Mongols

This article is about the ethnic group. For other uses, seeMongols (disambiguation).

The Mongols are an East-Central Asian ethnic groupnative to Mongolia and China's Inner Mongolia Au-tonomous Region. They also live as minorities in otherregions of China (e.g. Xinjiang), as well as in Russia.Mongolian people belonging to the Buryat and Kalmyksubgroups live predominantly in the Russian federal sub-jects of Buryatia and Kalmykia.The Mongols are bound together by a common heritageand ethnic identity. Their indigenous dialects are col-lectively known as the Mongolian language. The ances-tors of the modern-day Mongols are referred to as Proto-Mongols.

1 Definition

Broadly defined, the term includes the Mongols proper(also known as the Khalkha Mongols), Buryats, Oirats,the Kalmyk people and the Southern Mongols. The lat-ter comprises the Abaga Mongols, Abaganar, Aohans,Baarins, Gorlos Mongols, Jalaids, Jaruud, Khishigten,Khuuchid, Muumyangan and Onnigud.The designation “Mongol” briefly appeared in 8th cen-tury records of Tang China to describe a tribe of Shiwei.It resurfaced in the late 11th century during the Khitan-ruled Liao dynasty. After the fall of the Liao in1125, the Khamag Mongols became a leading tribe onthe Mongolian Plateau. However, their wars with theJurchen-ruled Jin dynasty and the Tatar confederationhad weakened them.In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into anumbrella term for a large group of Mongolic-speakingtribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan.[15]

2 History

Main article: History of Mongolia

In various times Mongolic peoples have been equatedwith the Scythians, the Magog and the Tungusic peo-ples. Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry oftheMongolic peoples can be traced back to the Donghu, anomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and

Manchuria. The identity of the Xiongnu (Hünnü) is stilldebated today. Although some scholars maintain thatthey were proto-Mongols, they were more likely a multi-ethnic group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes.[16] It hasbeen suggested that the language of the Huns was relatedto the Hünnü.[17][18]

The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeledproto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace onlyMon-golic tribes and kingdoms (Xianbei and Wuhuan peo-ples) from them, although some historical texts claim amixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g.the Khitan).[19]

2.1 In the Chinese classics

The Donghu are mentioned by Sima Qian as already ex-isting in Inner Mongolia north of Yan in 699–632 BCEalong with the Shanrong. Mentions in the Yi Zhou Shu(“Lost Book of Zhou”) and the Classic of Mountains andSeas indicate the Donghu were also active during theShang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE).The Xianbei (Sümbe) formed part of the Donghu con-federation, but had earlier times of independence, asevidenced by a mention in the Guoyu (" " section),which states that during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou(reigned 1042–1021 BCE) they came to participate ata meeting of Zhou subject-lords at Qiyang ( ) (nowQishan County) but were only allowed to perform the fireceremony under the supervision of Chu since they werenot vassals by covenant ( ). The Sümbe chieftain wasappointed joint guardian of the ritual torch along withXiong Yi.These early Sümbe came from the nearby Zhukaigouculture (2200–1500 BCE) in the Ordos Desert, wherematernal DNA corresponds to the Mongol Daur peo-ple and the Tungusic Evenks. The Zhukaigou Xianbei(part of the Ordos culture of Inner Mongolia and north-ern Shaanxi) had trade relations with the Shang. In thelate 2nd century, the Han dynasty scholar Fu Qian ( )wrote in his commentary “Jixie” ( ) that "Shanrong andBeidi are ancestors of the present-day Xianbei”. Againmin Inner Mongolia another closely connected core Mon-golic Xianbei region was the Upper Xiajiadian culture(1000–600 BCE) where the Donghu confederation wascentered.After the Donghu were defeated by Xiongnu king ModuChanyu, the Sümbe and Wuhuan survived as the mainremnants of the confederation. Tadun Khan of the

1

2 2 HISTORY

Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of the proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi.[20] The Wuhuan are of the directDonghu royal line and the New Book of Tang says thatin 209 BCE, Modu Chanyu defeated the Wuhuan in-stead of using the word Donghu. The Xianbei, however,were of the lateral Donghu line and had a somewhat sep-arate identity, although they shared the same languagewith the Wuhuan. In 49 CE the Xianbei ruler Bianhe(Bayan Khan?) raided and defeated the Xiongnu, killing2000, after having received generous gifts from EmperorGuangwu of Han. The Xianbei reached their peak underTanshihuai Khan (reigned 156–181) who expanded thevast, but short lived, Xianbei state (93–234).

The Xianbei state under Tanshihuai (141–181)

Three prominent groups split from the Xianbei state asrecorded by the Chinese histories: the Nirun or Rouran(claimed by some to be the Pannonian Avars), the Khitanpeople and the Shiwei (a subtribe called the “ShiweiMenggu” is held to be the origin of the GenghisidMongols).[21] Besides these three Xianbei groups, therewere others such as the Murong, Duan and Tuoba.Their culture was nomadic, their religion shamanismor Buddhism and their military strength formidable.There is still no direct evidence that the Nirun spokeMongolic languages, although most scholars agree thatthey were Proto-Mongolic.[22] The Khitan, however, hadtwo scripts of their own and many Mongolic words arefound in their half-deciphered writings.Geographically, the Tuoba Xianbei ruled the southernpart of southern Mongolia and northern China, the Nirun(Yujiulü Shelun was the first to use the title khaganin 402) ruled eastern Mongolia, western Mongolia, thenorthern part of southern Mongolia and northern Mon-golia, the Khitan were concentrated in eastern part ofsouthern Mongolia north of Korea and the Shiwei werelocated to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and king-doms were soon overshadowed by the rise of the TurkicKhaganate in 555, the Uyghur Khaganate in 745 and theYenisei Kirghiz states in 840. The Tuoba were even-tually absorbed into China. The Nirun fled west fromthe Göktürks and either disappeared into obscurity or, assome say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan,

Bayan I. Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east,founding the Tatar confederation, who became part of theShiwei. The Khitan, who were independent after theirseparation from the Kumo Xi (of Wuhuan origin) in 388,continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one ofthem, Ambagai (872–926), established the Liao dynasty(907–1125) as Emperor Taizu of Liao.

2.2 Era of the Mongol Empire and North-ern Yuan

Asia in 500, showing the Rouran Khaganate and its neighbors,including the Northern Wei and the Tuyuhun Khanate, all ofthem were established by Proto-Mongols

The destruction of Uyghur Khaganate by the Kirghizresulted in the end of Turkic dominance in Mongo-lia. According to historians, Kirhgiz were not inter-ested in assimilating newly acquired lands; instead, theycontrolled local tribes through various manaps (triballeader). The Khitans occupied the areas vacated by theTurkic Uyghurs bringing them under their control. TheYenisei Kirghiz state was centered on Khakassia and theywere expelled from Mongolia by the Khitans in 924.The Khitan fled west after their defeat by the Jurchens(later known as Manchu) and founded the Kara-KhitanKhanate (1125–1218) in eastern Kazakhstan. In 1218,Genghis Khan destroyed the Kara-Khitan Khanate afterwhich the Khitan passed into obscurity. The modern-day minority of Mongolic-speaking Daurs in China aretheir direct descendants based on DNA evidence[23][24]and other Khitans assimilated into the Mongols (South-ern Mongols), Turkic peoples and Han Chinese.The Shiwei included a tribe called the Shiwei Menggu(Shivei Mongol).[25] Bodonchar Munkhag the founder ofthe House of Borjigin and the ancestor of Genghis Khanis held to be descended from the Shiwei Menggu. Theearly Shiwei paid tribute to the TuobaWei (386–534) andsubmitted to the Khitans. After the Khitans left Mongoliathe Khamag Mongols rose to prominence, when from the1130s there were reciprocally hostile relations betweenthe successive khans of the Khamag Mongol confedera-tion (Khaidu, Khabul Khan and Ambaghai Khan) and theemperors of the Jurchen's Jin dynasty. The Jin dynastyfell after their defeat against the rising Mongol Empire,

2.3 Qing-era Mongols 3

a steppe confederation that had formerly been a Jurchenvassal. Mongolic Khitans and Tuyuhuns orMonguor peo-ple (1227) came under rule of the Mongol Empire afterconquest of the Western Xia and Jin Empires.The Kara-Khitans voluntarily submitted to Genghis Khan in 1218.

