Morphemes , allomorphs and syllables in english and turkish

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MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS

and

SYLLABLES

in

TURKISH

and

ENGLISH YÜKSEL GÖKNEL

Y G O K N E L @ O U T L O O K . C O M

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

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ENGLISH MORPHEMES

Note: In the following examples, the red morphemes show the verbs, the purple morphemes show the adjectives, articles and possessive allo-morphs, the black morphemes show nouns, the green morphemes show adverbs and prepositions, and the blue morphemes show subjects and subject allomorphs.The slides are /s/, /ş/, /n/ and /y/. All human beings in the world possess the same kind of brains. Therefore, the function of their brains does not function differently from each other. All of the languages spoken by people in the world have somewhat common characteristics: Free morphemes: The first aim of using a language is to convey thought and meaning to other people. People express what they think using meaningful language units to other people. These meaningful units are called morphemes in linguistics. Morphemes are defined as the smallest meaningful units in linguistics. There are two kinds of morphemes in languages: free morphemes and bound morphemes. Free morphemes are the morphemes that carry meanings by themselves. They are the verb roots, such as “go”, “run”, “eat”, “consult”, “follow”; they are the noun roots, such as “table”, “house”, “garden”, “boy”; they are the adjective roots, such as “easy”, “calm”, “brave”, “sudden”, “clever”, and “willing”. However, although the demonstrative adjectives or demons-trative pronouns, such as “these”, “those”, “this”, and “that” and adverbs without “ly” suffixes, such as “always, never, often, seldom, sometimes, soon, now, again” are free morphemes, they cannot be attached to deriva-tional or inflectional suffixes like other free morphemes. All verb roots, noun roots, and most adjective roots can be turned into other forms by being attached to various derivational morphemes. There-fore, some free morphemes may be defined as productive free morphemes, but some others that are not affixed by derivational mor-phemes may be defined as unproductive free morphemes. Among the unproductive free morphemes, there are prepositions, such as “in”, “on”, “by”, “under”, “near”, which are also free morphemes, but they carry meaning only when they are used followed by their objects. Therefore, they may be defined as unproductive free morphemes. Ad-ditionally, there are the articles, such as “a”, “an”, “the”, “some”, and “any”, which are used before nouns to modify them are also unproductive free morphemes. All conjunctions, such as “and”, “but”, “so”, “or”, “as”, “be-


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cause”, “until”, “before”, etc, and pronouns “I”, “you”, “he”, “she” “it”, “we”, “they” are all unproductive free morphemes. Although all these words are called free morphemes, they cannot be attached to any derivational or inflec-tional morphemes. Only productive noun, verb, and adjective free mor-phemes can be attached to derivational or inflectional morphemes.

Bound morphemes:

Bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes, infixes or suffixes). These bound morphemes carry meanings only when they are attached to free pro-ductive morphemes. They are divided into two main parts according to their functions. Some of them change the meaning and the part of speech of a free productive morpheme when they are attached to them, which are named as derivational morphemes; the other kind does not change the meanings of the free productive morphemes, but they only add gram-metical senses to free productive morphemes; they do not change the meanings of the free productive morphemes.

As the demonstrative adjectives or pronouns, the prepositions, and the articles are not productive free morphemes, they are not affixed by any inflectional or derivational morphemes.

Some common derivational morphemes are as follows:

Nouns: Productive nouns may be attached by “ful” and “less” derivational mor-phemes to produce adjectives: beauti-ful, care-ful, pain-ful, wonder-ful, use-ful, help-ful, color-ful, harm ful, joy-ful, fear-ful, power-ful, skil-ful, plenty-ful, shame-ful - child-less, sense-less, home-less, care-less, use-less, hope-less, mer-cy-less, harm-less, end-less, heart-less, pain-less, shame-less, sleep-less

Some nouns may be attached by “able” derivational morpheme to pro-duce adjectives:

comfort-able, profit-able, market-able

Some nouns may be attached by the suffix “hood” to produce other nouns:

child-hood, boy-hood, man-hood, mother-hood…


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Some verbs may be attached by “ment” derivational morpheme to pro-duce nouns: agree-ment, argue-ment, develop-ment, commit-ment, govern-ment. move-ment Some verbs may be attached by “sion, tion” morphemes to produce nouns: education, discussion, action, duration, solution, repetition, connec-tion, reception, interruption, description, collection, deception, etc. Some verbs may be attached by the derivational allomorphs “able, ible” to produce adjectives: eat-able, understand-able, read-able, predict-able, reason-able, un-think-able, wash-able, avail-able, depend-able, reliable, avoid-able, count-able sensible, irresistible, reducible, convertible, digestible Some verbs may be attached by the “er” derivational morpheme to produce nouns: drive-er, paint-er, speak-er, box-er, teach-er, writ-er, train-er, walk-er, read-er, conduct-er, kill-er, do-er Some verbs may be attached by the “able” derivational morpheme to produce adjectives: eat-able, drink-able, read-able, wash-able, understand-able, convert-able Some nouns may be attached by the “ful” derivational morpheme to produce adjectives: beauty-ful, care-ful, wonder-ful, pain-ful, use-ful, meaning-ful, harm-ful, dread-ful, thank-ful, mercy-ful, doubt-ful Some adjectives may be attached to the “en” derivational morpheme to produce verbs: wide-en, ripe-en, sharp-en, short-en, dark-en Some nouns may be attached to the “ize” derivational morpheme to produce verbs:


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memory → memorize, apology → apologize, summery → summarize Some adjectives may be attached to the “ness” derivational morpheme to produce nouns: bright-ness, happy-ness, lonely-ness, sad-ness, hard-ness Some adjectives may be attached to “ify” derivational morpheme to produce verbs: clearify, purify, specify Some nouns may be attached to “ize” derivational allomorphs to pro-duce verbs: apology → apologize, memory → memorize, victim → victimize Some adjectives may be attached to “ize” derivational morphemes to produce verbs: local-ize, real-ize, mobil-ize, vocal-ize, sivil-ize Some adjectives may be attached by “ly” derivational morphemes to produce adverbs: happy-ly, glad-ly, sad-ly, thankful-ly, perfect-ly, high-ly, slow-ly, sud-den-ly, prompt-ly, angry-ly, quiet-ly, loud-ly, soft-ly, beautiful-ly, grace-ful-ly, generous-ly, general-ly, certain-ly, hungry-ly, necessary-ly, sharp-ly, rough-ly, smooth-ly, separate-ly, bad-ly, dangerous-ly, bold-ly, sudden-ly, automatical-ly, normal-ly, short-ly, wrong-ly, breathless-ly, proud-ly, great-ly, correct-ly, careful-ly, partial-ly, quick-ly Some prefixes turn words into negative forms. They do not change the lexical meanings of the words. They are as follows: “a”, “dis”, “il”, “im”, “in”, ”ir”, “non”, “un” Example words:

apolitical, atheist, asexual disagree, discomfort, dismount

illegal, illiterate, illogical, illegible impossible, imperfect, immoral, immobile, impolite

inaccurate, inorganic, ineligible, insane, indecent, incredible irrational, irresponsible, irregular, irresistible

uncomfortable, unnecessary, unimportant, uncountable, unable, nonsense, nonfiction, nonessent


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Inflectional morphemes: Inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes (suffixes) that alter the grammatical state of nouns, verbs, and adjectives. There are eight in-flectional morphemes that express tense, number, gender, case, and aspect. Nouns: Plural allomorphs: “s”(book-s, dog-s, monkey-s); “es” (box-es, church-es) Possessor morpheme: “s” (Jack’s, boy’s, teacher’s) Adjectives: Comparison morpheme: “er” (swift-er, short-er, calm-er, hard-er) Superlative morpheme: “est” (short-est, swift-est, calm-est, bold-est) Verbs: Third person singular allomorphs: “s” and “es”: (walk-s, run-s, sleep-s) (go-es, do-es) Past tense and past participle morpheme “ed” (work-ed, open-ed, start-ed, clean-ed) Present participle morpheme “ing”: go-ing, sleep-ing, do-ing, work-ing Note: English words are divided into syllables as in other languages, but their syllabication rules are very complicated. Therefore, when you syllable them you should consult an English dictionary.

TURKISH FREE and BOUND MORPHEMES

Although Turkish free morphemes are like English free morphemes, nearly all English unproductive free morphemes, such as the preposi-tions “in”, “on”,” at” “from”, “to”, “without”, etc. are all expressed with bound allomorphs attached to free morphemes in Turkish. For ins-tance: English: Jack is at school. (“At” is a preposition, and “at school” is a prepositional phrase) Turkish: Jack okul-da. (“Da” is a bound morpheme that has four allo-morphs: (“de, da, te, ta). The allomorphs of a morpheme are any one of the different phonolo-gical representations of a morpheme that follows the Turkish vowel


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and consonant harmony sequences. All Turkish free morphemes and bound allomorphs fallow the vowel sequences below:

TURKISH VOWEL HARMONY SEQUENCE A Turkish speaker follows two certain harmony chains to produce a vowel harmony sequence: 1. The hard vowel harmony chain. 2. The thin vowel harmony chain.

1. The hard (back) vowel harmony chain is “o ⟶ u ⟶ a ⇄ ı”

2. The thin (front) vowel harmony chain is “ö ⟶ ü ⟶ e ⇄ i” In both chains, the first vowels /o/ and /ö/ never repeat themselves. The other vowels can be repeated as many times as necessary. The arrow (→)

points to the vowel that should follow the previous one. The arrows (⇄), pointing to both directions, show that /i/ may follow /e/, or /e/ may follow /i/. In the hard vowel harmony chain, /a/ and /ı/ do the same. Furthermore, be-sides the arrows, the letters “r” are put under repeatable vowels to com-plete our diagrams: 1. The hard (back) vowel harmony chain: “o ⟶ ur ⟶ ar ⇄ ır”

2. The thin (front) vowel harmony chain: “ö ⟶ ür ⟶ er ⇄ ir” As one could see, the two diagrams look exactly like one another. All the words in the Turkish language follow either the first or the second harmony sequences. The words borrowed from other languages do not follow these sequences as expected, but the suffixes that attach to them follow the vow-els of the last syllables of such words. Consequently, one could build up meaningless vowel chains made up of only vowels following the two vowel chains: “o*u*u*a*ı*a*ı”, “o*a*ı*a”, “ü*ü*e*e*i”, “ö*e*i*e”, "ö*ü*ü*ü", "o*a" For instance: “kom*şu*ya” (o*u*a); “kom*şu*lar*dan” (o*u*a*a); “ge*le*cek*ler” (e*e*e*e); “o*luş*tur*duk*la*rı*mız*dan” (o*u*u*u*a*ı*ı*a); “u*nu*ta*lım” (u*u*a*ı); “o*ku*la” (o*u*a); “ten*ce*re*ye” (e*e*e*e); “ka*ça*ma*ya*cak” (a*a*a*a*a) One could make up Turkish meaningless vowel chains as many as one wishes using the vowel chains above. I advise those who are interested in learning Turkish to make up meaningless vowel chains like the chains above, they should repeat them loudly again and again. If they do so, they


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can memorize the Turkish vowel harmony sequences easily and soundly as they learn a piece of music. When they repeat them, they may even feel and sound as if they were speaking Turkish.

As it has already been stated, borrowed words do not follow the vowel har-mony sequences, but the last syllables of such words attach to suffixes in accordance with the vowel and consonant harmony rules:

patates-ler-i (pa*ta*tes*le*ri) “the potatoes”; televizyon-u (te*le*viz*yo*nu) “the television”; mandalina-/y/ı (man*da*li* na*yı) “the tangerine”; sigara-/y/ı (si*ga*ra*yı) “the cigarette”.

The /y/ phonemes used above are glides (semivowels) (consonants) insert-ed between two vowels to help them pass the voice from one vowel to the following one smoothly and harmoniously. They do not carry meaning. One more thing to add to the explanation above is that the words that are formed of two separate words do not follow the above vowel harmony se-quences, For instance: kahverengi (kahve + rengi) “brown”; buzdolabı (buz + dolabı) “refrige-rator”; bilgisayar (bilgi + sayar) “computer”; tavanarası (tavan + arası) “attic”.

Besides the vowel harmony rules above, there are three more essential vowel rules to consider:

1.The verbs ending with vowels drop these vowels when they attach to the allomorphs of [İYOR]. These vowels are double underlined. Besides the double underlined vowels, there are some consonants that are single un-derlined which show that they detach from their syllables and attach to the first vowels of the following allomorphs to produce new syllables:

bekle-iyor → (bek*li*yor); başla-ıyor → (baş*lı*yor); anla-ıyor → (an*lı*yor); gizle-iyor → (giz*li*yor); oku-uyor → (o*ku*yor); atla-ıyor → (at*lı*yor) ye-iyor → (yi*yor); gözle-üyor → (göz*lü*yor); gizle-iyor → (giz*li*yor) gel-iyor-um → (ge*li*yo*rum); yüz-üyor-uz → (yü*zü*yo*ruz); iç-er-im → (i*çe*rim); yaz-acak-ım → (ya*za*ca*ğım); yakalan-acak-ız → (ya*ka*la*- na*ca*ğız); gül-er-im → (gü*le*rim); kork-ar-ız → (kor*ka*rız)

2.When the last syllables of the nouns (including the infinitives), the verbs, and the inflectional morphemes end with vowels, and the first vowels of the following allomorphs start with the same vowels, these two vowels combine and verbalize as single vowels. For example, when the last vowel of the word “anne” and the first vowel of the allomorph “em” happen to be arti-


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culated together, they combine and verbalize as a single vowel: “anne-em” → (an*nem). For instance: anne-en (an*nen); tarla-am (tar*lam); araba-anız (a*ra*ba*nız); kafa-an (ka*fan); git-ti-in (git*tin); bekle-di-ik (bek*le*dik); gül-dü-ük (gül*dük); yakala-dı-ım (ya*ka*la*dım); git-me-em (git*mem); çalış-ma-am (ça*lış*mam); temizle-en-mek (te*miz*len*mek); Dinle-er mi-/s/in? (din*ler / mi*sin); ol-sa-am (ol*sam), bil-se-em (bil*sem) If the last vowel of a word and the first vowel of an allomorph happen to be different, these two vowels are generally linked by the /y/ glides: oku-ma-/y/ız (o*ku*ma*yız); gel-me-/y/iz (gel*me*yiz); tava-/y/ı → (ta*va*yı), salata-/y/ı (sa*la*ta*yı), uyku-/y/a → (uy*ku*ya). How should we choose which allomorph we must use to attach to a free mor-pheme? The “de” bound morpheme has four allomorphs “de, da, te, ta”. You cannot choose any one of them you like. You have to choose the allomorph that can follow the last vowel of a free morpheme following the vowel and consonant harmony rules of the Turksh sound system. These allomrphs are generally used to produce subject complements, therefore they are underlined brown. Consider the following: Jack ev-de. (“ev-de” is an adverbial subject complement.) Jack is at home. (“at home” is an adverbial subject complement.) Jack okul-da. (“okul-da” is an adverbial subject complement.) Jack is at school. (“at school” is an adverbial subject complement.) Elmalar sepet-te, The apples are in the basket. Jack butfak- ta. Jack is in the kitchen. If you check the Turkish vowel harmony sequences, you can see that they are following the vowel and consonant harmony rules given in the diagrams having straight and curved arrows above: ev-de → e-e, okul-da → u-a, sepet-te →e-e, mutfak-ta → a-a The bound allomorphs that are attached to free morphemes: The Turkish bound allomorphs and their English corresponding articles and prepositions are as follows:


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“i, ı, ü, u” = “the” sepet-i = the basket, tavşan-ı = the rabbit, göz-ü = the eye, okul-u = the school, adam-ı = the man; top-u = the ball, kuş-u = the bird

When the following Turkish bound allomorphs are attached to nouns, they produce adverbials, but when some English prepostions are used before nouns they produce adverbial phrases. Consider the following:

“e, a”. “/y/e, /y/a” = “to, at”

ev-e = to the house, pencere-/y/e = to the window, İngiltere-/y/e = to England, market-e = to the market, Londra-/y/a = to London, Adam-a bağırdı. = He shouted at the man. Biz-e baktılar. They looked at us.

“de, da, te, ta” = “in, on, at”

ev-de = in the house, okul-da = at school, sepet-te = in the basket, uçak-ta = on the plane, İstanbul-da = in İstanbul, bahçe-de = in the garden, Onun başı dert-te = He is in trouble.

“den, dan, ten, tan” = “from, through, out of”

market-ten = from the market, okul-dan = from school, sepet-ten = out of the basket, bakkal-dan = from the grocer, Tren tünel-den geç-iyor = The train is passing through the tunnel, Pencere-den sark-ma = Don’t lean out of the window. Jack anahtar deliği/n/-den bakıyor. Jack is look-ing through the key hole.

“le, la” “ile” = “with, by, on”

Jack-le ders çalışıyor. He is studying with Jack. Otobüs-le gittik = We went by bus. At-la seyahat ediyorlar = They are traveling on hors-back. Güçlük-le taşıdı. He carried with difficulty.

As you can see above, some English prepositions are expressed by allo-morphs attached to nouns in Turkish.

