics Monetary Policy Goals Instruments Intermediate Targets Discretion.

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Fed FundsDiscount Rate

Stock Market Crash

Recession of 2001Beginning of Recovery?


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