Mongols using Chinese gunpowder bombs during the Mongol In-vasions of Japan, 1281

With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongolicpeoples settled over almost all Eurasia and carried onmil-itary campaigns from the Adriatic Sea to Indonesian Javaisland and from Japan to Palestine (Gaza). They simulta-neously became Padishahs of Persia, Emperors of China,and Great Khans of Mongolia, and one became Sultanof Egypt (Al-Adil Kitbugha). The Mongolic peoples ofthe Golden Horde established themselves to govern Rus-sia by 1240.[26] By 1279, they conquered the Song dy-nasty and brought all of China under control of the Yuandynasty.[26]

With the breakup of the empire, the dispersed Mongolicpeoples quickly adopted the mostly Turkic culturessurrounding them and were assimilated, forming partsof Azerbaijanis, Uzbeks, Karakalpaks, Tatars, Bashkirs,Turkmens, Uyghurs, Nogays, Kyrgyzs, Kazakhs,Caucasaus peoples, Iranian peoples and Moghuls;linguistic and cultural Persianization also began to beprominent in these territories. Some Mongols assimi-lated into the Yakuts after their migration to NorthernSiberia and about 30% of Yakut words have Mongolorigin. However, most of the Yuan Mongols returnedto Mongolia in 1368, retaining their language andculture. There were 250,000 Mongols in southern Yuan(China) and many Mongols were massacred by the rebelarmy. The survivors were trapped in southern china andeventually assimilated. The Dongxiangs, Bonans, Yugurand Monguor people were invaded by Chinese Mingdynasty.After the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Mongolscontinued to rule the Northern Yuan dynasty in Mongoliahomeland. However, the Oirads began to challenge theEasternMongolic peoples under the Borjigin monarchs inthe late 14th century and Mongolia was divided into twoparts: Western Mongolia (Oirats) and Eastern Mongolia(Khalkha, Southern Mongols, Barga, Buryats).In 1434, Eastern Mongolian Taisun Khagan's (1433–1452) prime minister Western Mongolian Togoon Taish

reunited the Mongols after killing Eastern Mongolian an-other king Adai (Khorchin). Togoon died in 1439 and hisson Esen Taish became prime minister.Esen carried outsuccessful policy for Mongolian unification and indepen-dence. The Ming Empire attempted to invade Mongoliain the 14–16th centuries, however, the Ming Empire wasdefeated by the Oirat, Southern Mongol, Eastern Mon-gol and united Mongolian armies.Esen’s 30,000 cavalriesdefeated 500,000 Chinese soldiers in 1449. Within eigh-teen months of his defeat of the titular Khan Taisun, in1453, Esen himself took the title of Great Khan (1454–1455) of the Great Yuan.[27]

The Khalkha emerged during the reign of Dayan Khan(1479–1543) as one of the six tumens of the EasternMongolic peoples. They quickly became the dominantMongolic clan in Mongolia proper.[28][29] He reunited theMongols again. The Mongols voluntarily reunified dur-ing Eastern Mongolian Tümen Zasagt Khan rule (1558–1592) for the last time (the Mongol Empire united allMongols before this).Eastern Mongolia was divided into three parts in the17th century: Outer Mongolia (Khalkha), Inner Mongo-lia (Southern Mongols) and the Buryat region in southernSiberia.The last Mongol khagan was Ligdan in the early 17th cen-tury. He got into conflicts with the Manchus over thelooting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate mostMongol tribes. In 1618, Ligdan signed a treaty with theMing dynasty to protect their northern border from theManchus attack in exchange for thousands of taels of sil-ver. By the 1620s, only the Chahars remained under hisrule.

2.3 Qing-era Mongols

The Chahar’s army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by theInner Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligdan’s faultytactics. The Qing forces secured their control over InnerMongolia by 1635, and the army of the last khan Lig-dan moved to battle against Tibetan Gelugpa sect (Yel-low Hat sect) forces. The Gelugpa forces supported theManchus, while Ligdan supported Kagyu sect (Red Hatsect) of Tibetan Buddhism. Ligden died in 1634 on hisway to Tibet. By 1636, most Inner Mongolian nobles hadsubmitted to the Qing dynasty founded by the Manchus.Inner Mongolian Tengis noyan revolted against the Qingin the 1640s and the Khalkha battled to protect Sunud.Western Mongolian Oirats and Eastern MongolianKhalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since the 15thcentury and this conflict weakened Mongolian strength.In 1688, Western Mongolian Dzungar Khanate's kingGaldan Boshugtu attacked Khalkha after murder of hisyounger brother by Tusheet Khan Chakhundorj (mainor Central Khalkha leader) and the Khalkha-Oirat Warbegan. Galdan threatened to kill Chakhundorj andZanabazar (Javzandamba Khutagt I, spiritual head of

4 2 HISTORY

Khalkha) but they escaped to Sunud (Inner Mongolia).Many Khalkha nobles and folks fled to Inner Mongoliabecause of the war. Few Khalkhas fled to the Buryat re-gion and Russia threatened to exterminate them if theydidn't submit, but many of them submitted to GaldanBoshugtu.The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691by Zanabazar's decision, thus bringing all of today’sMon-golia under the rule of the Qing dynasty but Khalkhade facto remained under the rule of Galdan BoshugtuKhaan until 1696. The Mongol-Oirat’s Code (a treatyof alliance) against foreign invasion between the Oiratsand Khalkhas was signed in 1640, however, the Mongolscouldn't unite against foreign invasions. Chakhundorjfought against Russian invasion of Outer Mongolia until1688 and stoppedRussian invasion of Khövsgöl Province.Zanabazar struggled to bring together the Oirats andKhalkhas before the war.Galdan Boshugtu sent his army to “liberate” Inner Mon-golia after defeating the Khalkha’s army and called InnerMongolian nobles to fight for Mongolian independence.Some Inner Mongolian nobles, Tibetans, Kumul Khanateand some Moghulistan's nobles supported his war againstthe Manchus, however, Inner Mongolian nobles didn'tbattle against the Qing.There were three khans in Khalkha and Zasagt KhanShar (Western Khalkha leader) was Galdan’s ally. Tset-sen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) didn't engage in thisconflict. While Galdan was fighting in Eastern Mongolia,his nephew Tseveenravdan seized the Dzungarian thronein 1689 and this event made Galdan impossible to fightagainst the Qing Empire. The Russian and Qing Empiressupported his action because this coup weakened West-ernMongolian strength. Galdan Boshugtu’s army was de-feated by the outnumbering Qing army in 1696 and hedied in 1697. The Mongols who fled to the Buryat re-gion and Inner Mongolia returned after the war. SomeKhalkhas mixed with the Buryats.The Buryats fought against Russian invasion since the1620s and thousands of Buryats were massacred. TheBuryat region was formally annexed to Russia by treatiesin 1689 and 1727, when the territories on both the sidesof Lake Baikal were separated from Mongolia. In 1689the Treaty of Nerchinsk established the northern borderof Manchuria north of the present line. The Russiansretained Trans-Baikalia between Lake Baikal and theArgun River north of Mongolia. The Treaty of Kyakhta(1727), along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk, regulatedthe relations between Imperial Russia and the Qing Em-pire until the mid-nineteenth century. It established thenorthern border of Mongolia. Oka Buryats revolted in1767 and Russia completely conquered the Buryat regionin the late 18th century. Russia and Qing were rival em-pires until the early 20th century, however, both empirescarried out united policy against Central Asians.The Qing Empire conquered Upper Mongolia or the

The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu in 1755 between the Qing and Oiratarmies. The fall of the Dzungar Khanate.