There are “/s/, /ş/, /n/, /y/ consonants called slides in Turkish that help to pass a phoname to the fallowing one.smoothly and harmoniously.

TURKISH DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES AND THEIR ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS

Derivational morphemes (suffixes) are bound morphemes that change the lexical meaning or the part of speech of a word used in a sentence. As a rule, the last syllables of all derivational morphemes are stresses in Turkish.

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS THAT PRODUCE OTHER NOUNS

[Cİ] allomorphs: ♫ [ci, cı, cü, cu, çi, çı, çü, çu] XXX


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When the nouns ending with vocals (vowels or voiced consonants) are at-tached to the morpheme [Cİ], the /i/ vowel in this morpheme changes into /i, ı, ü, u/ in accordance with the vowel harmony rules. However, if a noun ends with an unvoiced consonant, the /c/ voiced consonants also change into the /ç/ unvoiced consonants in agreement with the consonant harmony rules: peynir-ci (cheese seller), posta-cı (postman), üzüm-cü (grapes seller), tur-şu-cu (pickles seller), sepet-çi (basket maker), balık-çı (fisherman), süt-çü (milkman), ok-çu (archer), aş-çı (cook), kale-ci (goal-keeper), kahve-ci (cof- fee seller), saat-çi (watch repairer or seller), mobilya-cı (furniture seller), ka-çak-çı (smuggler), musluk-çu (plumber), yaban-cı (foreigner), çiçek-çi (flo-rist), yol-cu (traveler), sanat-çı (artist), göz-cü (watch, watchman), söz-cü (spokesman), politika-cı (politician), milliyet-çi (nationalist), diş-çi (den-tist), kira-cı (tenant), şarkı-cı (singer), börek-çi (someone who sells pies), boya-cı (painter), demir-ci (blacksmith), halter-ci (weight lifter). [LİK] allomorphs: ♫ [lik, lık, lük, luk] meyve-lik (a bowl where fruit is kept), kitap-lık (bookcase), göz-lük (eye glasses), odun-luk (a place where firewood is kept), ağız-lık (cigarette holder), kulak-lık (headphones), çaydan-lık (tea pot), mezar-lık (grave-yard), şeker-lik (a bowl in which candies are kept), çokevli-lik (polygamy), tuz-luk (saltshaker), çocuk-luk (childhood), maskara-lık (farce, foolery), soytarı-lık (clowning), dost-luk (friendship), düşman-lık (enmity), gece-lik (pajamas, nightgown), ön-lük (apron), güven-lik (safety), anne-lik (moth-erhood), evlat-lık (adopted child), kahraman-lık (heroism). [CİLİK] allomorphs: ♫ [cilik, cılık, cülük, culuk, çilik, çılık, çülük, çuluk] av-cılık (hunting), meyve-cilik (selling fruit), ön-cülük (leadership), yol-cu-luk (traveling), aş-çılık (cooking), fal-cılık (fortune telling), tefe-cilik (usury), çiçek-çilik (selling flowers), çifçi-lik (farming), hava-cılık (aviation), balık-çılık (fishing), kaçak-çılık (smuggling), çöp-çülük (scavenge) [CİK] allomorphs: ♫ [cik, cık, cük, cuk, çik, çık, çük, çuk] (diminutive) ev-cik (small house), kapı-cık (small door), köprü-cük (small bridge), kutu-cuk (small box), eşek-çik (small donkey), ağaç-çık (small tree), kadın-cık (little woman), tosun-cuk (big and healthy newborn baby). [CEĞİZ] allomorphs: ♫ [ceğiz, cağız, çeğiz, çağız] (innocence) kedi-ceğiz (innocent cat), kız-cağız (innocent girl), hayvan-cağız (innocent animal), köpek-çeğiz (innocent dog), kuş-çağız (innocent bird). [CE] allomorphs: ♫ [ce, ca, çe, ça]


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İngiliz-ce (English), Alman-ca (German), Türk-çe (Turkish), Rus-ça (Rus-sian), İspanyol-ca (Spanish), Japon-ca (Japanese), Çin-ce (Chinese), Arap-ça (Arabic), Fransız-ca (French), İtalyan-ca (Italian), Rum-ca (Greek).

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS THAT PRODUCE ADJECTIVES [CİL] allomorphs: ♫ [cil, cıl, cül, cul, çil, çıl, çül, çul] ev-cil (domestic), insan-cıl (humane), ben-cil (selfish), ot-çul (herbivorous) [Lİ] allomorphs: ♫ [li, lı, lü, lu] ev-li (married), çocuk-lu (with children), şemsiye-li (with an umbrella), bah-çe-li ev (house with a garden), şiyah ceket-li adam (the man in a black coat), kırmızı-lı kadın (the woman in red), görgü-lü (having good manners, polite), çiçek-li ağaç (a tree in blossom), yağmur-lu (rainy), kar-lı (snowy), sis-li (foggy, misty), güneş-li (sunny), bulut-lu (cloudy), tuz-lu (salty), at-lı (man on horseback), istek-li (willing), becerik-li (skillful), çamur-lu (muddy), hesap-lı (economical), saygı-lı (respectful), suç-lu (criminal), hata:-lı (faulty), tat-lı (sweet), mayo-lu (in a bathing suit), süt-lü (with milk, milky), paha-lı (expensive), taş kafa-lı (stone headed), Adana-lı (from Adana), sürek-li (continuous), hiddet-li (outrageous), kıl-lı (hairy), bilinç-li (inten-tional, conscious), zarar-lı (harmful), tehlike-li (dangerous), şüphe-li (suspi-cious, suspect), yer-li (native), iki bacak-lı (two legged), kanat-lı (winged), kaygı-lı (anxious), umut-lu (hopeful), gerek-li (necessary), yetenek-li (tal-ented), bağım-lı (addicted, dependent), silah-lı (armed), renk-li (colored), kâr-lı (profitable), zehir-li (poisonous), denge-li (balanced), neşe-li (joyful), kusur-lu (faulty), gürültü-lü (noisy), değer-li (precious), gerek-li (neces-sary), düşünce-li (thoughtful), yürek-li (brave), ayrıntı-lı (detailed, in detail), sorum-lu (responsible), mantık-lı (rational), güç-lü (strong), örtü-lü (cov-ered), his-li (sensitive), hırs-lı (ambitious), hız-lı (fast), tertip-li (tidy), tuz-lu (salty), buz-lu (icy), çamur-lu (muddy), kir-li (dirty), pasak-lı (untidy), kor-ku-lu (frightening, scary), hak-lı (right, fair), kasıt-lı (intentional), hesap-lı (economical), meme-li (mammal), tecrübe-li, deneyim-li (experienced), falso-lu (erroneous), kasvet-li (gloomy, doleful), kuşku-lu (dubious, sus-picious), onur-lu, gurur-lu (proud), dayanık-lı (durable), dikkat-li (care-ful), becerik-li (skillful), yama-lı (patchy), dokunak-lı (pungent), görev-li (on duty), yarar-lı (useful), karar-lı (firm, determined), görkem-li (magnif-icent), şatafat-lı (pompous), akıl-lı (intelligent), rahmet-li (deceased), yaş-lı (aged) dert-li (in trouble, miserable), şeker-li (sweet), su-lu (saucy), fayda-lı (useful), gizem-li (mysterious), korku-lu (frightening, horrifying), duygu-lu (emotional, sensitive), heyecan-lı (exciting, nervous), tertip-li (tidy), ileri görüş-lü (foreseeing), huzur-lu (peaceful), keyif-li (cheerful), yetki-li (au-thorized), bağlantı-lı (related, agglutinative), boya-lı (painted), cila-lı (ci*-lâ:*lı) (finished, varnished), cilt-li (hardback), yay-lı (with springs), ayrıntı-lı (detailed, in detail), ölçü-lü (restrained), güç-lü (strong), tür-lü tür-lü (all


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sorts of), besbel-li (obvious), isabet-li (i*sa:*bet*li) (right, to the purpose), geçer-li (valid), başarı-lı (successful), inanç-lı (believer), direnç-li (resis-tive), kanıt-lı (proven, supported by evidence), yün-lü (woollen), pamuk-lu (cotton), ateş-li (fiery, zealous), çizgi-li (lined, striped), yıldız-lı (starry, star-lit), boya-lı (painted), kıyma-lı börek (mince pie), güneş-li (sunny), toz-lu (dusty), ağaç-lı (wooded), çiçek-li (flowered), desen-li (patterned, figured), yaldız-lı (gilded), süs-lü (ornamented), kıymet-li (precious, valuable), kuy- ruk-lu (tailed), zahmet-li (difficult, hard), temkin-li (cautious). [SİZ] allomorphs: ♫ [siz, sız, süz, suz] korku-suz (fearless), istek-siz (unwilling), yağmur-suz (rainless), ağaç-sız (treeless), defo-suz (flawless), uyku-suz (sleepless), bilinç-siz (unconscious), karar-sız (hesitant), sorum-suz (irresponsible), dikkat-siz (careless), amaç-sız (aimless), kalp-siz (heartless), yürek-siz (timid), neşe-siz (neş*e*siz) (sad), ümit-siz, umut-suz (desperate, hopeless), taban-sız (timid), saygı-sız (disrespectful), mantık-sız (irrational), temel-siz (unsound, baseless), renk-siz (colorless), gerek-siz (unnecessary), bağım-sız (independent), perva:-sız (reckless), kafa-sız (stupid), sevgi-siz (loveless), terbiye-siz (impolite, rude), görgü-süz (impolite), becerik-siz (incompe-tent), imkân-sız (impossible), de-ğer-siz (worthless), ses-siz (silent), şeker-siz (without sugar), gerek-siz (un-necessary), düşünce-siz (thoughtless), sorum-suz (irresponsible), mesnet-siz (baseless), tasa-sız (carefree), ahlâk-sız (immoral), yüz-süz (impudent), huy-suz (perverse), akıl-sız (foolish), dayanak-sız (baseless), dayanık-sız (not durable), duygu-suz (senseless), kusur-suz (faultless), ta:lih-siz (un-fortunate), kıymet-siz (worthless), tehlike-siz (safe), tat-sız (tasteless), haya-sız (shameless, impudent), tertip-siz (untidy), yarar-sız (useless), tutar-sız. (inconsistent), amaç-sız (aimless), değer-siz (worthless), zarar-sız (harm-less), koku-suz (odorless), neden-siz (causeless), acıma-sız (merciless), taraf-sız (impar-tial), yetenek-siz (incompetent), suç-suz (innocent), denge-siz (unbal-anced), keyif-siz (low-spirited), kaygı-sız (indifferent), tasa-sız (carefree), deneyim-siz (inexperienced), kuşku-suz (without doubt), uygun-suz (inappropriate), surat-sız (sour faced), denge-siz (unbalanced), kontrol-suz (uncontrolled), kıymet-siz (worthless), anlam-sız (insignificant, non-sense), eğitim-siz (uneducated), bilgi-siz (ignorant), inanç-sız (faithless), huzur-suz (fidgety), annes-siz (motherless), leke-siz (stainless), kaygı-sız (without anxiety), denge-siz (unbalanced), uyum-suz (unharmonious). [SEL] allomorphs: ♫ [sel, sal] bilim-sel (scientific), evren-sel (universal), deney-sel (experimental, empir-ical), yüzey-sel (superficial), duygu-sal (emotional, sensational), sanat-sal (artistic), yapı-sal (structural), gelenek-sel (traditional), düşün-sel (mental), tarih-sel (historical), tarihî (historic), kavram-sal (conceptual), kimya-sal (che-mical), fizik-sel (physical), anıt-sal (monumental), yaşam-sal (vital), din-sel (religious), ulus-sal (u*lu*sal) (national), çevre-sel (environmental), kalıt-sal


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(hereditary), onur-sal (honorary), bitki-sel (herbal), hayvan-sal (zoolo-gical), tarım-sal (agricultural), us-sal (us*sal) (mental, rational), tanrı-sal (divine, celestial), yörünge-sel (orbital), kurum-sal (institutional, corporate), kamu-sal (public), küre-sel (global, spherical), kır-sal (rural), örgüt-sel (orga-nizational), toplum-sal (social, common), belge-sel (documental), kurgu-sal (fictional), ruh-sal (psychological), beden-sel (corporal), birey-sel (indivi-dual), algı-sal (perceptual), sayı-sal (numerical, digital), simge-sel (symbo-lic).

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO ADJECTIVES THAT PRODUCE NOUNS

[LİK] allomorphs: ♫ [lik, lık, lük, luk] (iyi-lik = iyilik), (sıcak-lık= sıcaklık) iyi-lik (favor), sıcak-lık (temperature), özgür-lük (freedom), uzun-luk (length), geniş-lik (width), güzel-lik (beauty), çirkin-lik (ugliness), dürüst-lük (honesty), aptal-lık (stupidity), sessiz-lik (silence), evli-lik (marriage), bayağı-lık (mean-ness), iyimser-lik (optimism), kötümser-lik (pessimism), uşak-lık (servitude), yalnız-lık (loneliness), misafirsever-lik (hospitality), kahraman-lık (heroism), vatansever-lik (patriotism), kaba-lık (rudeness), duygusal-lık (sensitivity), dost-luk (frienship), kepaze-lik (scandal), üret-ken-lik (productivity), küresel-lik (globalism), aşağılık kompleksi (inferiority complex), arsız-lık (impu-dence), geveze-lik (chattering), düşüncesiz-lik (inconsiderateness), mutsuz-luk (unhappiness), aç-lık (hunger, starvation), güç-lük (difficulty), saydam-lık (transparency), utangaç-lık (shyness), uzak-lık (distance), yakın-lık (close-ness, sympathy), küstah-lık (insolence), kurak-lık (drought), ürkek-lik (shy-ness), sersem-lik (dizziness), hovarda-lık (debauchery), alışkan-lık (addic-tion), yüksek-lik (height), derin-lik (depth), kırmızı-lık (redness), kötü-lük (wickedness, evil), kurnaz-lık (craftiness), dürüst-lük (honesty), karamsar-lık (moodiness), kolay-lık(ease, facility), tembel-lik (lazyness), kira-lık ((to let, for hire) özel-lik (speciality), özgün-lük (originality, genuineness), kararsız-lık (hesitation, uncertainty, instability, inconsistency), bol-luk (abundance), sürekli-lik (continuity), kararlı-lık (determination), avare-lik (a:*va:*re*lik) (idle-ness), yüzeysel-lik (shallowness, superficiality), kıt-lık (famine), sarkın-tı-lık (molestation), kibar-lık (kindness, politeness), dayanıklı-lık (durability), boş-luk (emptiness), yok-luk (poverty, absence, nonexistence), yaşlı-lık (aged-ness), sorumlu-luk (responsibility), sorumsuz-luk (irresponsibility), gayretkeş-lik (zeal), vurdumduymaz-lık (callousness), tutarsız-lık (inconsistency), deli-lik (madness), bilgisiz-lik (cahil-lik) (ignorance), benzer-lik (resemblance), karamsar-lık (moodiness), güzel-lik (beauty), kızgın-lık (anger), bağışık-lık (immunity), düşman-lık (enmity, hostility), budala-lık, ahmak-lık (stupidity, idiocy).

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO VERBS THAT PRODUCE NOUNS In agreement with the oral sequence of the Turkish sound system, the last consonants of the last syllables of the verbs detach from their syllables, and


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attach to the first vowels of the following derivational allomorphs while form-ing new syllables. These consonants are single underlined.

[İ] allomorphs: ♫ [i, ı, ü, u] (diz-i = dizi), (yaz-ı = yazı)

diz-i (di*zi) (string, chain, serial, sequence ), yaz-ı (ya*zı) (script, text), ölç-ü(öl*çü) (measurement, size), koş-u (ko*şu) (run), duy-u (du*yu) (sense), gez-i (ge*zi) (trip), aç-ı (a*çı) (angle), yap-ı (ya*pı) (building), tak-ı (ta*kı) (jewelry, jewels), dürt-ü (dür*tü) (stimulus), tart-ı (tar*tı) (scales), art-ı (ar*tı) (plus), başar-ı (ba*şa*rı) (success), kork-u (kor*ku) (fear), sor-u (so*ru) (question), ört-ü (ör*tü) (any cloth covering), çat-ı (ça*tı) (framework), yet-i (ye*ti) (mental power, faculty), yat-ı (ya*tı) (overnight stay), öl-ü (ö*lü), (corpse), göm-ü (gö*mü) (treasure), kok-u (ko-ku) (scent, smell, aroma, perfume), böl-ü (bö*lü) (slash mark), dinlet-i (concert), güldür-ü (comedy) doğ-u (do*ğu) (east), bat-ı (ba*tı) (west), çarp-ı (cross, times), böl-ü (bö*lü)

[İM] allomorphs: ♫ [im, ım, üm, um, em, am]

seç-im (se*çim) (election), al-ım (a*lım) (purchase), öl-üm (ö*lüm) (death), yık-ım (yı*kım) (disaster, demolition), yut-um (yu*dum) (gulp), ek-im (e*kim) (October), ak-ım (a*kım) (current), üret-im (ü*re*tim) (production), geliş-im (ge*li*şim) (improvement), karış-ım (ka*rı*şım) (mixture), dönüş-üm (dö*nü*-şüm) (transformation), çek-im (çe*kim) (attraction), geril-im (ge*ri*lim) (tens-ion), tasar-ım (ta*sa*rım) (plan, design), kavra-am (kav-*ram) (concept), denkle-em (denk*lem) (equation), ekle-em (ek*lem) (joint), tüket-im (tü*ke*-tim) (consumption), yaklaş-ım (yak*la*şım) (approach), benzeş-im (ben*ze*-şim) (similarity, resemblance), iletiş-im (i*le*ti*şim) (communication), biliş-im (bi*li*şim) (informatics), de/y/-im (de*yim) (expression, idiom), say-ım (sa*-yım) (census), giy-im (gi*yim) (clothing), çöz-üm (çö*züm) (solution), kıy-ım (kı*yım) (massacre), açıl-ım (a*çı*lım) (expansion), yatır-ım (ya*tı*rım) (in-vestment), al-ım, sat-ım (a*lım, sa*tım) (buying and selling, trade, com-merce), giy-im (gi*yim) (attire), salk-ım (sal*-kım) (bunch), bir salkım üzüm (a bunch of grapes), uy-um (u*yum) (ac-cordance). dön-em (dö*nem) (period), yaşa-am (ya*şam) (life), anla-am (an*lam) (meaning), devin-im (de*vi*nim) (movement), dene-/y/im (de*ne*-yim) (experience), gözle-em (göz*lem) (ob-servation), söyle-em (söy*lem) (expression), geç-im (ge*çim) (living), çiz-im (çi*zim) (drawing, design), çal-ım (ça*lım) (feint), al-ım (a*lım) (purchase), sür-üm (sale), yatır-ım (ya*tı*rım) (investment), yalıt-ım (ya*lı*tım) (insu-lation).