Oirat’s Khoshut Khanate in the 1720s and 80,000 peoplewere killed.[30] By that period, Upper Mongolian popula-tion reached 200,000. The Dzungar Khanate conqueredby the Qing dynasty in 1755–1758 because of their lead-ers and military commanders conflicts. Some scholarsestimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population weredestroyed by a combination of warfare and disease dur-ing the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755–1758.[31] Mark Levene, a historian whose recent researchinterests focus on genocide,[32] has stated that the exter-mination of the Dzungars was “arguably the eighteenthcentury genocide par excellence.”[33] The Dzungar popu-lation reached 600,000 in 1755.About 200,000–250,000 Oirats migrated from WesternMongolia to Volga River in 1607 and established theKalmyk Khanate.The Torghuts were led by their Tay-ishi, Höö Örlög. Russia was concerned about their at-tack but the Kalmyks became Russian ally and a treatyto protect Southern Russian border was signed betweenthe Kalmyk Khanate and Russia.In 1724 the Kalmykscame under control of Russia. By the early 18th cen-tury, there were approximately 300–350,000 Kalmyksand 15,000,000 Russians.[34] The Tsardom of Russiagradually chipped away at the autonomy of the KalmykKhanate. These policies, for instance, encouraged the es-tablishment of Russian and German settlements on pas-tures the Kalmyks used to roam and feed their live-stock. In addition, the Tsarist government imposed acouncil on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his au-thority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khanto provide cavalry units to fight on behalf of Russia.The Russian Orthodox church, by contrast, pressuredBuddhist Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy.In January 1771,approximately 200,000 (170,000)[35] Kalmyks began themigration from their pastures on the left bank of theVolga River to Dzungaria (Western Mongolia), throughthe territories of their Bashkir and Kazakh enemies. Thelast Kalmyk khan Ubashi led the migration to restoreMongolian independence. Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000cavalries to the Russo-TurkishWar in 1768–1769 to gainweapon before the migration.The Empress Catherine theGreat ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kaza-

2.4 Post-Qing era 5

khs to exterminate all migrants and the Empress abol-ished the Kalmyk Khanate.[35][36][37] [38] [39] The Kyrgyzsattacked them near Balkhash Lake. About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of theVolga River couldn't cross the river because the riverdidn't freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine theGreat executed influential nobles of them. After sevenmonths of travel, only one-third (66,073)[35] of the orig-inal group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, westernborder of the Qing Empire).[40] The Qing Empire trans-migrated the Kalmyks to five different areas to preventtheir revolt and influential leaders of the Kalmyks diedsoon (killed by the Manchus). Russia states that Buryatiavoluntarly merged with Russia in 1659 due to Mongolianoppression and the Kalmyks voluntarily accepted Russianrule in 1609 but only Georgia voluntarily accepted Rus-sian rule.[41][42]

Khorloogiin Choibalsan, leader of the Mongolian People’s Re-public (right), and Georgy Zhukov consult during the Battle ofKhalkhin Gol against Japanese troops, 1939

The Mongols of China were suppressed and persecutedas a result of the policy under Qing rule during the lateQing period. Approximately 150,000 Inner Mongolswere massacred by the Han Chinese rebels during theJindandao Incident in 1891 before being suppressed bygovernment troops in late December.[43] After the XinhaiRevolution, the Mongolian Revolution on 30 November1911 ended the 220-year rule of the Qing dynasty.

2.4 Post-Qing era

With the independence of Outer Mongolia, the Mon-golian army liberated Eastern Mongolia’s Khalkha andKhovd regions (modern dayUvs, Khovd, and Bayan-Ölgiiprovinces), but Northern Xinjiang (the Altai and Ili re-gions of the Qing Empire), Upper Mongolia, Barga andInner Mongolia came under control of the newly formedRepublic of China. On February 2, 1913 the BogdKhanate of Mongolia sent Mongolian cavalries to liberateInner (Southern)Mongolia fromChina. Russia refused tosell weapons to the Bogd Khanate, and the Russian czar,Nicholas II, referred to it as “Mongolian imperialism".Additionally, the United Kingdom urged Russia to abol-ish Mongolian independence as it was concerned that “ifMongolians gain independence, then Central Asians willrevolt”. 10,000 Mongolian and Southern Mongolian cav-alries (about 3,500 Southern Mongols) defeated 70,000Chinese soldiers and liberated almost all of SouthernMongolia; however, the Mongolian army retreated dueto lack of weapons in 1914. 400 Mongol soldiers and3,795 Chinese soldiers died in this war. The Khalkhas,Khovd Oirats, Buryats, Dzungarian Oirats, Upper Mon-gols, Barga Mongols, almost all Southern Mongolian, andsome Tuvan leaders supported Mongolian reunification.Russia encouraged Mongolia to become an autonomousregion of China in 1914. Mongolia lost Barga, Dzungaria,Tuva, Upper Mongolia and Inner (Southern) Mongolia inthe 1915.In October 1919, the Republic of China occupied Mon-golia after the suspicious deaths of Mongolian patrioticnobles. On 3 February 1921 the White Russian army—led by Baron Ungern and mainly consisting of Mongo-lian volunteer cavalries, and Buryat and Tatar cossacks—liberated the Mongolian capital. Baron Ungern’s purposewas to find allies to defeat the Soviet Union. The State-ment of Reunification of Mongolia was adopted by Mon-golian revolutionist leaders in 1921. The Soviet, how-ever, consideredMongolia to be Chinese territory in 1924during secret meeting with the Republic of China. How-ever, the Soviets officially recognized Mongolian inde-pendence in 1945 but carried out various policies (politi-cal, economic and cultural) against Mongolia until its fallin 1991 to prevent Pan-Mongolism and other irredentistmovements.On 10 April 1932 Mongolians revolted against the gov-ernment’s new policy and Soviets. The government andSoviet soldiers defeated the rebels in October.The Buryats started to migrate to Mongolia in the1900s due to Russian oppression. Joseph Stalin's regimestopped the migration in 1930 and started a campaignof ethnic cleansing against newcomers and Mongolians.During the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia almost alladult Buryat men and 22–33,000 Mongols (3–5% ofthe total population; common citizens, monks, Pan-Mongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds military offi-cers, nobles, intellectuals and elite people) were shot dead

6 2 HISTORY

under Soviet orders.[44] [45] Some authors also offer muchhigher estimates, up to 100,000 victims.[45] Around thelate 1930s the Mongolian People’s Republic had an over-all population of about 700,000 to 900,000 people.By1939, Soviet said “We repressed too many people, thepopulation of Mongolia is only hundred thousands”. Pro-portion of victims in relation to the population of thecountry is much higher than the corresponding figures ofthe Great Purge in the Soviet Union.The Manchu’s Manchukuo state (1932–1945) invadedBarga and some part of Southern Mongolia with help ofthe Empire of Japan (1868–1947).The Mongolian armyadvanced to the Great Wall of China during the Soviet–Japanese War of 1945 (Mongolian name:Liberation Warof 1945). Japan forced Southern Mongolian and Bargapeople to fight against Mongolians but they surrenderedto Mongolians and started to fight against their Japaneseand Manchu allies. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsancalled Southern Mongolians and Xinjiang Oirats to mi-grate to Mongolia during the war but the Soviet Armyblocked Southern Mongolian migrants way. It was apart of Pan-Mongolian plan and few Oirats and SouthernMongols (Huuchids, Bargas, Tümeds, about 800 Uzem-chins) arrived. Southern Mongolian leaders carried outactive policy to merge Southern Mongolia with Mongoliasince 1911. They founded the Inner Mongolian Army in1929 but the Inner Mongolian Army disbanded after end-ing World War II. The Japanese Empire supported Pan-Mongolism since the 1910s but there have never been ac-tive relations between Mongolia and Imperial Japan dueto Russian resistance. Southern Mongolian nominally in-dependent Mengjiang state (1936–1945) was establishedwith support of Japan in 1936 also some Buryat andSouthern Mongol nobles founded Pan-Mongolist govern-ment with support of Japan in 1919.

WorldWar II ZaisanMemorial, Ulaan Baatar, from the People’sRepublic of Mongolia era.

The SouthernMongols established the short-lived Repub-lic of Inner Mongolia in 1945.Another part of Choibalsan’s plan was to merge South-ern and Western Mongolia with Mongolia. By 1945,Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong requested Sovietto stop Mongolian and Southern Mongolian reunification

because China lost its control over Southern Mongoliaand without Southern Mongolian support the Commu-nists were unable to defeat Japan and Kuomintang (Tai-wan). Mao promised to merge Southern Mongolia withMongolia after defeating Japan and Kuomintang but af-ter ending Chinese CivilWar Chinese Communist Party'spolicy completely changed.Mongolia and Soviet-supported Xinjiang Uyghurs andKazakhs' separatist movement in the 1930-1940s. By1945, Soviet refused to support them after its alliancewith the Communist Party of China and Mongolia in-terrupted its relations with the separatists under pressureof Soviet. Xinjiang Oirat’s militant groups operated to-gether the Turkic peoples but the Oirats didn't have lead-ing role due to their small population. Basmachis or Tur-kic and Tajik militants fought to liberate Central Asia(Soviet Central Asia) until 1942.On February 2, 1913 the Treaty of friendship and al-liance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibetwas signed. Mongolian agents and Bogd Khan disruptedSoviet secret operations in Tibet to change its regime inthe 1920s.On 27 October 1961 UN recognizedMongolian indepen-dence after ending Western boycotts.The Tsardom of Russia, Russian Empire, SovietUnion, capitalist and communist China performed manygenocide actions against the Mongols (assimilate, reducethe population, extinguish the language, culture, tradi-tion, history, religion and ethnic identity). Peter theGreat said: “The headwaters of the Yenisei River mustbe Russian land”.[46] Russian Empire sent the Kalmyksand Buryats to war to reduce the populations (WorldWar I and other wars).Soviet scientists attempted to con-vince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they're not the Mon-gols during the 20th century (demongolization policy).35,000 Buryats were killed during the rebellion of 1927and around one-third of Buryat population in Russiadied in the 1900s–1950s.[47][48] 10,000 Buryats of theBuryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republicwere massacred by Stalin’s order in the 1930s.[49] In 1919the Buryats established a small theocratic Balagad state inKizhinginsky District of Russia and the Buryat’s state fellin 1926. In 1958, the name “Mongol” was removed fromthe name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet So-cialist Republic.On 22 January 1922 Mongolia proposed to migratethe Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine but Russiarefused.71–72,000 (93,000?; around half of the popula-tion) Kalmyks died during the famine.[50] The Kalmyksrevolted against Russia in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943.In 1913, Nicholas II, king of Russia, said : “We needto prevent from Volga Tatars.But the Kalmyks are moredangerous than them because they are the Mongols sosend them to war to reduce the population”. [51] On23 April 1923 Joseph Stalin, communist leader of Rus-sia, said: “We are carrying out wrong policy on the

7

Kalmyks who related to the Mongols.Our policy is toopeaceful”.[51] In March 1927, Soviet deported 20,000Kalmyks to Siberia, tundra and Karelia.The Kalmyksfounded sovereign Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk on 22March 1930.[51] The Oirat’s state had a small armyand 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiersin Durvud province of Kalmykia but the Oirat’s statedestroyed by the Soviet Army in 1930. Kalmykiannationalists and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrateKalmyks to Mongolia in the 1920s.Mongolia suggestedto migrate the Soviet Union’s Mongols to Mongolia in the1920s but Russia refused the suggest.Russia deported all Kalmyks to Siberia in 1943 andaround half of (97–98,000) Kalmyk people deportedto Siberia died before being allowed to return home in1957.[52] The government of the Soviet Union forbadeteaching Kalmyk language during the deportation.TheKalmyks’ main purpose was to migrate to Mongoliaand many Kalmyks joined the German Army.MarshalKhorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to migrate the depor-tees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia duringhis visit to Russia. Under the Law of the Russian Fed-eration of April 26, 1991 “On Rehabilitation of ExiledPeoples” repressions against Kalmyks and other peopleswere qualified as an act of genocide.After the end of World War II, the Chinese Civil War re-sumed between the Chinese Nationalists (Kuomintang),led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the Chinese CommunistParty, led by Mao Zedong. In December 1949, Chiangevacuated his government to Taiwan. Hundred thousandsSouthern Mongols were massacred during the CulturalRevolution in the 1960s and China forbade Mongol tra-ditions, celebrities and teaching Mongolic languages dur-ing the revolution.In Inner Mongolia, some 790,000 peo-ple were persecuted. Approximately 1,000,000 SouthernMongols were killed during the 20th century.[43] In 1960Chinese newspaper wrote that “Han Chinese ethnic iden-tity must be Chinese minorities ethnic identity”.Chinacarried out active propaganda war against Mongolia un-til the 1980s and the Chinese People’s Liberation Army(PLA) carried out many raids into Mongolian borderprovinces during the 1960-1980s. China is carrying out“War of Map” against neighbouring countries since the1950s.[53]

On 3 October 2002 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs an-nounced that Taiwan recognizes Mongolia as an inde-pendent country,[54] although no legislative actions weretaken to address concerns over its constitutional claimsto Mongolia.[55] Offices established to support Taipei’sclaims over Outer Mongolia, such as the Mongolian andTibetan Affairs Commission,[56] lie dormant.Agin-Buryat Okrug and Ust-Orda Buryat Okrugs mergedwith Irkutsk Oblast and Chita Oblast in 2008 despiteBuryats’ resistance. The Southern Mongols revoltedagainst China in 2011. The Inner Mongolian People’sParty is a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peo-

ples Organization[57] and Southern Mongolian leaders areattempting to establish sovereign state or merge SouthernMongolia with Mongolia.

A Mongolic Ger

3 Language

Main article: Mongolic languages

Mongolian is the official national language of Mongolia,where it is spoken by nearly 2.8 million people (2010estimate),[58] and the official provincial language ofChina’s Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, wherethere are at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols.[59] Acrossthe whole of China, the language is spoken by roughlyhalf of the country’s 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005estimate)[58] However, the exact number of Mongolianspeakers in China is unknown, as there is no data availableon the language proficiency of that country’s citizens. Theuse of Mongolian in China, specifically in Inner Mongo-lia, has witnessed periods of decline and revival over thelast few hundred years. The language experienced a de-cline during the late Qing period, a revival between 1947and 1965, a second decline between 1966 and 1976, asecond revival between 1977 and 1992, and a third de-cline between 1995 and 2012.[60] However, in spite ofthe decline of the Mongolian language in some of InnerMongolia’s urban areas and educational spheres, the eth-nic identity of the urbanized Chinese-speaking Mongolsis most likely going to survive due to the presence of ur-ban ethnic communities.[61] The multilingual situation inInner Mongolia does not appear to obstruct efforts by eth-nic Mongols to preserve their language.[62][63] Althoughan unknown number of Mongols in China, such as theTumets, may have completely or partially lost the abilityto speak their language, they are still registered as eth-nic Mongols and continue to identify themselves as eth-nic Mongols.[58][64] The children of inter-ethnic Mongol-Chinese marriages also claim to be and are registered asethnic Mongols.[65]

The specific origin of the Mongolic languages and asso-ciated tribes is unclear. Linguists have traditionally pro-posed a link to the Tungusic and Turkic language fami-

8 4 RELIGION

lies, included alongside Mongolic in the broader group ofAltaic languages, though this remains controversial. To-day the Mongolian peoples speak at least one of severalMongolic languages including Mongolian, Buryat, Oirat,Dongxiang, Tu, Bonan, Hazaragi, and Aimaq. Addition-ally, many Mongols speak either Russian or MandarinChinese as languages of inter-ethnic communication.