When the identical vowels written in bold face follow one another, they com-bine and are pronounced as single vowels; and the single underlined conso-nants detach from their syllables and attach to the first vowels of the follow-ing allomorphs in agreement with the oral sequence of the Turkish sound system.


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[İK] allomorphs: ♫ [ik, ık, ük, uk, ek, ak]

del-ik (de*lik) (hole), art-ık (ar*tık) (left over), öksür-ük (ök*sü*rük) (cough), tükür-ük (tü*kü*rük) (spit, saliva), aksır-ık (ak*sı*rık) (sneeze) bulaş-ık (bu*la*şık) (dirty dishes), kayna-ak (kay*nak) (source, spring, ori--gin), belle-ek (bel*lek) (memory), tara-ak (ta*rak) (comb), yama-ak (ya*-mak) (apprentice), döşe-ek (dö*şek) (mattress), kapa-ak (ka*pak) (lid), eş-ik (e*şik) (threshold), dene-ek (de*nek) (experimental subject, object, or animal), tekerle-ek (te*ker*lek) (wheel), kay-ık (ka*yık) (boat), bat-ık (ba*-tık) (submerged), çiz-ik (çi*zik) (scratch), çatla-ak (çat*lak) (crack).

[EK] allomorphs: ♫ [ek, ak]

Tapın-ak (ta*pı*nak) (temple), kay-ak (ka*yak) (ski), saç-ak (sa*çak) (fringe), uç-ak (u*çak) (airplane), yat-ak (ya*tak) (bed), kaç-ak (ka*çak) (escaped), dayan-ak (da*ya*nak) (support), kes-ek (ke*sek) (a lump of earth), ölç-ek (öl*çek) (scale), ben-ek (be*nek) (spot), dön-ek (dö*nek) (someone whom you cannot trust), yan-ak (ya*nak) (cheek), düzen-ek (dü*ze*nek) (mechanism), gevşe-ek (gev*şek)(loose), kayna-ak (source). [Gİ] allomorphs: ♫ [gi, gı, gü, gu, ki, kı, kü, ku] sev-gi (love, affection); çal-gı (music instrument); sür-gü (bolt); sor-gu (in-terrogation); bas-kı (pressure); as-kı (hanger); ör-gü (knitting); gör-gü (good manners); dol-gu (filling); ver-gi (tax); et-ki (impression); sar-gı (ban-dage); ser-gi (exhibition); ez-gi (melody); say-gı (respect); yanıl-gı (mis-take); vur-gu (accent, stress); kur-gu (abstract thought, speculation); yer-gi (satire); der-gi (periodical, magazine); yar-gı (judgment); yaz-gı (fate, destiny); ol-gu (fact); duy-gu (sensation); iç-ki (alcoholic beverage, drink); at-kı (scarf); et-ki (impression, stimulus); kat-kı (aid, help, additive); gör-gü (ex-perience, good manners); kork-ku (fright) (The double underlined "k" drops.); yet-ki (auth-ority); coş-ku (excitement); tep-ki (response, rea-ction); al-gı (perception); sal-gı (secretion); kes-ki (chisel); tut-ku (ambi-tion, passion); sez-gi (intui-tion); çiz-gi (line); diz-gi (composition, string); bit-ki (plant); bul-gu (discovery, finding). [EÇ] allomorphs: ♫ [eç, aç] sür-eç (sü*reç) (process, procedure), tık-aç (tı*kaç) (plug, wag, stoppage), deme-eç (de*meç) (statement), sark-aç (sar*kaç) (pendulum), ayır-aç (ay*-raç) (bracket). [EY] allomorphs: ♫ [ey, ay] dene-ey (de*ney) (experiment), yap-ay (ya*pay) (artificial), ol-ay (o*lay) (event), düş-ey (dü*şey) (vertical), yat-ay (ya*tay) (horizontal), yüz-ey (yü*-zey) (surface), uza-ay (u*zay) (space).


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[İCİ] allomorphs: ♫ [ici, ıcı, ücü, ucu] dinle-/y/ici (din*le*yi*ci) (listener), sat-ıcı (sa*tı*cı) (seller), yüz-ücü (yü*zü*-cü) (swimmer), koş-ucu (ko*şu*cu) (runner), böl-ücü (bö*lü*cü) (separa-tist), tara-/y/ıcı (ta*ra*yı*cı) (scanner), al-ıcı (a*lı*cı) (receiver), bak-ıcı (ba*kı*cı) (companion), bebek bakıcısı (baby sitter), tut-ucu (tu*tu*cu) (conservative), kal-ıcı (ka*lı*cı) (lasting, durable) (adj), yaz-ıcı (ya*zı*cı) (printer), doyur-ucu (do*yu*ru*cu) (satisfactory) (adj), inandır-ıcı (i*nan*-dı*rı*cı) (persuasive) (adj), öldür-ücü (öl*dü*rü*cü) (adj) (deadly, fatal). If a verb ends with vowel, and the allomorph starts with a different vow-el, the /y/ glide is inserted between these vowels by the oral sequence. [ECEK] allomorphs: ♫ [ecek, acak] sil-ecek (si*le*cek) (wiper), gel-ecek (ge*le*cek) (future), aç-acak (a*ça*-cak) (opener), çek-ecek (çe*ke*cek) (shoehorn), yak-acak (ya*ka*cak) (fuel). All the Turkish syllabications are showed in parenthesis. [MEK] allomorphs: ♫ [mek, mak] ye-mek (meal), çak-mak (lighter), ek-mek (bread), kay-mak (cream) [ME] allomorphs: ♫ [me, ma] dondur-ma (ice cream), dol-ma (green peppers, eggplants or marrows stuffed with mince, rice, etc.), kavur-ma (fried pieces of meat), haşla-ma (boiled meat), dene-me (essay), döv-me (tattoo), as-ma (vine), kaz-ma (pickax), aydınlan-ma (enlightenment). kıy-ma (kıy*ma) (minced meat), in-me (in*me) (stroke), bas-ma (bas*ma) (printed cloth), yüz-me (yüz*me) [İK] allomorphs: ♫ [ik, ık, ük, uk, ek, ak] kes-ik (ke*sik) (cut), çık-ık (çı*kık) (dislocated joint), yar-ık (ya*rık) (slash), çiz-ik (çi*zik) (scratch), çürü-ük (çü*rük) (decay), sar-ık (sa*rık) (turban), kaz-ık (ka*zık) (stake, unreasonably expensive), yırt-ık (yır*tık) (tear), del-ik (de*lik) (hole) ele-ek (e*lek) (sieve), ada-ak (a*dak) (oblation), kay-ak (ka*-yak) (ski) . [CE] allomorphs: ♫ [ce, ca] düşün-ce (dü*şün*ce) (thought), eğlen-ce (eğ*len*ce) (entertainment), bil-me-ce (bil*me*ce) (riddle, word puzzle), düzme-ce (düz*me*ce) (lie, fake), çekme-ce (çek*me*ce) (drawer), gülme-ce (gül*me*ce) (comedy).


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[İNTİ] allomorphs: ♫ [inti, ıntı, üntü, untu, enti, antı] ak-ıntı (a*kın*tı) (current), al-ıntı (a*lın*tı) (quotation), bağla-antı (bağ*lan*tı) (connection, link), bekle-enti (bek*len*ti) (expectation), bula-antı (bu*lan*tı) (qualm), bul-untu (bu*lun*tu), (antique), çarp-ıntı (çar*pın*tı) (palpitation), çık-ıntı (çı*kın*tı) (bulge) çök-üntü (çö*kün*tü) (collapse), dök-üntü (dö*kün*-tü) (rubbish, rash), ekle-enti (ek*len*ti) (addition), es-inti (e*sin*ti) (breeze), gez-inti (ge*zin*ti) (tour, walk), gir-inti (gi*rin*ti) (dent), gör-üntü (gö*rün*tü) (image), il-inti (i*lin*ti) (relation), kal-ıntı (ka*lın*tı) (remnant), kaşı-ıntı (ka*-şın*tı) (itching), kaz-ıntı (ka*zın*tı) (scrapings), kes-inti (ke*sin*ti) (subtrac-tion, stoppage, interruption), kır-ıntı (kı*rın*tı) (crumb), kur-untu (ku*run*tu) (unfounded suspicion), rastla-antı (ras*lan*tı) (coincidence), salla-antı (sal*-lan*tı) (quake), sık-ıntı (sı*kın*tı) (boredom), sız-ıntı (sı*zın*tı) (leakage), tak-ıntı (ta*kın*tı) (fixation, obsession), söyle-enti (söy*len*ti) (rumor), topla-antı (top*lan*tı) (meeting), sapla-antı(sap*lan*tı) (obsession), bağla-antı (bağ*lan*tı) (connection, link). [İŞ] allomorphs: ♫ [iş, ış, üş, uş] ak-ış (a*kış) (fluency), al-ış ver-iş (a*lış / ve*riş) (shopping), anla-/y/ış (an*la*yış) (understanding, sympathy), bak-ış (ba*kış) (look, looking) , at-ış (a*tış), (gunfire, throw, round), bekle-/y/iş (bek*le*yiş) (waiting), benze-/y/iş (ben*ze*yiş) (resemblance), bul-uş (bu*luş) (discovery), çık-ış (çı*kış) (exit, outlet), çök-üş (çö*küş) (collapse, fall), davran-ış (dav*ra*nış) (be-havior), diren-iş (di*re*niş) (resistance, disobedience), diril-iş (di*ri*liş) (re-surrection, revival), dizil-iş (di*zi*liş) (sequence), dokun-uş (do*ku*nuş) (touch), dön-üş (dö*nüş) (return), dur-uş (du*ruş) (position), düş-üş (dü*-şüş) (decline, downfall), gel-iş (ge*liş) (arrival, coming), gir-iş (gi*riş) (entry, entrance), git-iş (gi*diş) (going, departure), görün-üş (gö*rü*nüş) (appearance), gör-üş (gö*rüş) (view, opinion), gör-üş bir-lik-i (gö*rüş / bir*li*ği) (agreement, consensus), haykır-ış (hay*kı*rış) (scream), kaç-ış (ka*çış) (escape), kapan-ış (ka*pa*nış) (closing, closure), kurtul-uş (kur*-tu*luş) (liberation), kurul-uş (ku*ru*luş) (foundation), sat-ış (sa*tış) (sale), sür-üş (sü*rüş) (drive, driving), tüken-iş (tü*ke*niş) (exhaustion), yakar-ış (ya*ka*rış) (appeal), yalvar-ış (yal*va*rış) (beseeching), yüksel-iş (yük*-se*liş) (rise, growth), yürü-/y/üş (yü*rü*yüş) (walk).

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO VERBS THAT PRODUCE ADJECTIVES [İCİ] allomorphs: ♫ [ici, ıcı, ücü, ucu] Note: All the last syllables of all derivational morphemes are stressed. del-ici (de*li*ci) (piercing), kal-ıcı (ka*lı*cı) (lasting), sars-ıcı (sar*sı*cı) (shocking), yarat-ıcı (ya*ra*tı*cı) (creative), bulaş-ıcı (bu*la*şı*cı) (con-tagious), şaşırt-ıcı (şa*şır*tı*cı) (confusing), yak-ıcı (ya*kı*cı) (burning), öğüt-ücü (ö*ğü*tü*cü) (grinding), tazele-/y/ici (ta*ze*le*yi*ci) (refreshing), it-ici (i*ti*ci) (repulsive), aldat-ıcı (al*da*tı*cı) (deceptive), üz-ücü (ü*zü*cü) XX


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(saddening), doyur-ucu (do*yu*ru*cu) (satisfying), geç-ici (ge*çi*ci) (temporary), ez-ici çoğunluk (overwhelming majority), sık-ıcı (sı*kı*cı) (boring), yık-ıcı (yı*kı*cı) (destructive, devastating), koru-/y/ucu (ko*ru*-yu*cu) (protective), kır-ıcı (kı*rı*cı) (injurious, unkind), yan-ıcı (ya*nı*cı) (inflammable), üz-ücü (ü*zü*cü) (painful) . [İK] allomorphs: ♫ [ik, ık, ük, uk, ek, ak] aç-ık (a*çık) (open), kır-ık (kı*rık) (broken), bat-ık (ba*tık) (sunken), göç-ük (gö*çük) (collapsed), del-ik (de*lik) (pierced, hole), ez-ik (e*zik) (mashed), eğ-ik (e*ğik) (bent), çürü-ük (çü*rük) (decayed), art-ık (ar*tık) (left over), kaç-ık (ka*çık) (silly), çatla-ak (çat*lak) (crack), kaç-ak (ka*çak) (escaped) çek-ik (çe*kik) (slanting), çık-ık (çı*kık) (dislocated), ürk-ek (ür*kek) (timid, shy), kork-ak (kor*kak) (coward(ly), gevşe-ek (gev*şek) (loose). [KİN] allomorphs: ♫ [gin, gın, gün, gun, kin, kın, kün, kun] seç-kin (seç*kin) (exclusive, choice), kes-kin (sharp), şaş-kın (astonished), iliş-kin (concerning, connected), sus-kun (silent), piş-kin (well done, impu-dent), et-kin (functional), ger-gin (tight), az-gın (fierce), düz-gün (smooth), ol-gun (ripe, mature), sol-gun (faded), yay-gın (common), bit-kin (discour-aged, depressed, exhausted), yor-gun (tired), bas-kın (unexpected attack (noun), dominant), küs-kün (offended), geç-kin (overripe), dur-gun (stag-nant), dol-gun (plump), öz-gün (original), say-gın (honorable), yay-gın (com-mon, widespread), kız-gın (angry), bez-gin (wretched), uy-gun (suitable, convenient), üz-gün (sorry), et-kin (effective), yat-kın (inclined to do). [ER] allomorphs: ♫ [er, ar] çal-ar saat (ça*lar) (alarm clock), ak-ar su (running water), gül-er yüz (smiling face), koş-ar adım (running pace), uyu-ur gez-er (sleep walker).