4 Religion

Main articles: Buddhism in Mongolia and Shamanism inMongolia

The original religion of the Mongolic peoples wasShamanism. The Xianbei came in contact withConfucianism and Daoism but eventually adoptedBuddhism.However, the Xianbeis in Mongolia andRourans followed a Shamanism. In the 5th centurythe Buddhist monk Dharmapriya was proclaimed StateTeacher of the Rouran Khaganate and given 3000 fam-ilies and (some) Rouran nobles became Buddhists. In511 the Rouran Douluofubadoufa Khan sent Hong Xuanto the Tuoba court with a pearl-encrusted statue of theBuddha as a gift. The Tuoba Xianbei and Khitans weremostly Buddhists, although they still retained their orig-inal Shamanism. The Tuoba had a “sacrificial castle”to the west of their capital where ceremonies to spiritstook place. Wooden statues of the spirits were erectedon top of this sacrificial castle. One ritual involvedseven princes with milk offerings who ascended the stairswith 20 female shamans and offered prayers, sprinklingthe statues with the sacred milk. The Khitan had theirholiest shrine on Mount Muye where portraits of theirearliest ancestor Qishou Khagan, his wife Kedun andeight sons were kept in two temples. Mongolic peo-ples were also exposed to Zoroastrianism, Manicheism,Nestorianism, Orthodox Christianity and Islam from thewest. The Mongolic peoples, in particular the Borji-gin, had their holiest shrine on Mount Burkhan Khaldunwhere their ancestor Börte Chono(Blue Wolf) and GooMaral (Beautiful Doe) had given birth to them. GenghisKhan usually fasted, prayed and meditated on this moun-tain before his campaigns. As a young man he hadthanked the mountain for saving his life and prayed atthe foot of the mountain sprinkling offerings and bow-ing nine times to the east with his belt around his neckand his hat held at his chest. Genghis Khan kept a closewatch on the Mongolic supreme shaman Kokochu Tebwho sometimes conflicted with his authority. Later theimperial cult of Genghis Khan (centered on the eightwhite gers and nine white banners in Ordos) grew intoa highly organized indigenous religion with scriptures inthe Mongolian script. Indigenous moral precepts of theMongolic peoples were enshrined in oral wisdom say-ings (now collected in several volumes), the anda (blood-brother) system and ancient texts such as the Chinggis-

un Bilig (Wisdom of Genghis) and Oyun Tulkhuur (Keyof Intelligence). These moral precepts were expressedin poetic form and mainly involved truthfulness, fidelity,help in hardship, unity, self-control, fortitude, venerationof nature, veneration of the state and veneration of par-ents.

Timur of Mongolic origin himself had converted almost all theBorjigin leaders to Islam.

In 1254 Möngke Khan organized a formal religious de-bate (in which William of Rubruck took part) betweenChristians, Muslims and Buddhists in Karakorum, a cos-mopolitan city of many religions. The Mongolic Em-pire was known for its religious tolerance, but had a spe-cial leaning towards Buddhism and was sympathetic to-wards Christianity while still worshipping Tengri. TheMongolic leader Abaqa Khan sent a delegation of 13–16 to the Second Council of Lyon (1274), which createda great stir, particularly when their leader 'Zaganus’ un-derwent a public baptism. Yahballaha III (1245–1317)and Rabban Bar Sauma (c. 1220–1294) were famousMongolic Nestorian Christians. The Kerait tribe in cen-tral Mongolia was Christian and Shamanistic.The west-ern Khanates, however, eventually adopted Islam (un-der Berke and Ghazan) and the Turkic languages (be-cause of its commercial importance), although allegianceto the Great Khan and limited use of the Mongoliclanguages can be seen even in the 1330s. The Mon-

9

golic nobility during theYuan dynasty studied Confucian-ism, built Confucian temples (including Beijing Confu-cius Temple) and translated Confucian works into Mon-golic but mainly followed the Sakya school of TibetanBuddhism under Phags-pa Lama. The general popu-lace still practised Shamanism. Dongxiang and BonanMongols adopted Islam, as did Moghol-speaking peo-ples in Afghanistan. In the 1576 the Gelug school of Ti-betan Buddhism became the state religion of the Mongo-lia. The Red Hat sect of Tibetan Buddhism coexistedwith the Gelug Yellow Hat sect. Shamanism was ab-sorbed into the state religion while being marginalized inits purer forms, later only surviving in far northern Mon-golia. Monks were some of the leading intellectuals inMongolia, responsible for much of the literature and artof the pre-modern period. Many Buddhist philosophi-cal works lost in Tibet and elsewhere are preserved inolder and purer form in Mongolian ancient texts (e.g. theMongol Kanjur). Zanabazar (1635–1723), Zaya Pandita(1599–1662) and Danzanravjaa (1803–1856) are amongthe most famous Mongol holy men. The 4th Dalai LamaYonten Gyatso (1589–1617), a Mongol himself, was theonly non-Tibetan Dalai Lama.The name is a combina-tion of the Mongolian word dalai meaning “ocean” andthe Tibetan word (bla-ma) meaning “guru, teacher, men-tor”.[1] Many Buryats became Orthodox Christians dueto the Russian expansion. During the socialist period re-ligion was officially banned, although it was practiced inclandestine circles. Today, a sizable proportion of Mon-golic peoples are atheist or agnostic. In the most recentcensus in Mongolia, almost forty percent of the popula-tion reported as being atheist, while the majority religionwas Tibetan Buddhism, with 53%.[66] Having survivedsuppression by the Communists, Buddhism among theEastern, Northern, Southern and Western Mongols is to-day primarily of the Gelugpa (Yellow Hat sect) school ofTibetan Buddhism. There is a strong shamanistic influ-ence in the Gelugpa sect among the Mongols.

The Mughal Emperor Babur and his heir Humayun, The wordMughal, is derived from the Persian word for Mongol.

5 Military

Main article: Mongol military tactics and organization

They battled against the most powerful armies and war-riors in Eurasia. The beating of the kettle and smoke sig-nals were signs for the start of battle. One battle forma-tion that they used consisted of five squadrons or units.The typical squadrons were divided by ranks. The firsttwo ranks were in the front. These warriors had the heav-iest armor and weapons. The back three ranks brokeout between the front ranks and attacked first with theirarrows.[67] The forces simply kept their space from the en-emy and killed them with arrow fire, during which time“archers did not aim at a specific target, but shot theirarrows at a high path into a set 'killing zone' or targetarea.”[68] Mongolics also took hold of engineers from thedefeated armies. They made engineers a permanent partof their army, so that their weapons and machinery werecomplex and efficient.[69]

6 Kinship and family life

See also: Society of the Mongol Empire

The traditional Mongol family was patriarchal, patrilin-eal and patrilocal. Wives were brought for each of thesons, while daughters were married off to other clans.Wife-taking clans stood in a relation of inferiority towife-giving clans. Thus wife-giving clans were consid-ered “elder” or “bigger” in relation to wife-taking clans,who were considered “younger” or “smaller”.[70][71] Thisdistinction, symbolized in terms of “elder” and “younger”or “bigger” and “smaller”, was carried into the clan andfamily as well, and all members of a lineage were ter-minologically distinguished by generation and age, withsenior superior to junior.In the traditional Mongolian family, each son received apart of the family herd as he married, with the elder sonreceiving more than the younger son. The youngest sonwould remain in the parental tent caring for his parents,and after their death he would inherit the parental tentin addition to his own part of the herd. This inheritancesystem was mandated by law codes such as the Yassa,created by Genghis Khan.[72] Likewise, each son inher-ited a part of the family’s camping lands and pastures,with the elder son receiving more than the younger son.The eldest son inherited the farthest camping lands andpastures, and each son in turn inherited camping landsand pastures closer to the family tent until the youngestson inherited the camping lands and pastures immediatelysurrounding the family tent. Family units would often re-main near each other and in close cooperation, thoughextended families would inevitably break up after a fewgenerations. It is probable that the Yasa simply put into

10 8 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION

written law the principles of customary law.

It is apparent that in many cases, for ex-ample in family instructions, the yasa tacitlyaccepted the principles of customary law andavoided any interference with them. For ex-ample, Riasanovsky said that killing the manor the woman in case of adultery is a good il-lustration. Yasa permitted the institutions ofpolygamy and concubinage so characteristic ofsoutherly nomadic peoples. Children born ofconcubines were legitimate. Seniority of chil-dren derived their status from their mother. El-dest son received more than the youngest afterthe death of father. But the latter inherited thehousehold of the father. Children of concu-bines also received a share in the inheritance,in accordance with the instructions of their fa-ther (or with custom.)

— Nilgün Dalkesen, Gender roles andwomen’s status in Central Asia and Anatolia be-tween the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries[73]

After the family, the next largest social units were thesubclan and clan. These units were derived from groupsclaiming patrilineal descent from a common ancestor,ranked in order of seniority (the “conical clan”). By theChingissid era this ranking was symbolically expressedat formal feasts, in which tribal chieftains were seatedand received particular portions of the slaughtered ani-mal according to their status.[74] The lineage structure ofCentral Asia had three different modes. It was organizedon the basis of genealogical distance, or the proximity ofindividuals to one another on a graph of kinship; genera-tional distance, or the rank of generation in relation to acommon ancestor, and birth order, the rank of brothersin relation to each another.[75] The paternal descent lineswere collaterally ranked according to the birth of theirfounders, and were thus considered senior and junior toeach other. Of the various collateral patrilines, the seniorin order of descent from the founding ancestor, the lineof eldest sons, was the most noble. In the steppe, no onehad his exact equal; everyone found his place in a systemof collaterally ranked lines of descent from a commonancestor.[76] It was according to this idiom of superiorityand inferiority of lineages derived from birth order thatlegal claims to superior rank were couched.[77]

The Mongol kinship is one of a particular patrilineal typeclassed as Omaha, in which relatives are grouped togetherunder separate terms that crosscut generations, age, andeven sexual difference. Thus, a man’s father’s sister’schildren, his sister’s children, and his daughter’s childrenare all called by another term. A further attribute is strictterminological differentiation of siblings according to se-niority.The division of Mongolian society into senior elite lin-eages and subordinate junior lineages was waning by the

twentieth century. During the 1920s the Communistregime was established. The remnants of the Mongo-lian aristocracy fought alongside the Japanese and againstChinese, Soviets and Communist Mongols during WorldWar II, but were defeated.The anthropologist Herbert Harold Vreeland visited threeMongol communities in 1920 and published a highly de-tailed book with the results of his field work, “Mon-gol community and kinship structure”, now publiclyavailable.[78]

7 Historical population

This map shows the boundary of 13th century Mongol Empireand location of today’s Mongols in modernMongolia, Russia andChina.

8 Geographic distribution

Today, the majority of Mongols live in the modern stateof Mongolia, China (mainly Inner Mongolia and Xin-jiang), Russia, Kyrgyzstan and Afghanistan.The differentiation between tribes and peoples (ethnicgroups) is handled differently depending on the coun-try. The Tumed, Chahar, Ordos, Barga, Altai Uriankhai,Buryats, Dörböd (Dörvöd, Dörbed), Torguud, Dariganga,Üzemchin (or Üzümchin), Bayads, Khoton, Myangad(Mingad), Eljigin, Zakhchin, Darkhad, and Olots (orÖölds or Ölöts) are all considered as tribes of the Mon-gols.

8.1 Subgroups

The Eastern Mongols are mainly concentrated in Mon-golia, including the Khalkha, Eljigin Khalkha, Darkhad,Sartuul Khalkha, and Dariganga (Khalkha).The Buryats are mainly concentrated in their homeland,the Buryat Republic, a federal subject of Russia. Theyare the major northern subgroup of the Mongols. The

8.4 Russia 11

Barga Mongols are mainly concentrated in Inner Mongo-lia, China, along with the Buryats and Hamnigan.The Southern or Inner Mongols mainly are concen-trated in Inner Mongolia, China. They comprise theAbaga Mongols, Abaganar, Aohan, Asud, Baarins,Chahar, Durved, Gorlos, Kharchin, Hishigten, Khorchin,Huuchid, Jalaid, Jaruud, Muumyangan, Naiman (South-ern Mongols), Onnigud, Ordos, Sunud, Tümed, Urad,and Uzemchin.The Western Mongols or Oirats are mainly concentratedin Western Mongolia:

• 184,000 Kalmyks (2010) — Kalmykia, Russia

• 205,000 Mongolian Oirats (2010)

• 140,000 Oirats (2010) — Xinjiang region, China

• 90,000 Upper Mongols (2010) — Qinghai region,China. The Khoshuts are the major subgroup ofthe UpperMongols, along with the Choros, Khalkhaand Torghuts.

• 12,000 Sart Kalmyks (Zungharian descents) (2012)— Kyrgyzstan. Religion: Sunni Islam.

Altai Uriankhai, Baatud, Bayad, Chantuu, Choros,Durvud, Khoshut, Khoid, Khoton, Myangad, Olots, SartKalmyks (mainly Olots), Torghut, Zakhchin.

• Kalmyks — Baatud, Buzava, Choros, Durvud,Khoid, Olots, Torghut.

• Upper Mongolian Oirats — Choros, Khoshut,Torghut.

8.2 Mongolia

See also: Demographics of Mongolia

In modern-day Mongolia, Mongols make up approxi-mately 95% of the population, with the largest ethnicgroup being KhalkhaMongols, followed by Buryats, bothbelonging to the Eastern Mongolic peoples. They are fol-lowed by Oirats, who belong to the Western Mongolicpeoples.Mongolian ethnic groups: Baarin, Baatud, Barga,Bayad, Buryat, Selenge Chahar, Chantuu, Darkhad,Dariganga Dörbet Oirat, Eljigin, Khalkha, Hamnigan,Kharchin, Khoid, Khorchin, Hotogoid, Khoton,Huuchid, Myangad, Olots, Sartuul, Torgut, Tümed,Üzemchin, Zakhchin.