[EN] allomorphs: ♫ [en, an]

koş-an (ko*şan) (running), sol-an (so*lan) (fading), çalş-an (ça*lı*şan) (working), yürü-/y/en (yü*rü*yen) (walking), konuş-an (ko*nu*şan) (talking), dilimle-/y/en (di*lim*le*yen) (slicing), kes-en (ke*sen) (cutting), öpüş-en (ö*pü*şen) (kissing), bekle-/y/en (bek*le*yen) (waiting), art-an (ar*tan) (increasing), geliş-en (ge*li*şen) (developing), dön-en (dö*nen) (turning, circling), gülümse-/y/en (gü*lüm*se*yen) (smiling), bağla-/y/an (bağ*la*yan) (tying, connecting), bitme-/y/en (bit*me*yen) (unending). Note: The morpheme above and its allomorphs are also used in transform-ing simple sentences into “modifier + noun” compounds. Therefore, they are also inflectional suffixes. [MİŞ] allomorphs: ♫ [miş, mış, müş, muş]


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sol-muş (faded), değiş-miş (changed), karış-mış (mixed), beyazlaş-mış (whitened), bağlan-mış (tied, connected), ertelen-miş (postponed), kızartıl-mış (fried), tasarlan-mış (planned), yıkan-mış (washed), geliştiril-miş (im-proved), düğüm-len-miş (knotted), aydınlan-mış (enlightened), zorlan-mış (forced), boşan-mış (divorced), unutul-muş (forgotten), örül-müş (knitted), kızar-mış (fried, reddened), üretil-miş (produced), bayıl-mış, (fainted), unutul-ma-mış (unforgotten), kayna-mış (boiled), don-muş (fro-zen), geliş-miş (de-veloped), değiş-miş (modified), kokuş-muş (foul). Note: The allomorphs of the morpheme [MIŞ] are stressed. This morpheme is also used as an inflectional morpheme. [SEL] allomorphs: ♫ [sel, sal] gör-sel (visual), uy-sal (complaisant), düşün-sel (mental), işit-sel (audial)

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS THAT PRODUCE VERBS

[LE] allomorphs: ♫ [le, la]

el-le (el*le) (touch), bağ-la (bağ*la) (tie), baş-la (baş*la) (beğin, start), teker-le (te*ker*le) (roll), göz-le (göz*le) (observe), kutu-la (ku*tu*la) (put in box-es), damga-la (dam*ga*la) (stamp), tuz-la (tuz*la) (salt), leke-le (le*ke*-le) (stain), tekme-le (tek*me*le) (kick), sürgü-le (sür*gü*le) (bolt), düzen-le (dü*-zen*le) (arrange), yağ-la (yağ*la) (lubricate, oil), taş-la (taş*la) (throw stones), yel-le (yel*le) (fan), denge-le (den*ge*le) (balance), sergi-le (ser*-gi*le) (exhibit), bağış-la (forgive), su-la (water), kaşık-la (spoon into greed-ily), kazık-la (cheat), yargı-la (judge), kalbur-la (sift), ilaç-la (apply pesticide), ak-la (acquit), köstek-le (hamper), bes-le (feed), algı-la (perceive), fırça-la (brush up), orta-la (centre), ezber-le (memorize), uygu-la (apply), ağır-la (show hospitality), av-la (hunt), bağ-la (tie, connect), suç-la (condemn), yol-la (send), ateş-le (fire), belge-le (certify), kilit-le (lock), ter-le (perspire), çimdik-le (pinch), göz-le (observe), fiş-le (blacklist someone), iş-le (work), çaba-la (strive). ek-le (add), yük-le (load), iz-le (follow), giz-le (hide), ezber-le (me-morize), mühür-le (seal), yargı-la (judge), sıra-la (put in order), gür-le (thun-der, roll), çın-la (ring), ot-la (graze), kol-la (watch, protect), sol-la (overtake), oy-la (vote), omuz-la (shoulder), hiza-la (hi*za:*la) (align), parça-la (tear up), gaga-la (peck), düz-le (flatten), giz-le (hide).

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO ADJECTIVES THAT PRODUCE VERBS

[İR] allomorphs: ♫ [ir, ır, er, ar] deli-ir (de*lir) (consnants (get mad), sarı-ar (sa*rar) (turn yellow), kara-ar (ka*rar) (blacken, darken, or get dark), mor-ar (mo*rar) (get, turn purple).


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[LEŞ] allomorphs: ♫ [leş, laş]

güzel-leş (get beautiful), sık-laş (get oftener, get tighter), ağır-laş (get heav-ier), sağır-laş (get deaf), derin-leş (deepen, get deeper), kaba-laş (get ruder), yeşil-leş, yeşil-len (turn green). Some adjectives like “kırmızı” may be either “kırmızı-laş” or “kızar” (get or turn red). “Kısa” becomes “kısal” (get shorter). “Uzun” becomes “uza” (get longer).

Examples: Günler kısalıyor. Days are getting shorter. Günler uzuyor. (*not uzayor”) Days are getting longer.

In Turkish, “make something + adjective” "Make it shorter." is expressed in an adjective + morpheme mixture which is too long to analyze in detail. Some examples may explain them easily:

Uzun uzat (u*zat) “Onu uzat.” (Make it longer.); kısa kısalt (kı*salt) “Onu kısalt.” (Make it shorter.); büyük büyüt (bü*yüt) “Onu büyüt.” (Make it larger.); Küçük küçült (kü*çült) “Onu küçült.” (Make it smaller.); kara karart (ka*rart) “Onu karart.” (Make it darker.); derin derinleştir (de*rin*-leş*tir) “Onu derinleştir.” (Make it deeper.)

“I made him work”, “I had him work”, “I had the work done” and “I got him to do the work” types of sentences will be explained in the following chapters.

INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES AND THEIR ALLOMORPHS

Inflectional morphemes and their allomorphs are the suffixes in Turkish at-tached to nouns, pronouns, nominal phrases, verbs, and verb frames signalling change in such grammatical functions as tense, voice, mood, person, number, etc.

The inflectional morphemes that are attached to nouns, pronouns, and nominal phrases are the following: [İ] allomorphs: ♫ [i, ı, ü, u] 1.These allomorphs are attached to pronouns, common nouns, proper nouns, and nominal phrases when they are used as definite objects: O ben-i gör-dü. O sen-i gör-dü. O o-/n/u gör-dü. O biz-i gör-dü. def obj def obj def obj def obj O siz-i gör-dü. O o/n/-lar-ı gör-dü. def obj def obj

In English: He saw me. He saw you. He saw him. He saw us. He saw them. obj obj obj obj obj


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Note: The single underlined consonants at the ends of the pronouns "ben-i", "sen-i", "biz-i", "siz-i", "o/n/-lar-ı" detach from their syllables and attach to the first vowels of the following morphemes in speech, such as (be*ni), (se*ni), (bi*zi), (si*zi), (on*la*rı). The /n/ consonant in (o*/n/u) is a glide produced by the oral system of the Turkish language to maintain the harmonic balance between the “o-u” vowels. They do not carry meaning. The proper nouns in Turkish, contrary to English, have to be attached by one of the "i, ı, ü, u" allomorphs in accordance with the Turkish vowel har-mony rules when they are used as objects: Ahmet Ayşe-/y/i gör-dü. Fatma Hasan-ı bul-du. Öğretmen Ahmet-i yakala-dı. def object def object def object In English: Ahmet saw Ayşe. Fatma found Hasan. The teacher caught Ahmet. def object def object def obj Note: The /y/ meaningless glide, which is a product of the Turkish sound system, is inserted between two vowels to provide a harmonious linkage. As a general rule, when a definite noun, pronoun, or a nominal phrase is used in the object position in a sentence, one of the [i, ı, ü, u] allomorphs is compulsorily attached to them. If the common nouns are not definite, they may be preceded by some indefinite modifiers as the ones in English: Ahmet Hasan-ı gördü. Ahmet ben-i gördü. Ahmet tavşan-ı gördü. definite obj definite obj definite obj Ahmet saw Hasan. Ahmet saw me. Ahmet saw the rabbit. definite obj definite obj definite obj Ahmet (bir) araba aldı. Ahmet kitap okuyor. Ahmet is reading a book. indefinite obj indefinite obj indefinite obj Ahmet bought a car. Ahmet is reading a book. indefinite obj indefinite obj Ahmet kitap okumaz. Ahmet does not read books. any book any books indefinite obj indefinite obj

Inflectional plural morphemes that are attached to nouns: Turkish plural allomorphs are “ler, lar“. English plural allomorphs are “s, es”.

sepet-ler = basket-s, araba-lar = car-s, kız-lar = girl-s, kural-lar = rule-s, engel-ler = obstacle-s, resim-ler = picture-s, kitap-lar = book-s, kutu-lar = box-es, saat-ler = watch-es, kilise-ler = church-es, arzu-lar = wish-es, öpücük-ler = kiss-es. The plural allomorphs are not seperated in normal writing.


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Turkish possessor + noun allomorphs

Nouns that end in consonants: Allomorphs: [in, ın, ün, un] sepet-in, at-ın, göz-ün, tuz-un. (se*pe*tin), (a*tın), (gö*zün), (tu*zun) In the words above, the single underlined consonants detach from their nouns, and attach to the [in, ın, ün, un] allomorphs when they are turned into syllables in speech: Nouns that end in vowels: Allomorphs: [/n/in, /n/ın, /n/ün, /n/un] dere-/n/in, oda-/n/ın, ütü-/n/ün, ordu-/n/un. The /n/ consonants above are glides that are put between two vowels to maintain a harmonious link between these two vowels. They are produced by the Turkish sound system, and they are meaningless. When the words above are turned into syllable sequences, they become as follows: (de*re*nin), (o*da*nın), (ü*tü*nün), (or*du*nun) Turkish possessor pronouns: Turkish possessor pronouns are quite different from English possessor pronouns. Turkish possessor pronouns are rule governed, whereas Eng-lish possessor pronouns are irregular. For instance: ben-im = my, sen-in = your, o-/n/un = his, her, its, biz-im = our, siz-in = your, onlar-ın = their In Turkish, possessor pronouns start with personal pronouns, such as “ben”, “sen”, “o”, “biz”, “siz”, “onlar”, and they are attached by possessor allomorphs, such as “im”, “in”, “/n/un”, “im”, “in”, “ın”, respectively. The single underlined consonants above detach from their pronouns, and attach to the possessor allomorphs. When these possessor pronouns are changed into syllable sequences, they become as follows: (be*nim), (se*nin), (o*nun), (bi*zim), (si*zin), (on*la*rın) Possessor pronouns are modifiers (adjectives) when they modify the fol-lowing nouns in English and Turkish. In English, a noun follows the pos-sessive pronoun, such as, “my book”, “your friend”, “her brother”, “his girl-friend”, “its tail”, “our teacher” and “their house”. These two words together produce noun phrases.


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Such Turkish nominal phrases are different from the English ones. In Turk-ish, the modified nouns must be suffixed by compulsory possessor allo-morphs, such as: ben-im okul-um = my school, sen-in gözler-in = your eyes, o-/n/un ev-i = his house, biz-im ev-imiz = our house, onlar-ın öğretmen-i = their teacher When these nominal phrases are turned into syllable sequences, they are uttered as follows: (be*nim / o*ku*lum), (se*nin / göz*le*rin), (o*nun / e*vi), (bi*zim / e*vi*miz), (on*la*rın / öğ*ret*me*ni) If you follow the underlined consonants and detach them from the pronouns, and attach them to the possessor allomorphs, you can produce the syllable sequences written between the parentheses above. As the possessor allomorphs attached to the pronouns and nouns have the same meanings, only the nouns having the same meanings can be used in sentences. Such as, instead of saying “ben-im okul-um” you can say only “okul-um” because “okul-um” means “ben-im okul-um”. Therefore: okul-um = my school, gözler-in = your eyes, ev-i = his or her house, ev-imiz = our house, evler-i = their houses, arkadaşlar-ımız = our friends. Subject allomorphs in Turkish sentences: Likewise, there may be two subjects in Turkish sentences. One of them may be in the beginning of a sentence as a subject pronoun, the other one must be attached to the main verb as a subject allomorph. The meanings of these subjects are the same. If a speaker or writer wants to emphasize the subject of a sentence, he may use a subject pronoun in the beginning of a sentence as well as a compulsory subject allomorph attached to the main verb at the end of the same sentence. In short, using subject allo-morphs are compulsory, but using subject pronouns are optional. Consider the following example sentences: Ben dün futbol oyna-dı-ım. = I played football yesterday. (“Ben” is a subject pronoun; “ım” is a subject allomorph.) In the sentence above, the “ı” vowel of “dı” and the “ı” vowel of “ım” are identical vowels. Therefore they combine and verbalize as a single vowel “ı”: (oy*na*dım) Dün futbol oyna-dı-ım. = I played football yesterday.


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As it is seen in the sentence above, although the subject pronoun “Ben” is not used, the English corresponding sentence is the same. Consider the fol-lowing sentences: Çalış-ıyor-um. = I am working. Çalış-ıyor-/s/un. = You are working. Çalış-ıyor. = He, she, it is working. Çalış-ıyor-uz. = We are working. Çalış-ıyor-lar. = They are working. In Turkish sentences, when a main verb is not suffixed by a compulsory subject allomorph, this shows us that the sentence is the third person singular. In English, sentences are divided into two main parts; subject and predicate. A subject is a nominal that a predicate gives information about. For instance: I am going to Ankara by bus tomorrow. In Turkish, there are two alternative sentences to express the English sen-tence above: Ben yarın otobüs-le Ankara-ya gidiyor-um. As you see there are two subjects in the sentence above; “ben” and “um”. “Ben” is a subject pronoun; “um” is a subject allomorph. Yarın otobüs-le Ankara-ya gidiyor-um.

However, in the sentence above, there is only the “um” subject allomorph, which means the pronoun “ben”. In Turkish, if someone wants to emphasize the pronoun “ben”, he may use it in the beginning of a sentence as well as the “um” subject allomorph in the end of the sentence attached to the main verb. If he does not want to emphasize the pronoun “ben”, he can only use the subject allomorph “um” in his sentence. In other words, using subject allomorphs in all Turkish sentences is compulsory, but using a subject pronoun is optional.

When we consider the rule above, we can say that the subject allomorphs are unavoidable parts of verbal phrases. One can build up a sentence only in one word in Turkish. Bekle-iyor-um (bek*li*yo*rum) is one word in Turkish, and its subject is in the end. However, “I am waiting” has three words in English. As a result, the subject of a sentence may be both in the beginning and in the end of a sentence, or one should use only a subject allomorph in the end of a sentence.


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There may be adverbs and adjectives in sentences. These words support sentences with optional information. As the aim of this article is to give infor-mation about verbal phrases, we generally ignore adjectives and adverbs in our sentences to concentrate on verbal phrases. The verbal phrases are the most complicated parts of Turkish sentences. Subject allomorphs used in Turkish sentences: Simple present tense subject allomorphs; positive: (Ben): [im, ım, üm, um] = I (Sen): [/s/in, /s/ın, /s/ün, /s/un] = you (O): [Ø] no subject allomorphs are used. (Biz): [iz, ız, üz, uz] = we (Siz): [/s/iniz, /s/ınız, /s/ünüz, /s/unuz] = you (Onlar): [Ø] or [ler, lar] = they gel-ir-im = I come, al-ır-ım = I buy, gör-ür-üm = I see, otur-ur-um = I sit When the underlined consonants detach from their verb roots and time allo-morphs, and attach to the allomorphs following them, their syllable sequen-ces become as follows: (ge*li*rim), (a*lı*rım) (gö*rü*rim) (o*tu*ru*rum) gel-ir-/s/in = you come, al-ır-/s/ın = you buy, gör-ür-/s/ün=you see, oku-ur-/s/un = you read. When you follow the underlined syllables, you can produce the following syllable sequences: (ge*lir*sin) (a*lır*sın) (gö*rür*sün) (o*kur*sun) gel-ir = he comes, al-ır = he buys, gör-ür = he sees, oku-ur = he reads When you follow the underlined consonants, you can produce the following syllable sequences: (ge*lir) (a*lır) (gö*rür) (o*kur) gel-ir-iz = we come, al-ır-ız = we buy, gör-ür-üz = we see, oku-ur-uz = we read. (ge*li*riz) (a*lı*rız) (gö*rü*rüz) (o*ku*ruz) gel-ir-/s/iniz = you come. al-ır-/s/ınız = you buy, gör-ür-/s/ünüz = you see, aç-ar-/s/ınız = you open (ge*lir*si*niz) (a*lır*sı*nız) (gö*rür*sü*nüz) (a*çar*sı*nız)


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gel-ir-ler = they come, al-ır-lar = they buy, gör-ür-ler = they see, aç-ar-lar = they open. Negative: (Ben and biz take “me” or “ma”; the others take “mez” or “maz”.) (Ben) [me-em, ma-am ], (Sen) [mez-/s/in, maz-/s/ın], (O) [mez, maz], (Biz) [me-/y/iz, ma-/y/ız], (Siz) [mez-/s/iniz, maz-/s/ınız], (Onlar) [mez-ler, maz-lar] gel-me-em, oku-ma-am, yüz-me-em, al-ma-am, sat-ma-am (gel*mem) (o*ku*mam) (yüz*mem) (al*mam) (sat*mam) gel-mez-/s/in, oku-maz-/s/ın, yüz-mez-/s/in, al-maz-/s/ın, sat-maz-/s/ın (gel*mez*sin) (o*ku*maz*sın) (yüz*mez*sin) (al*maz*sın) (sat*maz*sın) gel-mez, oku-maz, yüz-mez, al-maz, sat-maz, gör-mez, uyu-maz (gel*mez) (o*ku*maz) (yüz*mez) (al*maz) (sat*maz) (gör*mez) (u*yu*maz) gel-me-/y/iz, oku-ma-/y/ız, yüz-me-/y/iz, sat-ma-/y/ız, gör-me-/y/iz, anla-ma-/y/ız (gel*me*yiz) (o*ku*ma*yız) (yüz*me*yiz) (sat*ma*yız) (gör*me*yiz) gel-mez-/s/iniz, oku-maz-/s/ınız, yüz-mez-/s/iniz, sat-maz-/s/ınız, al-maz-/s/ınız (gel*mez*si*niz) (o*ku*maz*sı*nız) (yüz*mez*si*niz) (sat*maz*sı*nız) gel-mez-ler, oku-maz-lar, yüz-mez-ler, kaç-maz-lar, dokun-maz-lar (gel*mez*ler) (o*ku*maz*lar) (yüz*mez*ler) (kaç*maz*lar) (do*kun*maz*lar) In the examples above, the underlined identical vowels combine and be-come single vowels, such as “e-e” = “e”, “a-a” = “a”, and the underlined con-sonants detach from their allomorphs and attach to the following allomorphs. So, they produce the syllable sequences between parentheses under the examples. Turkish slides are “s, ş, n, y” showed between slash “/ /” lines. Positive question: (The /y/ phonemes are glides that help harmonic ba-lances between vowels. (Ben) [mi-/y/im, mı-/y/ım, mü-/y/üm, mu-/y/um] (Sen) [mi-/s/in, mı-/s/ın, mü-/s/ün, mu-/s/un] (O) [mi, mı, mü, mu] (Biz) [mi-/y/iz, mı-/y/ız, mü-/y/üz, mu-/y/uz] (Siz) [mi-/s/iniz, mı-/s/ınız, mü-/s/ünüz, mu-/s/unuz] (Onlar) [ler mi, lar mı] In the examples above, the underlined consonants detach from their places and attach to the following vowels as in the other examples. The green [mi, mı, mü, mu] allomorphs are question allomorphs that are used in all interro-gative sentences whose answers are “yes” or “no” in Turkish. There are no


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question affixes or words in English to take the place of the Turkish question allomorphs. In English, a positive or a negative sentence transforms into a question form, such as “You like pop music” → “Do you like pop music? Gel-ir mi-/y/im? = Do I come? Al-ır mı-/y/ım? = Do I buy? Öksür-ür mü-/y/üm? = Do I cough? Uyu-ur mu-/y/um? = Do I sleep? Gel-ir mi-/s/in? Al-ır mı-/s/ın? Öksür-ür mü-/s/ün? Uyu-ur mu-/s/un? Gel-ir mi? Al-ır mı? Öksür-ür mü? Uyu-ur mu? Gel-ir mi-/y/iz? Al-ır mı-/y/ız? Öksür-ür mü-/y/üz? Uyu-ur mu-/y/uz? Gel-ir mi-/s/iniz? Al-ır mı-/s/ınız? Öksür-ür mü-/s/ünüz? Uyu-ur mu-/s/unuz? Gel-ir-ler mi? Al-ır-lar mı? Öksür-ür-ler mi? Uyu-ur-lar mı? When you read the syllables in Turkish between the parentheses below, you may feel as if an unknown symphony composer composed the Turkish sound system. The syllables written in bold face letters below are the stressed syllables. (ge*lir / mi*yim) (a*lır / mı*yım) (ök*sür*ür / mü*yüm) (u*yur / mu*yum) The /y/ glides are put between i-i, ı-ı, ü-ü and u-u vowels to produce a har-monic link between the vowels. Negative question: In the following examples the negative allomorphs are red, the question allo-morphs are green, and the subject allomorphs are blue: (Ben) [mez mi-/y/im, maz mı-/y/ım] (Sen) [mez mi-/s/in, maz mı-/s/ın] (O) [mez mi, maz mı] (Biz) [mez mi-/y/iz, maz mı-/y/ız] (Siz) [mez mi-/s/iniz, maz mı-/s/ınız] (Onlar) [mez-ler mi, maz-lar mı] Gel-mez mi-/y/im? (Don’t I come?), Al-maz mı-/s/ın? (Don’t you buy?), Bekle-mez mi? (Doesn’t he wait?), Anla-maz mı-/y/ız? (Don’t we under-stand?) (Sor-maz mı-/s/ınız?), Don’t you ask? Uyu-maz-lar mı? (Don’t they sleep?) Present continuous time and subject allomorphs; The time morpheme attached to main? verbs in Turkish is [İYOR] mor-pheme, which has four allomorphs: [iyor, ıyor, üyor, uyor]. The subject allomorphs attached to them are as follows:


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(Ben) [um], (Sen) [/s/un], (O) [Ø], (Biz) [uz], (Siz) [/s/unuz], (Onlar) [Ø, or lar] Present continuous positive: Gel-iyor-um. (I am coming), Gül-üyor-/s/un. (You are laughing), Ağla-

ıyor. (She is crying), Bekle-iyor-uz, (We are waiting), Anla-ıyor-/s/unuz. (You understand), Bekle-iyor-lar. (They are waiting). In the Turkish sentences above, the single underlined consonants detach from their verb roots and attach the following vowels as usual; but there are some double underlined vowels at the ends of verbs that are dropped by the Turkish sound system. As a rule, all the double underlined vowels at the ends of verbs drop these vowels when they are attached to [IYOR] allo-morphs. (ge*li*yo*rum) (gü*lü*yor*sun) but (ağ*lı*yor) (bek*li*yo*ruz) (an*lı*yor*su*nuz)

Present continuous negative: The negative allomorphs used in this tense are [me and ma], which are at-tached to main verbs first, then the time allomorphs and subject allo-morphs follow them. Gel-me-iyor-um. (I am not coming), Anla-ma-ıyor-/s/un. (You don’t understand), Uyu-ma-uyor. (He isn’t sleeping), Bil-me-iyor-uz. (We don’t know), Çalış-ma-ıyor-/s/unuz. (You aren’t working), Bekle-me-iyor-lar. (They aren’t waiting). The double underlined “e” and “a” vowels of the negative allomorphs drop, and the single underlined consonants preceding the dropped vowels detach and attach to the “i, ı, ü, u” vowels following them. When the sentences above turn into syllable sequences they become as follows: (gel*mi*yo*rum), (an*la*mı*yor*sun), (u*yu*mu*yor), (bil*mi*yo*ruz) (ça*lış*-mı*yor*su*nuz), (bek*le*mi*yor*lar) Present continuous positive question: Ben-i sev-iyor mu-/s/un? (Do you love me?), Türkçe bil-iyor mu-/s/un? (Do you know Turkish?), Uyu-uyor mu? (Is he sleeping?), Git-iyor mu-/y/uz? (Are we going?), Bekle-iyor mu-/s/unuz? (Are you waiting?), Gel-iyor-lar mı? (Are they coming?) (be*ni / se*vi*yor / mu*sun) (türk*çe / bi*li*yor / mu*sun) (u*yu*yor / mu) (gi*di*yor / mu*yuz), (bek*li*yor / mu*su*nuz) (ge*li*yor*lar / mı)


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Present continuous negative question: Ben-i sev-me-iyor mu-/s/un? (Don’t you love me?), Türkçe bil-me-iyor mu-/s/un? (Don’t you know Turkish?), Uyu-ma-uyor mu? (Isn’t she sleeping?) Git-me-iyor mu-yuz? (Aren’t we going?), Bekle-me-iyor mu-/s/unuz? (Aren’t you waiting?) Gel-me-iyor-lar mı? (Aren’t they coming?) (be*ni / sev*mi*yor / mu*sun), (türk*çe / bil*mi*yor / mu*sun), (u*yu*mu*yor / mu) (git*mi*yor / mu*yuz), (bek*le*mi*yor / mu*su*nuz), (gel*mi*yor*lar / mı)

Simple past tense subject allomorphs positive:

Simple past tense time allomorphs are as follows:

In simple past tense, the time allomorphs [di, dı, dü, du, ti, tı, tü, tu] are used with all persons. The subject allomorphs are as follows: (Ben) – [im, ım, üm, um] (Sen) – [in, ın, ün, un] (O) – Ø (Biz) – [ik, ık, ük, uk] (Siz) -- [iniz, ınız, ünüz, unuz] (Onlar) [ler or lar] Bekle-di-im. (I waited), Anla-dı-ım. (I understood), Gör-dü-üm. (I saw), Oku-du-um. (I read) Bekle-di-in. (You waited), Anla-dı-ın. (You understood), Gör-dü-ün. (You saw), Oku-du-un. (You read) Bekle-di. (He waited), Anla-dı. (He understood), Gör-dü. (He saw), Oku-du. (He read) Bekle-di-ik. (We waited), Anla-dı-ık. (We understood), Gör-dü-ük. (We saw), Oku-du-uk. (We read) Bekle-di-iniz (You waited), Anla-dı-ınız. (You understood), Gör-dü-ünüz. (You saw), Oku-du-unuz. (You read) Bekle-di-ler. (They waited), Anla-dı-lar. (They understood), Gör-dü-ler. (They saw), Oku-du-lar. (They read) All the identical vowels above that are single underlined combine and be-come single vowels. In the sentences “bekle-di-iniz”, “anla-dı-ınız”, and the like, the “i-i” and “ı-ı” identical vowels combine. So, their syllable oral sequences become as follows:


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(bek*le*dim) (an*la*dım) (gör*düm) (o*ku*dum) (bek*le*din) (an*la*dın) (gör*dün) (o*ku*dun) (bek*le*di) (an*la*dı) (gör*dü) (o*ku*du) (bek*le*dik) (an*la*dık) (gör*dük) (o*ku*duk) (bek*le*di*niz) (an*la*dı*nız) (gör*dü*nüz) (o*ku*du*nuz) (bek*le*di*ler) (an*la*dı*lar) (gör*dü*ler) (o*ku*du*lar)

Simple past tense negative:

The negative allomorphs [me, ma] attach to the main verbs, and the others follow them as in the positive form:

Bekle-me-di-im. (I didn’t wait), Anla-ma-dı-ım. (I didn’t understand), Gör-me-di-im. (I didn’t see), Oku-ma-dı-ım. (I didn’t read)

Bekle-me-di-in. (You didn’t wait), Anla-ma-dı-ın. (You didn’t under-stand), Gör-me-di-in. (You didn’t see), Oku-ma-dı-ın. (You didn’t read)

Bekle-me-di. (He didn’t wait), Anla-ma-dı. (He didn’t understand), Gör-me-di. (He didn’t see), Oku-ma-dı. (He didn’t read)

Bekle-me-di-ik. (We didn’t wait), Anla-ma-dı-ık. (We didn’t understand), Gör-me-di-ik. (We didn’t see), Oku-ma-dı-ık. (We didn’t read)

Bekle-me-di-iniz. (You didn’t wait), Anla-ma-dı-ınız. (You didn’t under-stand), Gör-me-di-iniz. (You didn’t see), Oku-ma-dı-ınız. (You didn’t read)

Bekle-me-di-ler. (They didn’t wait), Anla-ma-dı-lar. (They didn’t understand) Gör-me-di-ler. (They didn’t see), Oku-ma-dı-lar. (They didn’t read) All the identical vowels in the “di-im”, “dı-ım”, “di-in”, “dı-ın”, “di-ik”, “dı-ık”, “di-iniz”, “dı-ınız” allomorphs combine. The “iniz” and “ınız” subject allomorphs, which mean “you”, are shaped by two different allomorphs: the “in”, which means “you” and “iz”, which adds a plural concept to “in”. The oral sequences of the sentences above are as follows: (bek*le*me*dim) (an*la*ma*dım) (gör*me*dim) (o*ku*ma*dım) (bek*le*me*din) (an*la*ma*dın) (gör*me*din) (o*ku*ma*dın) (bek*le*me*di) (an*la*ma*dı) (gör*me*di) (o*ku*ma*dı) (bek*le*me*dik) (an*la*ma*dık) (gör*me*dik) (o*ku*ma*dık)


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(bek*le*me*di*niz), (an*la*ma*dı*nız) ( gör*me*di*niz) (o*ku*ma*dı*nız) (bek*le*me*di*ler) (an*la*ma*dı*lar) (gör*me*di*ler) (o*ku*ma*dı*kar) Simple past tense positive question: Bekle-di-im mi? (Did I wait?), Anla-dı-ım mı? (Did I understand?), Gör-dü-üm mü? (Did I see?) Oku-du-um mu? (Did I read?) Bekle-di-in mi? (Did you wait?), Anla-dı-ın mı? (Did you understand?), Gör-dü-ün mü? (Did you see?), Oku-du-un mu? (Did you read?) Bekle-di mi? (Did he wait?) Anla-dı mı? (Did he understand?), Gör-dü mü? (Did he see?), Oku-du mu? (Did he read?) Bekle-di-ik mi? (Did we wait?), Anla-dı-ık mı? (Did we understand?), Gör-dü-ük mü? (Did we see?), Oku-du-uk mu? (Did we read?) Bekle-di-iniz mi? (Did you wait?), Anla-dı-ınız mı? (Did you under-stand?), Gör-dü-ünüz mü? (Did you see), Oku-du-unuz mu? (Did you read?) Bekle-di-ler mi? (Did they wait?), Anla-dı-lar mı? (Did they understand?), Gör-dü-ler mi? (Did they see?), Oku-du-lar mı? (Did they read?) If you follow the underlined letters, you can produce the following oral syl-lable sequences:

(bek*le*dim / mi) (an*la*dım / mı) (gör*düm / mü) (o*ku*dum / mu)

(bek*le*din / mi) (an*la*dın / mı) (gör*dün / mü) (o*ku*dun / mu)

(bek*le*di / mi) (an*la*dı / mı) (gör*dü / mü) ( o*ku*du / mu)

(bek*le*dik / mi) (an*la*dık / mı) (gör*dük / mü) (o*ku*duk / mu)

(bek*le*di*niz / mi) (an*la*dı*nız / mı) ( gör*dü*nüz / mü) (o*ku*du*nuz / mu)

(bek*le*di*ler / mi) (an*la*dı*lar / mı) (gör*dü*ler / mi) (o*ku*du*lar / mı)

If you follow the syllable sequences above, you can see that the stressed syllables are the syllables before the “mi. mı, mü, mu” question allomorphs. Simple past tense negative question subject allomorphs: Bekle-me-di-im mi? (Didn’t I wait?), Anla-ma-dı-ım mı? (Didn’t I under-stand?), Gör-me-di-im mi? (Didn’t I see?), Oku-ma-dı-ım mı? (Didn’t I read?) Bekle-me-di-in mi? (Didn’t you wait?), Anla-ma-dı-ın mı? (Didn’t you understand?), Gör-me-di-in mi? (Didn’t you see?), Oku-ma-dı-ın mı? (Didn’t you read?)


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Bekle-me-di mi? (Didn’t he wait?), Anla-ma-dı mı? (Didn’t he under-stand?), Gör-me-di mi? (Didn’t he see?), Oku-ma-dı mı? (Didn’t he read?) Bekle-me-di-ik mi? (Didn’t we wait?), Anla-ma-dı-ık mı? (Didn’t we understand?), Gör-me-di-ik mi? (Didn’t we see?), Oku-ma-dı-ık mı? (Didn’t we read?) Bekle-me-di-iniz mi? (Didn’t you wait?), Anla-ma-dı-ınız mı? (Didn’t you understand?), Gö-me-di-iniz mi? (Didn’t you see?), Oku-ma-dı-ınız mı? (Didn’t you read? Bekle-me-di-ler mi? (Didn’t they wait?), Anla-ma-dı-lar mı? (Didn’t they understand?), Gör-me-di-ler mi? (Didn’t they see?), Oku-ma-dı-lar mı? (Didn’t they read?) If you follow the single underlines under the identical vowels you can pro-duce the following oral syllable sequences below: (bek*le*me*dim / mi) (an*la*ma*dım / mı) (gör*me*dim / mi) (o*ku*ma*dım / mı) (bek*le*me*din / mi) (an*la*ma*dın / mı) (gör*me*din / mi) (o*ku*ma*dın / mı) (bek*le me*di / mi) (an*la*ma*dı / mı) (gör*me*di / mi) (o*ku*ma*dı / mı) (bek*le*me*dik / mi) (an*la*ma*dık / mı) (gör*me*dik / mi) (o*ku*ma*dık / mı) (bek*le*me*di*niz / mi) (an*la*ma*dı*nız / mı) (gör*me*di*niz / mi) (o*ku*ma*dı*nız / mı)

If you notice, you can see that all the stressed syllables come before the “me, ma” negative allomorphs. Past continuous tense positive and their allomorphs: In this tense, main verbs are followed by one of the “iyor, ıyor, üyor, uyor” continuity allomorphs as in the present continuous tense followed by a sim-ple past tense “du” allomorph, and the verb phrase ends in a subject allo-morph (Ben) “um”, (Sen) “un”, (O) “Ø”, (Biz) “uk”, (Siz) “unuz”, (Onlar) “lar-di”. The other allomorphs are not used in this tense because of the “İYOR” morpheme, whose “yor” second syllable never changes. Follow the examples: Gel-iyor-du-um. (I was coming), Gel-iyor-du-un. (You were coning). Gel-iyor-du (He was coming), Gel-iyor-du-uk. (We were coming), Gel-iyor-du-unuz. (You were coming), Gel-iyor-lar-dı. (They were coming) The single underlined consonants detach from their syllables and attach to the vowels following them, and the identical vowels combine and become single vowels as in all sentences. You can formulate the syllable sequen-