8.3 China

Main article: Mongols in China

The 2010 census of the People’s Republic of Chinacounted more than 7 million people of various Mon-golic groups. It should be noted that the 1992 censusof China counted only 3.6 million ethnic Mongols. The2010 census counted roughly 5.8 million ethnic Mon-gols, 621,500 Dongxiangs, 289,565 Mongours, 132,000Daurs, 20,074 Baoans, and 14,370 Yugurs. Most ofthem live in the InnerMongolia Autonomous Region, fol-lowed by Liaoning. Small numbers can also be found inprovinces near those two.There were 669,972 Mongols in Liaoning in 2011, mak-ing up 11.52% ofMongols in China.[87] The closest Mon-gol area to the sea is the Dabao Mongol Ethnic Township( ) in Fengcheng, Liaoning. With 8,460Mongols(37.4% of the township population)[88] it is located 40 kmfrom theNorth Korean border and 65 km fromKorea Bayof the Yellow Sea. Another contender for closest Mon-gol area to the sea would be Erdaowanzi Mongol EthnicTownship ( ) in Jianchang, Liaoning. With5,011 Mongols (20.7% of the township population)[89] itis located around 65 km from the Bohai Sea.Other peoples speakingMongolic languages are the Daur,Sogwo Arig, Monguor people, Dongxiangs, Bonans,Sichuan Mongols and eastern part of the Yugur people.Those do not officially count as part of the Mongol eth-nicity, but are recognized as ethnic groups of their own.The Mongols lost their contact with the Mongours, Bo-nan, Dongxiangs, Yunnan Mongols since the fall of theYuan dynasty. Mongolian scientists and journalists metwith the Dongxiangs and Yunnan Mongols in the 2000s.Southern Mongolia: Southern Mongols, Barga, Buryat,Dörbet Oirat, Khalkha, Dzungar people, Eznee Torgut.Xinjiang province: Altai Uriankhai, Chahar, Khoshut,Olots, Torghut, Zakhchin.Qinghai province: Upper Mongols: Choros, KhalkhaMongols, Khoshut, Torghut.

8.4 Russia

Main articles: Buryats, Kalmyk people, Demographicsof Russia and Demographics of Siberia

In Russia, the largest Mongolic ethnic group are theBuryats of 2010 census of 461,410, with the sole otherrepresentative being the Kalmyks of 183,400 in 2010census.[90]

8.5 Elsewhere

Smaller numbers of Mongolic peoples exist in WesternEurope and North America. Some of the more notablecommunities exist in South Korea, the United States, theCzech Republic and the United Kingdom.

12 11 REFERENCES

9 Gallery

• 4th century Mongolic Xianbei archer

• Guard at tomb of Xianbei Emperor Xuanwu (483-515).

• Khitan Pagoda of Fogong Temple, 1056

• Khitan tomb painting (Liao Dynasty) at Ar HorqinBanner, Inner Mongolia.

• Mongolic Khitan guard in Liao Dynasty (907-1125)fresco

• Mongolic Khitanmen, women and children from theLiao Dynasty.

• Mongol Empress Zayaat (Jiyatu), wife of KulugKhan (1281–1311)

• Genghis’ son Tolui with Queen Sorgaqtani

• Hulegu Khan, ruler of the Ilkhanate

• 13th century Ilkhanid Mongol archer

• Mongol soldiers by Rashid al-Din in 1305

• Kalmyk Mongol girl Annushka (painted in 1767)

• A 20th-century Mongol Khan, Navaanneren

• The 4th Dalai Lama Yonten Gyatso

• Dolgorsürengiin Dagvadorj became the first Mongolto reach sumo’s highest rank.

• Mongol women archers during Naadam festival

• A Mongol musician

• A Mongol Wrangler

• Buryat Mongol shaman

• Kalmyks, 19th century

• Mongol girl performing Bayad dance

• Buryat Mongols (painted in 1840)

• Daur Mongol Empress Wanrong (1906-1946), alsohad Borjigin blood on maternal side.

• Buryat Mongol boy during shamanic rite

10 See also

11 References[1] "Монголын үндэсний статистикийн хороо". National

Statistical Office of Mongolia. Retrieved 2013-11-14.

[2] Demographics of China

[3] 2,656 Mongols proper, 461,389 Buryats, 183,372Kalmyks (Russian Census (2010))

[4] "'Korean Dream' fills Korean classrooms in Mongolia”,The Chosun Ilbo, 2008-04-24, retrieved 2009-02-06

[5] Bahrampour, Tara (2006-07-03). “MongoliansMeld Old,New In Making Arlington Home”. The Washington Post.Retrieved 2007-09-05.

[6] President ofMongoli Received theKalmykCitizens of theKyrgyz. 2012

[7] “Latest numbers show 7,500 Mongolians working inCzech Republic”, Mongolia Web, 2008-02-19, retrieved2008-10-04

[8] Mongolia National Census 2010 Provision Results. Na-tional Statistical Office of Mongolia (Mongolian)

[9] NHS Profile, Canada, 2011

[10] “Bevölkerung nach Staatsangehörigkeit und Geburtsland”[Population by citizenship and country of birth] (in Ger-man). Statistik Austria. 3 July 2014. Retrieved 21 August2014.

[11] National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic ofChina (April 2012). Tabulation of the 2010 PopulationCensus of the People’s Republic of China. China StatisticsPress. ISBN 978-7-5037-6507-0. Retrieved 2013-02-19.

[12] ChinaMongolian, Mongol EthnicMinority, Mongols His-tory, Food

[13] China.org.cn – The Mongolian ethnic minority

[14] China.org.cn – The Mongolian Ethnic Group

[15] “Mongolia: Ethnography of Mongolia”. EncyclopædiaBritannica. Retrieved 2007-07-22.

[16] Geng 2005

[17] Étienne de la Vaissière, Xiongnu. Encyclopædia Iranicaonline, 2006

[18] Dr. Obrusánszky, Borbála : The History and Civilizationof the Huns. Paper of the University of Amsterdam, 8October 2007. Page 60.

[19] Frances Wood, The Silk Road: two thousand years in theheart of Asia, p. 48

[20] Xin Tangshu 219. 6173.

[21] University of California, Berkeley. Project on LinguisticAnalysis, Journal of Chinese linguistics, p. 154

13

[22] Thomas Hoppe, Die ethnischen Gruppen Xinjiangs: Kul-turunterschiede und interethnische, p. 66

[23] Uradyn Erden Bulag The Mongols at China’s edge: historyand the politics of national unity, p.167

[24] Ruofu Du, Vincent F. Yip, Ethnic groups in China, p.27

[25] Paul Ratchnevsky, Thomas Nivison Haining GenghisKhan: his life and legacy, p. 7

[26] Jerry Bentley, “Old World Encounters: Cross-CulturalContacts and Exchange in Pre-Modern Times (NewYork:Oxford University Press, 1993), 136.

[27] Sechin Jagchid, Van Jay Symons – Peace, war, andtrade along the Great Wall: Nomadic-Chinese interactionthrough two millennia, p.49

[28] Janhunen, Juha The Mongolic languages, p.177

[29] Elizabeth E. Bacon Obok: A Study of Social Structure inEurasia, p.82

[30] БУЦАЖ ИРЭЭГҮЙ МОНГОЛ АЙМГУУД (Mongo-lian)

[31] Michael Edmund Clarke, In the Eye of Power (doctoralthesis), Brisbane 2004, p37 Archived 11 February 2011at WebCite

[32] Dr. Mark Levene, Southampton University, see “Areaswhere I can offer Postgraduate Supervision”. Retrieved2009-02-09.

[33] A. Dirk Moses (2008). "Empire, Colony, Genocide: Con-quest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World His-tory". Berghahn Books. p.188. ISBN 1845454529

[34] Демографическая ситуация в современной России(Russian)

[35] ТИВ ДАМНАСАН НҮҮДЭЛ (Mongolian)

[36] Ижил мөрөн хүртэлх их нүүдэл (Mongolian)

[37] Тал нутгийн Нүүдэлчин Халимагууд Эх нутагМонгол руугаа тэмүүлсэн түүх (Mongolian)

[38] Баруун Монголын нүүдэл суудал (Mongolian)

[39] К вопросу о бегстве волжских калмыков в Джунгариюв 1771 году (Russian)

[40] Michael Khodarkovsky (2002).”Russia’s Steppe Frontier:The Making Of A Colonial Empire, 1500–1800". IndianaUniversity Press. p.142. ISBN 0253217709

[41] Владимир Андреевич Хамутаев, ПрисоединениеБурятии к России: история, право, политика(Russian)

[42] Известный бурятский ученый Владимир Хамутаевсобирается получить политическое убежище в США(Russian)

[43] Inner Mongolian People’s Party

[44] Богд хааны жолооч хилс хэрэгт хэлмэгдсэн нь (Mon-golian)

[45] Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls

[46] L.Jamsran, Mongol states in Russia, 1995

[47] Войны ХХ века и их жертвы /тысяч человек/ (Rus-sian)

[48] Буриад-Монголын үндэстний хөдөлгөөн, тулгамдсанасуудлууд (Mongolian)

[49] История (до и начало XX века) (Russian)

[50] XX зууны 20, 30-аад онд халимагуудын 98 хувьаймшигт өлсгөлөнд автсан (Mongolian)

[51] Халимагийн эмгэнэлт түүхээс (Mongolian)

[52] Regions and territories: Kalmykia

[53] China plays long game on border disputes

[54] “Mongolian office to ride into Taipei by end of the year”.Taipei Times. 2002-10-11. Retrieved 2009-05-28. InOctober 1945, the people of Outer Mongolia voted forindependence, gaining the recognition of many countries,including the Republic of China. (...) Due to a souring ofrelations with the Soviet Union in the early 1950s, how-ever, the ROC revoked recognition of Outer Mongolia,reclaiming it as ROC territory.