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ces yourselves. Therefore, the syllable sequences will not be given from this point on. Follow the examples below: Çalış-ıyor-du-um. (I was working), Yürü-üyor-du-un. (You were walking), Gül-üyor-du. (She was laughing), Bekle-iyor-du-uk. (We were waiting), Sor-uyor-du-unuz. (You were asking), Oyna-uyor-lar-dı. (They were playing) Past continuous negative: Uyu-ma-uyor-du-um. (I wasn’t sleeping) İste-me-iyor-du-un. (You didn’t want), Bak-ma-ıyor-du. (She wasn’t looking), İste-me-iyor-du-uk. (We didn’t want), Anla-ma-ıyor-du-unuz. (You didn’t understand), Bekle-me-iyor-lar-dı. (They weren’t waiting) As you see in some verbs above, simple past tense is used in English instead of past continuous tense of the Turkish verbs. Past continuous positive question: Çalış-ıyor mu/y/-du-um? (Was I working?), Bekle-iyor mu/y/-du-un? (Were you waiting?), Dinle-iyor muy-du? (Was he listening?), Koş-uyor muy-du-uk? (Were we running?), Uyu-uyor mu/y/-du-unuz? (Were you sleeping?), Gül-üyor mu/y/-du-lar? (Were they laughing?) In the sentences above, the last phonemes of the “mu/y/” morphemes are glides. The double underlined black vowels drop, and the single underlined consonants before them detach and attach to the [İYOR] allomorphs. The syllable sequences are as follows: (ça*lı*şı*yor / muy*dum) (bek*li*yor / muy*dun) (din*li*yor / muy*du) (ko*şu*yor / muy*duk) (u*yu*yor / muy*du*nuz) (gü*lü*yor / muy*du*lar) Although people pronounce and hear the syllable sequences, they under-stand the morphemes and allomorphs given in the example sentences above because there are morphemes and allomorphs in our memory under-lying in the syllable sequences. Past continuous negative question: Çalış-ma-uyor muy-du-um? (Wasn’t I working?), Bekle-me-iyor muy-du-un? (Weren’t you waiting?), Dinle-me-iyor muy-du? (Wasn’t she listening?), Koş-ma-uyor muy-du-uk? (Weren’t we running?), Uyu-ma-uyor muy-du-unuz? (Weren’t you sleeping?) Gül-me-üyor-lar mıy-dı? (Weren’t they laughing?) If you follow the single underlined, double underlined and identical letters, you can find the following syllable sequences:


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(ça*lış*mı*yor / muy*dum) (bek*le*mi*yor / muy*dun) (din*le*mi*yor / muy*-du) (koş*mu*yor / muy*duk) (u*yu*mu*yor / muy*du*nuz) (gül*mü*yor*lar / mıy*dı) As it is seen, if the main verbs are multisyllabic, the stressed syllable is the last syllable of the main verb. But if the main verbs are monosyllabic, they are naturally the last syllables, so they are stressed. Simple future tense positive: The simple future concept allomorphs of this tense are “ecek” and “acak” allomorphs. These time allomorphs are followed by the subject allomorphs as usual; (Ben) “im, ım”, (Sen) “/s/in, /s/ın”, (O) “Ø”, (Biz) “iz, ız”, (Siz) “/s/iniz, /s/ınız”, (Onlar) “ler, lar”: Gel-ecek-im. (ge*le*ce*ğim) (I will come), Gör-ecek-/s/in. (gö*re*cek*sin) (You will see), Sakla-/y/acak-/s/ın. (sak*la*ya*cak*sın) (You will hide), Bul-acak. (bu*la*cak) (He will find), Sor-acak-ız. (so*ra*ca*ğız) (We will ask), Gör-ecek-/s/iniz. (gö*re*cek*si*niz) (You will see), Anla-/y/acak-lar. (an*la*-ya*cak*lar) (They will understand) In the sentences above, the single underlined syllables detach from their verb roots and attach to the following vowels, but the /gle underlined “k” phonemes both detach from their allomorphs and change into the “ğ” pho-nemes when they attach to the subject allomorphs. Simple future tense negative: The negative allomorphs are “me” and “ma” as usual: Git-me-/y/ecek-im. (git*me*ye*ce*ğim) (I will not go), Sor-ma-/y/acak-/s/ın. (sor*ma*ya*cak*sın) (You will not ask), Cevap ver-me-/y/ecek. (ce*vap / ver*me*ye*cek) (She will not answer), Gör-me-/y/ecek-iz. (gör*me*ye*ce*-ğiz) (We will not see), Anla-ma-/y/acak-/s/ınız. (an*la*ma*ya*cak*sı*nız) (You will not understand), Unut-ma-/y/acak-lar. (u*nut*ma*ya*cak*lar) (They will not forget) Simple future positive question: The question allomorphs of the simple future are “mi”, “mı”, “mü”, and “mu”. The other allomorphs are the same: Gel-ecek mi-/y/im? (ge*le*cek / mi*yim) (Will I come?), Otur-acak mı-/s/ın? (o*tu*ra*cak / mı*sın) (Will you sit?), Öğren-ecek mi? (öğ*re*ne*cek / mi) (Will she learn?), Sor-acak mı-/y/ız? (so*ra*cak / mı*yız) (Will we ask?), Başla-/y/acak mı-sınız? (baş*la*ya*cak / mı*sı*nız) (Will you start?), Dur-acak-lar mı? (du*ra*cak*lar / mı?) (Will they stop?)


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The /y/ semivowels are glides, which help the sound pass harmoniously from one vowel to the other. Simple future negative question: Git-me-/y/ecek mi-/y/im? (git*me*ye*cek / mi*yim) (Will I not go?), Gel-me-/y/ecek mi-/s/in? (gel*me*ye*cek / mi*sin) (Won’t you come?), Bekle-me-/y/ecek mi? (bek*le*me*ye*cek / mi) (Won’t he wait?), Dinle-me-/y/ecek mi-/y/iz? (din*le*me*ye*cek / mi*yiz) (Won’t we listen?), Gel-me-/y/ecek mi-/s/iniz? (gel*me*ye*cek / mi*si*niz), (Won’t you come?). Kaç-ma-/y/acak-lar mı? (kaç*ma*ya*cak*-lar / mı) (Won’t they escape?) Future continuous positive: In this tense, the English main verb “be” is a linking verb followed by a pre-sent participle. This present participle “verb-ing” functions as an adjective in this sentence, such as in “singing birds”. The information that the words may give may be nouns or adjectives. Similarly, in the Turkish corresponding sentence “Çalış-ıyor ol-acak-ım” (ça*lı*şı*yor / o*la*ca*ğım), “çalışıyor” is an adjective as in “mutlu ol-acak-ım”: Çalış-ıyor ol-acak-ım. (ça*lı*şı*yor / o*la*ca*ğım) (I will be working); uyu-uyor ol-acak-sın. (u*yu*yor / o*la*cak*sın) (You will be sleeping); Bekle-iyor ol-acak. (bek*li*yor / o*la*cak) (She will be waiting); Yürü-üyor ol-acak-ız. (yü*rü*yor / o*la*ca*ğız) (We will be walking); Gel-iyor ol-acak-sınız. (ge*li*yor / o*la*cak*sı*nız) (You will be coming); Düşün-üyor ol-acak-lar. (dü*şü*nü*yor / o*la*cak*lar) (They will be thinking). Future continuous negative: Bekle-iyor ol-ma-/y/acak-ım. (bek*li*yor / ol*ma*ya*ca*ğım) (I won’t be waiting); Uyu-uyor ol-ma-/y/acak-/s/ın. (u*yu*yor / ol*ma*ya*cak*sın) (You won’t be sleeping); Çalış-ıyor ol-ma-/y/acak. (ça*lı*şı*yor / ol*ma*ya*cak) (He won’t be working); Başla-ıyor ol-ma-/y/acak-ız. (baş*lı*yor / ol*ma*ya*-ca*ğız) (We won’t be starting); Düşün-üyor ol-ma-/y/acak-/s/ınız. (dü*şü*-nü*yor / ol*ma*ya*cak*sı*nız) (You won’t be thinking): Yüz-üyor ol-ma-/y/acak-lar. (yü*zü*yor / ol*ma*ya*cak*lar) (They won’t be swimming) Future continuous positive question: Bekle-iyor ol-acak mı-/y/ım? (bek*li*yor / o*la*cak / mı*yım) (Will I be wait-ing?) Çalış-ıyor ol-acak mı-/s/ın? (ça*lı*şı*yor / o*la*cak / mı*sın) (Will you be working?); Otur-uyor ol-acak mı? (o*tu*ru*yor / o*la*cak / mı) (Will she be sitting?); Yüksel-iyor ol-acak mı-/y/ız? (yük*se*li*yor / o*la*cak / mı*yız)


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(Will we be rising?); Dinle-iyor ol-acak mı-/s/ınız? (din*li*yor / o*la*-cak / mı*sı*nız) (Will you be listening?); Öğren-iyor ol-acak-lar mı? (öğ*re*ni*yor / o*la*cak*lar / mı) (Will they be learning?) Future continuous negative question: Çalış-ıyor ol-ma-/y/acak mı-/y/ım? (ça*lı*şı*yor / ol*ma*ya*cak / mı*yım) (Won’t I be working?); Üşü-üyor ol-ma-/y/acak mı-/s/ın? (ü*şü*yor / ol*ma*-ya*cak / mı*sın?) (Won’t you be feeling cold?); Ev-i temizle-iyor ol-ma-/y/acak mı? (e*vi / te*miz*li*yor / ol*ma*ya*cak / mı) (Won’t she be cleaning the house?); Futbol oyna-uyor ol-ma-/y/acak mı-/y/ız? (fut*bol / oy*nu*yor / ol*ma*ya*cak / mı*yız) (Won’t we be playing football?); Kaç-ıyor ol-ma-/y/acak-lar mı? (ka*çı*yor / ol*ma*ya*cak*lar / mı) (Won’t they be escap-ing?) Turkish simple past; English simple past or present perfect tenses: Both simple past and present perfect tenses of the English language are expressed in simple past tense in Turkish. For instance: I have done my work. = Görev-im-i yap-tı-ım. (gö*re*vi*mi / yap*tım) I did my work yesterday. = Dün görev-im-i yap-tı-ım. (dün / gö*re*vi*mi / yap*tım) As you see, both the English present perfect and simple past tenses are expressed in Turkish in simple past tense. Past perfect tense positive: In past perfect tenses, there are two kinds of time allomorphs following the main verbs attached to each other. The past perfect time allomorphs are [miş, mış, müş, muş], and the simple past time allomorphs are [ti, tı, tü, tu]. The subject allomorphs that are attached to them are: (Ben) [im, ım, üm, um], (Sen) [in, ın, ün, un], (O) [Ø], (Biz) [ik, ık, ük, uk], (Siz) [iniz, ınız, ünüz, unuz], and (Onlar) are [ler, lar]: Görev-im-i yap-mış-tı-ım. (gö*re*vi*mi / yap*mış*tım) (I had done my work); Ev-den çık-mış-tı-ın. (ev*den / çık*mış*tın) (You had left home); Bana gül-ümse-miş-ti. (ba*na / gü*lüm*se*miş*ti) (She had smiled at me); Ev-e gel-miş-ti-ik. (e*ve / gel*miş*tik) (We had come home); Biz-e söz ver-miş-ti-iniz. (bi*ze / söz / ver*miş*ti*niz) (You had promised us); Pasta-/y/ı ye-miş-ler-di. (pas*ta*yı / ye*miş*ler*di) (They had eaten the cake) Past perfect tense negative:


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Görev-im-i yap-ma-mış-tı-ım. (gö*re*vi*mi / yap*ma*mış*tım) (I hadn’t done my work); Ödev-in-i bitir-me-miş-ti-in. (ö*de*vi*ni / bi*tir*me*miş*tin) (You hadn’t finished your homework); Uçak in-me-miş-ti. (u*çak / in*me*miş*ti) (The plane hadn’t landed); Sen-i gör-me-miş-ti-ik. (se*ni / gör*me*miş*tik) (We hadn’t seen you); Biz-i anla-ma-mış-tı-ınız. (bi*zi / an*la*ma*mış*tı*nız) (You hadn’t understood us); Yanlışlar-ı düzelt-me-miş-ler-di. (yan*lış*la*rı / dü*zelt*me*miş*ler*di) (They hadn’t corrected the mistakes)

Past perfect tense positive question:

If someone uses a simple past tense positive question in Turkish in place of a past perfect tense positive question, he sounds authoritative and bossy; but if he uses a past perfect tense positive question, he sounds politer and hesitant:

A father asks his son: Görev-in-i yap-tı-ın mı? (gö*re*vi*ni / yap*tı*ın / mı) A polite person asks his boss: Görev-iniz-i bitir-miş mi/y/-di-iniz? (gö*re*vi*ni*zi / bi*tir*miş / miy*di*niz)

However, if someone says “Okul-a gel-me-den önce ev odev-in-i yap-mış mı/y/-dı-ın?”, “yap-mış mı/y/-dı-ın”, he expresses only a past perfect tense meaning that an action had been done before another action.

These two different concepts given above without adverb clauses are ex-pressed in English in simple past tenses. When they are used without ad-verbial clauses or phrases in sentences, they carry different concepts, but when they are used followed by adverbial clauses or phrases, they only ex-press an action had been done before another action. Therefore, we will give examples that are used together with adverbial clauses:

Bura-/y/a gel-me-den önce eller-in-i yıka-mış mı/y/-dı-ın? (bu*ra*ya / gel*me*den / ön*ce / el*le*ri*ni / yı*ka*mış / mıy*dın) (Had you washed your hands before you came here?)

Oku-ma-dan önce teklif-i kabul et-miş-ler mi/y/-di? (o*ku*ma*dan / ön*ce / tek*li*fi / ka*bul / et*miş*ler / miy*di) (Had they accepted the proposal before they read it?)

Tiyatro-/y/a git-me-den önce piyes-i oku-muş mu/y/-du-unuz? (ti*yat*ro*ya / git*me*den / ön*ce / pi*ye*si / o*ku*muş / muy*du*nuz) (Had you read the play before you went to the theatre?)

Past perfect tense negative question:


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Sana söyle-me-miş mi/y/-di-im? (sa*na / söy*le*me*miş / miy*dim) (Hadn’t I told you?); Soru-/y/u anla-ma-mış mı/y/-dı-ın? (so*ru*yu / an*la*ma*mış / mıy*dın) (Hadn’t you understood the question?); Teklif-i kabul et-me-miş mi/y/-di? (tek*li*fi / ka*bul / et*me*miş / miy*di) (Hadn’t he accepted the pro-posal?); Onlar-ı bilgilendir-me-miş mi/y/di-ik? (on*la*rı / bil*gi*len*dir*me*miş / miy*dik) (Hadn’t we informed them?) İş-iniz-i bitir-me-miş mi/y/di-iniz? (i*şi*ni*zi / bi*tir*me*miş / miy*di*niz) (Hadn’t you finished your work?), Hatırla-ma-mış-lar mı/y/-dı? (ha*tır*la*ma*mış*lar / mıy*dı) (Hadn’t they remembered?

In the example sentences above, the speaker may be either complaining about something, or he may be asking whether an action had been done before another action in the past or both. Future perfect tense positive:

This tense expresses an action that will have been done before a certain time in future. Although the English and Turkish sentence structures are different from each other, they convey the same meaning. In the Turkish sentence structure a linking verb is used, but the English sentence structure uses an action verb. For instance:

Saat beş-te iş-im-i bitir-miş ol-acak-ım. (sa*at / beş*te / i*şi*mi / bi*tir*miş / o*la*ca*ğım) (I will have finished my work at 5) In the Turkish sentence above, a linking verb “ol” is used to link the adjective “bitir-miş” to the subject allomorph [ım]. However, in the corresponding English sentence, an action verb “finished” is used without any linking verbs: Saat beş-ten önce makale-em-i tamamla-mış ol-acak-ım. (sa*at / beş*ten / ön*ce / ma*ka*le*mi / ta*mam*la*mış / o*la*ca*ğım) I will have completed my article by five. Ev-iniz-den ayrıl-ma-dan önce paket-iniz-i al-mış ol-acak-/s/ınız. (e*vi*niz*den / ay*rıl*ma*dan / ön*ce / pa*ke*ti*ni*zi / al*mış / o*la*cak*sı*nız) You will have received your package by the time you leave home. Sen ev-e var-ma-dan önce uyu-muş ol-acak-lar. (sen / e*ve / var*ma*dan / ön*ce / u*yu*muş / o*la*cak*lar) They will have fallen asleep by the time you arrive home. Future perfect tense negative: Sen gel-dik-in zaman daha iş-im-i bitir-me-miş ol-acak-ım. (sen / gel*di*ğin / za*man / i*şi*mi / da*ha / bi*tir*me*miş / o*la*ca*ğım) I won’t have finished my work yet by the time you arrive. Future perfect tense positive question:


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Ben gel-dik-im-de iş-in-i bitir-miş ol-acak mı-/s/ın? (ben / gel*di*ğim*de / i*şi*ni / bi*tir*miş / o*la*cak / mı*sın) Will you have finished your work by the time I arrive?

PRESENT MODALS While English modals are made of auxiliary verbs, Turkish modals are made either of morphemes, or of words, or of both. They convey nearly the same concepts as they do in English. Therefore, instead of giving detailed boring explanations of the Turkish modals, we prefer giving English equivalents of them, which we think, might be more useful. Moreover, the English sentences given as the equivalents of the Turkish modals can be considered more satisfactory and precise than detailed English explanations of them, which may lead to misunderstanding. In the following sentences, the subjects and subject allomorphs are blue, the verbs are red, the adverbials are green, the objects are black, and the brown underlined words are subject complements.

(can) (may) ♫ [ebil, abil] The ♫ [ebil, abil] allomorphs convey ability, possibility or permission as “can” do in English. To form the Simple Present Tense concept of this modal morpheme, one of its allomorphs "[ebil] or [abil]" is attached to a main verb followed only by [ir] Simple Present Tense time allomorph. The other Simple Present Tense allomorphs are not used after [ebil] or [abil] allomorphs due to the vowel harmony rules. The time allomorphs are natu-rally followed by suitable personal suject allomorphs: Yemek piş-ir-ebil-ir-im. (Ability)

(ye*mek / pi*şi*re*bi*li*rim ↷) I can cook. Bilgisayar-ım-ı kullan-abil-ir-/s/in. (Permission)

(bil*gi*sa*ya*rı*mı / kul*la*na*bi*lir*sin ↷) You can (may) use my computer. Bazı soru-lar zor ol-abil-ir. (Possibility) (“Zor” is subject complement.)

(ba*zı / so*ru*lar / zor / o*la*bi*lir ↷) Some questions may be difficult. (“Difficult” is subject complement.) Siz-e yardım et-ebil-ir-iz. (Ability or possibility) (The /t/ changes into /d/.)

(si*ze / yar*dım / e*de*bi*li*riz ↷) We can help you. Dışarı-/y/a çık-abil-ir-/s/in. (Permission)

(dı*şa*rı / çı*ka*bi*lir*sin ↷) You can go out.


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To change the ♫ [ebil, abil] allomorphs into the negative concept, with the first person singular “ben” and its plural form “biz” [eme, ama] are used; and with the other subjects and in the interrogative forms [emez, amaz] allomorphs are used. They convey the concepts of inability, impossibility or prohibition:

Piyano çal-ama-am. (Inability) (pi*ya*no / ça*la*mam ↷). I can’t play the piano.

Bu küçük harfler-i gözlük-süz gör-eme-em. (Inability)

(bu / kü*çük / harf*le*ri / göz*lük*süz / gö*re*mem ↷). I can’t see these small letters without glasses.

Bekle-/y/eme-em. (Impossibility or inability)

(bek*le*ye*mem ↷) I can’t wait.

In the sentences above, the /y/ glide is put between the successive /e/ vow-els.

Bu leke sabun-la temizlen-emez. (Impossibility) (Passive)

(bu / le*ke / sa*bun*la / te*miz*le*ne*mez ↷) This stain can’t be cleaned with soap.

Bura-da bekle-/y/emez-/s/in. (Prohibition) (bur*da / bek*le*ye*mez*sin ↷) You can’t wait here.

Bakteriler çıplak göz-le görül-emez. (Impossibility) (Passive)

(bak*te*ri*ler / çıp*lak / göz*le / gö*rü*le*mez ↷) Germs can’t be seen with the naked eye.

Yarın sen-i gör-eme-em. (Impossibility)

(ya*rın / se*ni / gö*re*mem ↷) I can’t see you tomorrow.

Ev-de ol-amaz. (Impossibility) (“Ev-de” is subject complement.)

(ev*de / o*la*maz↷) He can’t be at home.

Çocuk-lar bahçe-de oyna-uyor ol-amaz. (Impossibility) (ço*cuk*lar / bah*çe*de / oy*nu*yor / o*la*maz ↷) The children can’t be playing in the garden.


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The same [ebil] modal concept can also be used with The Present Con-tinuous [İYOR] morpheme. In order to form this modal composition, [ebil] or [abil] allomorphs are attached to main verbs followed by the [İYOR] and the personal subject allomorphs: Kara tahta-/y/ı gör-ebil-iyor-um. Tahta-/y/ı gör-üyor-um. (Ability)

(ka*ra / tah*ta*yı / gö*re*bi*li*yo*rum ↷) I can see the blackboard.

The Simple Present Tense of this modal form does not express ability. If it is used, it expresses possibility:

Sen-i yarın gör-ebil-ir-im.

(se*ni / ya*rın / gö*re*bi*li*rim ↷) I can see you tomorrow. (Possibility)

Kenar-a çekil-ir-se-en karatahta-/y/ı gör-ebil-ir-im. (Possibility)

(ke*na*ra / çe*ki*lir*sen~ / ka*ra*tah*ta*yı / gö*re*bi*li*rim ↷) If you move aside, I can see the blackboard.

In the negative forms of The Present Continuous modal tenses, the [eme] or [ama] negative making allomorphs are used followed by the [iyor, ıyor] progressive allomorphs, and naturally suitable subject allomorphs are at-tached to them:

Sen-i anla-/y/ama-ıyor-um. (The double underlined vowels drop.)

(se*ni / an*la*ya*mı*yo*rum ↷) I can’t understand you.

The /y/ glide is placed between the successive /a/ vowels. (Inability) (“Seni anlayamam” is impossible here. It can be used in conditional sentences):

Daha yüksek ses-le konuş-maz-sa-an sen-i anla-/y/ama-am.

(da*ha / yük*sek / ses*le / ko*nuş*maz*san / se*ni / an*la*ya*mam ↷) I can't understand you unless you speak louder.

Sen-i işit-eme-iyor-um.

(se*ni / i*şi*te*mi*yo*rum ↷) I can’t hear you. (The double underlined /e/ drops as it is in “şimdi zaman”.) (Inability)

Bekle-/y/eme-iyor-um.

(bek*le*ye*mi*yo*rum ↷) I can’t wait. (Inability)


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Bekle-/y/me-em.

(bek*le*ye*mem ↷) I can’t wait. It is impossible for me to wait. (Impossibility)

Sen-i gör-eme-iyor-um. (Inability)

(se*ni / gö*re*mi*yo*rum ↷) I can’t see you.

Söyle-dik-ler-in anlaşıl-ma-ıyor. (Passive) (söy*le*dik*le*rin / an*la*şıl*mı*yor ↷) What you are saying isn't understood.

The [ebil, abil] modal allomorphs followed by the allomorphs of the mor-pheme [İYOR] are used attached to verbs in question forms, and finally “mu-/y/um?, mu-/s/un?, mu?, mu-/y/uz?, mu-/s/unuz?, lar mı?, etc” are separately added:

Gözlük-süz televizyon seyret-ebil-iyor mu-/s/unuz?

(göz*lük*süz / te*le*viz*yon / sey*re*de*bi*li↝ yor / mu*su*nuz ↷) Can you watch television without glasses? (The /t/ changes into /d/.) (Ability)

When the intention of request is involved, The Simple Present Tense allo-morphs of [İR] are used after [ebil or abil] allomorphs, and finally, “mi-/y/im?”, “mi-/s/in?”, “mi?”, “mi-/y/iz?”, “mi-/s/iniz?”, “ler mi?” question allomorphs are separately said or written.

Bana yardım et-ebil-ir mi-/s/iniz? (“Yardım et” = “help”) (Intransitive)

(ba*na / yar*dım / e*de*bi*lir ↝ / mi*si*niz ↷) Can you help me? (Request) (Transitive)

Siz-e yardım et-ebil-ir mi-/y/im?

(si*ze / yar*dım / e*de*bi*lir ↝ / mi*yim ↷) Can I help you? (Request)

Ben-i gör-mek için yarın büro-um-a gel-ebil-ir mi-/s/iniz)? (Request)

(be*ni / gör*mek / i*çin / ya*rın / bü*ro*ma / ge*le*bi*lir↝ / mi*si*niz ↷) Can (could) you come to my office to see me tomorrow?

The Turkish equivalents of “wh” question words of English can also be used with [ebil], [abil] allomorphs: Bu soru-/y/a kim cevap ver-ebil-ir? (“Cevap ver” = “answer”)

(bu / so*ru*ya / kim ↝/ ce*vap / ve*re*bi*lir ↝) Who can answer this question? (Ability)


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Nere-de öğle yemek-i ye-/y/ebil-ir-iz? (Possibility)

(ne↝*re*de / öğ*le / ye*me*ği / yi*ye*bi*li*riz↝) Where can we have lunch? (*"Nerede öğle yemeği yiyebiliyoruz?" is not possible in Turkish.) Nasıl başar-abil-ir-im?

(na ↝*sıl / ba*şa*ra*bi*li*rim↝) How can I succeed?

must = [meli, malı] This morpheme has two allomorphs; [meli] and [malı], which can be at-tached to verb roots, stems or frames followed by personal subject allo-morphs. When it is used with the verb "be”, it conveys the concepts of certainty or probability, but when it is used with action verbs like “go”, “write”, “do”, “help”, etc., it implies obligation imposed by the speaker: Sınavlar-da başarı-lı ol-mak için daha çok çalış-malı-/s/ın.

(sı*nav*lar*da / ba*şa*rı*lı / ol*mak / i*çin / çok / ça*lış*ma*lı*sın ↷) You must study harder to succeed in the examinations. (Strong advice or obligation imposed by the speaker) Anne-en-e ev işler-i/n/-de yardım et-meli-/s/in. (The verb is intransitive.)

(an*ne*ne / ev / iş*le*rin*de / yar*dım / et*me*li*sin ↷) You must help your mother with the housework. (The verb is transitive.) (Obligation imposed by the speaker or strong advice) Ev ödev-im-i bitir-mek için geç vakte kadar otur-malı-/y/ım. (Liaison)

(e*vö*de*vi*mi / bi*tir*mek / i*çin / geç / vak*te / ka*dar / o*tur*ma*lı*/y/ım↷) I must sit up late to finish my homework. (Internal obligation) Sürücüler trafik kurallar-ı-/n/a uy-malı-dır. (Obligation)

(sü*rü*cü*ler / tra*fik / ku*ral*la*rı*na / uy*ma*lı*dır ↷) Drivers must obey the traffic rules. Yorgun ol-malı-/s/ın. All subject complements are underlined brown.

(yor*gun / ol*ma*lı*sın ↷) You must be tired. (I am sure you are tired.) Sabah-leyin erken kalkıl-malı.

(sa*bah*le*yin / er*ken / kal*kıl*ma*lı ↷) It is necessary to get up early in the morning. (Passive shaped intransitive) Önem-li evrak-lar kasa-da saklan-malı.

(ö*nem*li / ev*rak*lar / ka*sa*da / sak*lan*ma*lı ↷) Important documents must be kept in a safe. (It is necessary to keep…)


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Anne-en öfkeli ol-malı. (I am sure she is angry.)

(an*nen / öf*ke*li / ol*ma*lı ↷) Your mother must be angry. (Very probability or certainty) Matematik sıkıcı ol-malı. (I am sure it is boring.)

(ma*te*ma*tik / sı*kı*cı / ol*ma*lı ↷) Mathematics must be boring. The negative form of [meli, malı] is [me-meli, ma-malı] (must not), which conveys the concept of prohibition: Ben-im-le böyle konuş-ma-malı-sın. (Benimle böyle konuş-amaz-sın.)

(be*nim*le / böy*le / ko*nuş*ma*ma*lı*sın ↷) You mustn’t (can’t) talk to me like that. (Prohibition) Kız kardeş-in-in ödev yap-ma-/s/ı-/n/ı engelle-me-meli-/s/in.

(kız / kar*de*şi*nin / ö*dev / yap*ma*sı*nı / en*gel*le*me*me*li*sin ↷) You mustn’t prevent your sister from do-ing her homework. (Prohibition) Bir öğrenci televizyon izle-/y/erek zaman-ı-/n/ı boşa harca-ma-malı-dır. (bir / öğ*ren*ci / te*le*viz*yon / iz*le*ye*rek / za*ma:*nı*nı / bo*şa / har*ca*-

ma*ma*lı*dır ↷) A student mustn’t waste time watching television. Another negative form of [ol-malı] (must be) is “ol-amaz” (can’t be).This form is used with the verbs *be” in sentences. Consider the following: Oğul-um sinema-da ol-amaz; okul-da ol-malı.

(oğ*lum / si*ne*ma*da / o*la*maz ↷ / o*kul*da / ol*ma*lı ↷ ) My son can’t be at the cinema; he must be at school. (Impossibility; certainty) Matematik ilginç ol-amaz; sıkıcı ol-malı.

(ma*te*ma*tik / il*ginç / o*la*maz ↷ / sı*kı*cı / ol*ma*lı ↷) Mathematics can’t be interesting; it must be boring. (Impossibility; certainty) Mehmet hasta ol-amaz; rol yap-ıyor ol-malı.

(meh*met / has*ta / o*la*maz ↷ / rol / ya*pı*yor / ol*ma*lı ↷) Mehmet can’t be ill; he must be pretending. (Impossibility; certainty) Jack ders çalış-ıyor ol-amaz, futbol oyna-uyor ol-malı.

(jack / ders / ça*lı*şı*yor / o*la*maz↷) (fut*bol / oy*nu*yor / ol*ma*lı ↷) Jack can’t be studying; he must be playing football. Kardeş-in ciddi ol-amaz; şaka yap-ıyor ol-malı.

(kar*de*şin / cid*di: / o*la*maz ↷ / şa*ka / ya*pı*yor / ol*ma*lı ↷) Your brother can’t be serious; he must be joking.


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Bu hediye ben-im için ol-amaz; siz-in için ol-malı.

(bu / he*di*ye / be*nim / i*çin / o*la*maz ↷ / si*zin / i*çin / ol*ma*lı ↷) This present can’t be for me; it must be for you. Ciddî ol-amaz. Rol yap-ıyor ol-amaz mı?

(cid*dî: / o*la*maz ↷ / rol / ya*pı*yor / o*la*maz / mı ↷) He can’t be serious. Can't he be pretending? Bu portre gerçek ol-amaz; kopya ol-malı.

(bu / por*tre / ger*çek / o*la*maz ↷ / kop*ya / ol*ma*lı ↷) This portrait can’t be genuine; it must be a reproduction. This modal form expresses obligation imposed by an external authority or circumstances. (Have or has to = zorunda) İş-e git-mek için her sabah saat altı-da kalk-mak zorunda-/y/ım. (i*şe / git*mek / i*çin / her / sa*bah / sa*at / al*tı*da / kalk*mak / zo*run*-

da*yım ↷) I have to get up at six o’clock every morning to go to work. (The /y/ glide is inserted between /a/ and /ı/ vowels.) (External obligation) Patron-la konuş-urken dikkatli ol-mak zorunda-/s/ın.

(pat*ron*la / ko*nu*şur*ken / dik*kat*li / ol*mak / zo*run*da*sın ↷) You have to be careful when you are talking to the boss. (External obli-gation) (The black underlined words are infinitives.) Bu yazı dikkat-le yazıl-mak zorunda.

(bu / ya*zı / dik*kat*le / ya*zıl*mak / zo*run*da ↷) This text has to be written carefully. (Passive; external obligation) Oda-am-ı tertiple-mek zorunda-/y/ım.

(o*da*mı / ter*tip*le*mek / zo*run*da*yım ↷) I have to tidy my room. (External obligation) Bu cümleler-i öğren-mek zorunda mı-/y/ım?

(bu / cüm*le*le*ri / öğ*ren*mek / zo*run*da / mı*yım ↷) Do I have to learn these sentences?

“needn’t” or “don’t (doesn't) have to” Lack of necessity “needn’t” or “don’t (doesn’t) have to” is expressed in Turkish with a negative making allomorph "[me, or ma]" attached to a verb root, stem or a frame such as, “git-me”, “yaz-ma”, “satın al-ma”, “çalış-ma”, "te-mizle-en-me", and then one of the [ebil, or abil] allomorphs is attached to the preceding [me, ma] negation allomorphs. After the [ebil or abil] allo-


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morphs, the simple present tense allomorph [ir] is used, and finally personal subject allomorphs are added: Okul-a git-me-/y/ebil-ir-im.

(o*ku*la / git*me*ye*bi*li*rim ↷) I needn’t (don’t have to) go to school. (Lack of necessity) Şimdi başla-ma-/y/abil-ir-iz. (şim*di / baş*la*ma*ya*bi*li*riz ↷) We needn’t (don’t have to) start now. (Lack of necessity) Sabah-leyin erken kalk-ma-/y/abil-ir-im.

(sa*bah*le*yin / er*ken / kalk*ma*ya*bi*li*rim ↷) I needn’t get up early in the morning. (Lack of necessity) Bugün büro temizlen-me-/y/ebil-ir.

(bu / gün / bü*ro / te*miz*len*me*ye*bi*lir ↷) The office needn’t be cleaned today. (Passive) Git-me-/y/ebil-ir-iz.

(git*me*ye*bi*li*riz↷) We needn’t go. “Gitmesem de olur”, “başlamasak da olur”, “kalkmasam da olur”, "kalkmama gerek yok", "gelmene gerek yok" expressions can also be used as alternatives to the sentences above: Sabah-leyin erken kalk-ma-sa-am da ol-ur. (sa*bah*le*yin / er*ken / kalk*ma*sam / da / o*lur ↷) I needn't get up early in the morning. (Lack of necessity) When a question is asked with [meli, malı], the answer to this question may be as follows: “Konser-e git-meli mi-/y/im?” “Git-me-se-en de ol-ur.” “Git-me-/y/ebil-ir-/s/in.” “Must I go to the concert?” “No, you needn’t."