[55] “Taiwan 'embassy' changes anger China”. BBC News.2002-02-26. Retrieved 2009-05-28.

[56] “The History of MTAC”. Mongolian & Tibetan AffairsCommission. Retrieved 2009-05-07.

[57] unpo.org

[58] Janhunen, Juha (November 29, 2012). “1”. Mongolian.John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 11.

[59] Tsung, Linda (October 27, 2014). “3”. Language Powerand Hierarchy: Multilingual Education in China. Blooms-bury Academic. p. 59.

[60] Tsung, Linda (October 27, 2014). “3”. Language Powerand Hierarchy: Multilingual Education in China. Blooms-bury Academic.

[61] Iredale, Robyn; Bilik, Naran; Fei, Guo (August 2, 2003).“4”. China’s Minorities on the Move: Selected Case Studies.p. 84.

[62] Janhunen, Juha (November 29, 2012). “1”. Mongolian.John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 16.

[63] Otsuka, Hitomi (30 Nov 2012). “6”. More Morphologies:Contributions to the Festival of Languages, Bremen, 17 Septo 7 Oct, 2009. p. 99.

[64] Iredale, Robyn (August 2, 2003). “3”. China’s Minoritieson the Move: Selected Case Studies. Routledge. pp. 56,64–67.

[65] Janhunen, Juha (November 29, 2012). “1”. Mongolian.John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 11.Iredale,Robyn; Bilik, Naran; Fei, Guo (August 2, 2003). “3”.China’s Minorities on the Move: Selected Case Studies. p.61.

14 12 EXTERNAL LINKS

[66] National Census 2010 Preliminary results (Mongolian)

[67] Per Inge Oestmoen. “The Mongo Military Might.” ColdSiberia. N.p., 18 Jan. 2002. Retrieved on 12 November2012

[68] Matthew Barnes. “The Mongol War Machine: HowWerethe Mongols Able to Forge the Largest Contiguous LandEmpire in History? |.” The Pica A Global Research Orga-nization. Pica, n.d. 14 November 2012

[69] Jack Weatherford , Genghis Khan and the Making of theModern World. (New York: Crown, 2004.), 94.

[70] Vreeland 1962:160

[71] Aberle 1953:23–24

[72] THE INFLUENCE OF THE GREAT CODE “YASA”ON THE MONGOLIAN EMPIRE

[73] http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12608663/index.pdf

[74] Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classicalhistory edited by Adas

[75] Cuisenier (1975:67)

[76] Krader (1963:322, 269)

[77] Kinship Structure and Political Authority: The MiddleEast and Central Asia Charles Lindholm ComparativeStudies in Society and History Vol. 28, No. 2 (Apr.,1986), pp. 334-355 Published by: Cambridge UniversityPress Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/178975, Charles Lindholm

[78] Mongol community and kinship structure. Vreeland, Her-bert Harold, 1920

[79] http://www.bur-culture.ru/index.php?id=news-detail&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=42&cHash=effe903f9ae6737362277ed761d6c2caТрадиционная материальная культура бурятскогоэтноса Предбайкалья. Этногенез и расселение.Средовая культура бурят (Russian)

[80] П.Б. Абзаев. Буряты на рубеже XX-XXI вв.Численность, состав, занятия (Russian)

[81] Б.З. Нанзатов,ПЛЕМЕННОЙ СОСТАВ БУРЯТ ВXIX ВЕКЕ (Russian)

[82] ИРГЭНИЙ БҮРТГЭЛИЙН ТҮҮХЭН ТОЙМ (Mon-golian)

[83] Түмэдхүү, ӨМӨЗО-НЫ ХҮН АМЫНХУВИРАЛТЫН ЗУРГИЙГ ҮЗЭЭД (Southern)Mongolian Liberal Union Party (Mongolian) Millionsof Han Chinese registered as “Mongol” and "Manchu"according to Chinese policy since the 1980s.There is noenough information about Chinese ethnic minorities dueto the government policy.

[84] Өвөр Монголын хүн ам (Mongolian)

[85] ethnologue.com information

[86] 768,000 families in Mongolia (2013).

[87] “Tianya” network: General situation ofMongols in Liaon-ing (in Chinese)

[88] “Baidu” network: Dabao Mongol Ethnic Township (inChinese)

[89] “Baidu” network: Erdaowanzi Mongol Ethnic Township(in Chinese)

[90] “Kalmyks”. World Directory of Minorities and Indige-nous Peoples. 2005. Retrieved 2008-05-18.

12 External links• "Evidence that a West-East admixed populationlived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early BronzeAge" Li et al. BMC Biology 2010, 8:15.

• Ethnic map of Mongolia

• Map share of ethnic by county of China

15

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text• Mongols Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongols?oldid=676378256 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, The Epopt, Derek Ross, VickiRosenzweig, -- April, DanKeshet, Andre Engels, Enchanter, Roadrunner, Ray Van DeWalker, Ktsquare, Mintguy, Olivier, Bobdobbs1723,Leandrod, Alan Peakall, DopefishJustin, Khub, Menchi, Ixfd64, Zeno Gantner, Ahoerstemeier, Moriarty, Nanshu, Hermeneus, Jiang,Goododa, Bassington, Lancevortex, Lukobe, Adam Conover, Dwo, Adam Bishop, Andrevan, Yanyang1985, Paul-L~enwiki, Samsara,Topbanana, Joy, Mksmith, Wetman, PuzzletChung, Robbot, Altenmann, Henrygb, YBeayf, Rholton, Auric, Sunray, Dina, DocWatson42,Jyril, Inter, Lethe, Zigger, Binadot, Spencer195, No Guru, Mishac, Henry Flower, DO'Neil, Ezhiki, Jherico, Bobblewik, Cosal868, Wma-han, Gadfium, Manuel Anastácio, Andycjp, SURIV, Mr d logan, Quadell, Ran, Antandrus, MarkSweep, Jossi, Rdsmith4, Gene s, Phil1988,Jeff Rutsch, Grunners, Bbpen, Naus, Kasreyn, Adashiel, Esperant, Gest, Discospinster, Rich 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16 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Camyoung54, Rämil Kadyrov, Al Khazar, M tenger, Cassiemae99, Jan Kaninchen, Ancientsteppe, EKhan60, JackFrost2121, Chris1636,Ansegam, Mr.Lu Kim, Nolifeguy21, Evil Barney, Skoogs, Khereid, Cethe, Sczc, Monkbot, Choi1979, Xqir, Filedelinkerbot, Demonic-cathandler, Qwertyxp2000, Mywalnut, Serapolous, Uniquark9, Lux ex Tenebris, Badarchiinayurzana, Cartakes, Teghudir, Anand.orkhon,Evecurid, KasparBot, Garuth and Anonymous: 1040

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