“should” or “ought to” (Gerek-ir) (Advice)

In order to compose this modal concept, one of the personal possessor allomorphs is attached to the owned part of a “noun + infinitive” com-pound. In the second parts of this compound, the second type of infinitives are used, which are made by attaching [me, or ma] allomorphs to verb roots, stems or frames, such as: “git-me”, “bekle-me”, “bekle-en-me”, “satın al-


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ma”, “satın al-ın-ma”, “ezberle-me”, “ezber-len-me”, “süpür-ül-me”, etc. The personal possessor allomorphs attached to the infinitive parts of the “noun + infinitive” compounds are in the following list: (ben-im) ♫ [em, am] (bekle-me-em) ( koş-ma-am) (sen-in) ♫ [en, an] (bekle-me-en) (koş-ma-an) (o-/n/un) ♫ [/s/i, /s/ı] (bekle-me-si) (koş-ma-sı) (biz-im) ♫ [emiz, amız] (bekle-me-emiz) (koş-ma-amız) (siz-in) ♫ [eniz, anız] (bekle-me-eniz) (koş-ma-anız) (onlar-ın) ♫ [/s/i, /s/ı] or [leri, ları] (bekle-me-si) (koş-ma-sı) In short, “bekle-me-em” means “ben-im bekle-me-em” because the “em” attached to “bekle-me” means “ben-ım”. Therefore, the possessor pronoun “ben-im” is generally ignored. Finally, after the above “possessor pronoun + infinitive” compounds “gerek-ir” verb is used as a separate word: Daha çok çalış-ma-an gerek-ir. (Turkish and English sentence structures

are different.) (da*ha / çok / ça*lış*man / ge*re*kir ↷) You should (ought to) study harder. (Advice) “Sen-in çalış-ma-an” is an “adjective + infinitive” compound, and “daha çok” is an adverial. Öğrenciler-in yeni kelimeler-i ezberle-me-/s/i gerek-ir. (Advice) (noun compound) subect verb The students should memorize the new words. (The /s/ glide is used between /e/ and /i/.) Baba-an-ın öğüt-ü-/n/ü iyi düşün-me-en gerek-ir.

(ba*ba*nın / ö*ğü*dü*nü / i*yi / dü*şün*men / ge*re*kir ↷) You should think well about your father’s advice. Sınav sonuçlar-ı-/n/ın beklen-me-/s/i gerek-ir. (Passive)

(sı*nav / so*nuç*la*rı*nın / bek*len*me*si / ge*re*kir ↷) The examination results should be waited. To make a negative advice, the [me] or [ma] negative making allomorphs are inserted between verb roots, stems or frames and the [me, ma] infini-tive making allomorphs: Çok para harca-ma-ma-an gerek-ir. (Advice)

(çok / pa*ra / har*ca*ma*man l ge*re*kir↷) You shouldn’t spend much money.


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Bir baba-/n/ın çocuk-lar-ı-/n/ı ihmâl et-me-me-/s/i gerek-ir. (Advice)

(bir / ba*ba*nın / ço*cuk*la*rı*nı / ih*ma:l / et*me*me*si / ge*re*kir ↷) A father shouldn’t neglect his children. Vergi öde-me-/n/in ertelen-me-me-/s/i gerek-ir. (Advice) (Passive)

(ver*gi / ö*de*me*nin / er*te*len*me*me*si / ge*re*kir ↷) Pay-ing tax shouldn’t be postponed. (Passive) In the senentence above, the /n/ glide is used between the first "e, i", and the /s/ glide is used between the last "e and i". “May” and “can” are both expressed in ♫ [ebil, abil] allomorphs in Turkish. Therefore, they can be used with the question tag “mi” in questions. Com-pare the following sentences: Haber doğru ol-abil-ir.

(ha*ber / doğ*ru / o*la*bi*lir ↷) The news may (can) be true. Haber doğru ol-abil-ir mi?

(ha*ber / doğ*ru / o*la*bi*lir ↝ / mi ↷) Can the news be true? (“May” is not used in English in question forms.) Çocuk-lar ev-de ol-abil-ir.

(ço*cuk*lar / ev*de / o*la*bi*lir ↷) The children may (can) be at home. Çocuklar ev-de ol-abil-ir mi? (ço*cuk*lar / ev*de / o*la*bi*lir↝ / mi ↷) Can the children be at home? Haklı ol-abil-ir-/s/in.

(hak*lı / o*la*bi*lir*sin ↷) You may (can) be right.

Haklı ol-amaz mı-/y/ım? (hak*lı / o*la↝*maz / mi*yim ↷) Can't I be right?

Bekle-iyor ol-amaz-lar mı?

(bek*li*yor / o*la↝*maz*lar / mı↷) Can't they be waiting?

Tercüme yanlış ol-abil-ir.

(ter*cü*me / yan*lış / o*la*bi*lir ↷) The translation may be incorrect.


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PAST MODALS

Could “Could” expresses ability in the past. To express the same concept in Turkish, “main verb-[ebil, abil]-[iyor]-[du]-[pers]” verb composition should be used: Yedi yaş-ım-da/y/-ken yüz-ebil-iyor-du-um.

(ye*di / ya*şım*day*ken / yü*ze*bi*li*yor*dum ↷) I could swim when I was seven years old. (Ability in the past)

Ahmet okul-a git-me-den önce oku-/y/up yaz-abil-iyor-du.

(ah*met / o*ku*la / git*me*den / ön*ce / o*ku*yup / ya*za*bi*li*yor*du ↷) Ahmet could read and write before he went to school.

The negative form of this modal verb is “verb-[eme, ama]-[İYOR]-[du]-[pers]”, which expresses both the negative of "could" and "was able to": Ben okul-a git-me-den önce oku-/y/up yaz-ama-ıyor-du-um.

(ben / o*ku*la / git*me*den / ön*ce / o*ku*yup / ya*za*mı*yor*dum ↷) I couldn't read and write before I went to school.

İş-im-i bitir-eme-di-im.

(i*şi*mi / bi*ti*re*me*dim↷) I couldn't finish my work. (I wasn't able to finish my work.)

Yeni ders-i anla-/y/abil-di-in mi?

(ye*ni / der*si / an*la*ya*bil*din / mi↷) Were you able to understand the new lesson? (“Could” is not used.)

Güçlükler-i aş-abil-di-iniz mi?

(güç*lük*le*ri / a*şa*bil*di*niz↝ / mi ↷) Were you able to overcome the difficulties?

Tasarı-/y/ı bitir-ebil-di-iniz mi?

(ta*sa*rı*yı / bi*ti*re*bil*di*niz↝ / mi ↷) Were you able to finish the project?

was (were) able to (verb- ♫ [me-/y/i, ma-/y/ı] başar-dı-ım)

When a past success is implied, the verb “başar” is used in Turkish in place of the “was able to”, the “succeeded in”, or the “managed to” expressions of the English language:


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Sınav-da iyi bir not al-ma-/y/ı başar-dı-ım.

(sı*nav*da / i*yi / bir / not / al*ma*yı / ba*şar*dım↷) I was able to get a good grade in the examination. (I succeeded in getting a good grade.) (I managed to get a good grade.)

Bizim takım, misafir takım-ı yen-me-/y/i başar-dı. (bi*zim / ta*kım~ / mi*sa:*fir / ta*kı*mı / yen*me*yi / ba*şar*dı ↷) Our team succeeded in beat-ing the visiting team. (The /y/ glide is inserted between /e/ and /i/.)

İş-in-i bitir-me-/y/i başar-dı-ın mı? or “İş-in-i bitir-ebil-di-in mi?”

(i*şi*ni / bi*ti*re*bil*din / mi ↷) Were you able to complete your work? (The /y/ glide is used between [me] and [i].)

As an alternative to the above sentence types, “[verb-[ebil, abil]-[di]-[pers]” verb composition could be used:

En son-u/n/-da (en nihayet) iş-im-i bitir-ebil-di-im.

(en / so*nun*da / i*şi*mi / bi*ti*re*bil*dim ↷) I was able to finish my work at last.

“verb-[eme, ama]-[di, dı]-[pers]” verb composition can be used in place of "couldn't”, “wasn't able to” or “didn't succeed in":

Maç-ı kazan-ama-dı-ık. (ma*çı / ka*za*na*ma*dık ↷) We couldn't win the match.

Bu problem-i çöz-eme-di-im.

(bu / prob*le*mi / çö*ze*me*dim ↷) I couldn’t solve this problem.

As “could” is used in English conditional clauses, so “verb-[EBIL]-[ir]-di-[pers]” verb composition is used in Turkish conditional sentences:

Yeter-ince vakit-im ol-sa sana şimdi yardım et-ebil-ir-di-im. (ye*te*rin*ce / vak*tim / ol*sa / şim*di / sa*na / yar*dım / e*de*bi*lir*dim~) If I had enough time, I could help you now. (The /t/ in “et” changes into the voiced /d/.)

Hava daha iyi ol-sa piknik-e git-ebil-ir-di-ik. (ha*va / da*ha / i*yi / ol*sa / pik*ni*ğe / gi*de*bi*lir*dik~) We could go for a picnic if the weather were (was) better.


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Would or could (Polite request) “verb-[İR]-[Mİ]/y/-[Dİ]-[pers]” verb composition is used to express a polite re-quest in Turkish: In this verb composition, “V” symbolizes a verb root, a verb stem or a verb frame. [İR] is a morpheme that includes all the allomorphs of the Simple Present Tense ♫ [ir, ır, ür, ur, er, ar]. [Mİ] includes all interrogative allomorphs ♫ [mi, mı, mü, mu]. [Dİ] represents the simple past tense allomorphs ♫ [di, dı, dü, du]; and [pers] symbolizes all the personal sub-ject allomorphs. Consider the following sentences: Bir saniye ben-i dinle-er mi/y/-di-iniz?

(bir / sa:*ni*ye / be*ni / din*ler ↝ / miy*di*niz ↷) Would you listen to me for a second? In fact, this sort of request is the second part of a conditional sentence: Rica et-se-em, bir saniye ben-i dinle-er mi/y/-di-iniz?

(ri*ca: / et*sem / bir / sa:*ni*ye / be*ni / din*ler↝ / miy*di*niz ↷) Would you listen to me for a second if I asked? Ben-im-le bir fincan çay iç-er mi/y/-di-iniz? (miy*di*niz) Would you have a cup of tea with me? Bavul-um-u taşı-ma-am-a yardım et-er mi/y/-di-iniz? (ba*vu*lu*mu / ta*şı*ma*ma / yar*dım / e*der ↝/ miy*di*niz ↷) Would you help me to carry my suitcase? In the last example above, the /t/ in “et” changes into /d/, and the /y/ glide is inserted between [mi] and [di]. If someone wishes to be politer, he can add the [EBİL] and [İR] morphemes to the verb composition above: Ben-i bir saniye dinle-/y/ebil-ir mi/y/-di-iniz? (be*ni / bir / sa:*ni*ye / din*le*ye*bi*lir ↝/ miy*di*niz ↷) Could you listen to me for a second please?

The [İR] Simple Present, and [Dİ] Simple Past Tense morphemes are also used together in Turkish conditional sentences:

Bura-da ol-sa biz-e yardım et-er-di.

(bur*da / ol*sa / bi*ze / yar*dım / e*der*di ↷) If he were here, he would help us. (The /t/ changes into the /d/ voiced consonant.)


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Sen-in yer-in-de ol-sa-am bu eski araba-/y/ı sat-ar-dı-ım. (Advice)

(se*nin / ye*rin*de / ol*sam / bu / es*ki / a*ra*ba*yı / sa*tar*dım ↷) If I were you, I would sell this old car. Öğretmen sen-i gör-se/y/-di kız-ar-dı.

(öğ*ret*men / se*ni / gör*sey*di / kı*zar*dı ↷) If the teacher saw you, he would get angry.

PERFECT MODALS

must have “verb - ♫ [miş, mış, müş, muş] + [ol-malı]-[pers]” This perfect modal verb composition conveys a past concept of certainty. Consider the following: Görev-i-/n/i bitir-miş ol-malı. (“Bitirmiş” is subject complement in Turkish.)

(gö*re*vi*ni / bi*tir*miş / ol*ma*lı ↷) He must have finished his duty. (I am sure he has finished it.) Ev-den ayrıl-mış ol-malı.

(ev*den / ay*rıl*mı*şol*ma*lı ↷) He must have left home. (I am sure he has left home.) Uçak in-miş ol-malı. (Liaison)

(u*çak / in*mi*şol*ma*lı ↷) The plane must have landed. (I am sure it has landed. ) Ben-i anla-mış ol-malı-sın. (Liaison)

(be*ni / an*la*mı*şol*ma*lı*sın ↷) You must have understood me. (I am sure you (have) understood me.) O-/n/u bir yer-de gör-müş ol-malı-/y/ım. (Liaison)

(o*nu / bir / yer*de / gör*mü*şol*ma*lı*yım ↷) I must have seen her somewhere. (I am sure I saw her somewhere.) Both certainty and possibility concepts can also be conveyed by “verb-[MİŞ]-[DİR]” verb composition:

Görev-i-/n/i bitir-miş-tir.

(gö*re*vi*ni / bi*tir*miş*tir ↷) He must (may) have finished his duty. Ev-den ayrıl-mış-tır.

(ev*den / ay*rıl*mış*tır ↷) He must (may) have left home.


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Haber-i duy-muş mu-dur?

(ha*be*ri / duy*muş / mu*dur ↷) Is he likely to have heard the news?

Haber-i duy-ma-mış-tır.

(ha*be*ri / duy*ma*mış*tır ↷) He can’t (couldn’t) have heard the news.

Haber duyul-ma-mış-tır. (Passive) (ha*ber / du*yul*ma*mış*tır ↷) The news may not have been heard.

Bu saat-te yat-mış-tır bile.

(bu / sa*at*te / yat*mış*tır / bi*le ↷) He must have already gone to bed at this hour.

Yağmur dur-muş mu-dur?

(yağ*mur / dur*muş / mu*dur ↷) Is it likely to have stopped rain-ing? The same verb composition may be used in conditional sentences, as well:

Paris’-e git-ti/y/-se, Eyfel Kulesi’-/n/i gör-müş-tür. (pa*ri*se / git*tiy*se / ey*fel / ku*le*si*ni / gör*müş*tür ↷) If he went to Paris, he must have seen the Eiffel Tower.

Bir yanlışlık yap-tı/y/-sa özür dile-miş-tir.

(bir / yan*lış*lık / yap*tıy*sa / ö*zür / di*le*miş*tir ↷) If he made a mistake, he must have apologized.

Note: “git-ti/y/-se” means “if he went”, but “git-se/y/-di” means “if he had gone”:

Paris’-e git-se/y/-di Eyfel Kulesi’-/n/i gör-ür-dü.

(pa*ri*se / git*sey*di / ey*fel / ku*le*si*ni / gö*rür*dü ↷) If he had gone to Paris, he would have seen the Eiffel Tower. (He didn’t go, and he didn’t see.) Yeter-ince çalış-sa/y/-dı kötü bir not al-maz-dı.

(ye*te*rin*ce / ça*lış*say*dı / kö*tü / bir / not / al*maz*dı ↷) If he had studied hard enough, he wouldn’t have got a poor mark. (He didn’t study, so he got a poor mark.) Oyun-u seyret-se/y/-di-in hoşlan-ır-dı-ın.

(o*yu*nu / sey*ret*sey*din / hoş*la*nır*dın↷) If you had watched the play, you would have enjoyed it.


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can’t have “verb- [miş, mış, müş, muş] + ol - [ama(z)]- [pers]” The verb chain above is used to form a verb composition to convey past im-possibility. In doing this, with the first person “ben” and with the first person plural “biz” the “ama” negating allomorphs are used. However, for the re-maining subjects and in interrogative sentences the “amaz” negating allo-morphs are used:

Gör-müş ol-ama-am. (gör*müş / o*la*mam ↷)

Gör-müş ol-amaz-/s/ın. (gör*müş / o*la*maz*sın ↷)

Gör-müş ol-amaz. (gör*müş / o*la*maz ↷)

Gör-müş ol-ama-/y/ız. (gör*müş / o*la*ma*yız ↷)

Gör-müş ol-amaz-/s/ınız. (gör*müş / o*la*maz*sı*nız ↷)

Gör-müş ol-amaz-lar. (gör*müş / o*la*maz*lar ↷)

Example sentences: O-/n/u yanlış anla-mış ol-ama-am.

o*nu / yan*lış / an*la*mış / o*la*mam ↷) (o*nu / yan*lı*şan*la*mı*şo*la*mam ↷) (Liason) I can't (couldn’t) have misunderstood it.

Sen-i yanlış anla-mış ol-amaz mı?

(se*ni / yan*lış / an*la*mış / o*la*maz / mı ↷) Can’t he have misunderstood you?

Sen-i işit-miş ol-amaz.

(se*ni / i*şit*miş / o*la*maz ↷) (se*ni / i*şit*mi*şo*la*maz ↷) (Liaison) He can’t (couldn’t) have heard you

Lastik-i patla-mış ol-amaz.

(las*ti*ği / pat*la*mış / o*la*maz ↷) He can’t (couldn’t) have had a flat tire.

Tüm soru-lar-a cevap ver-miş ol-amaz-/s/ın.

(tüm / so*ru*la*ra / ce*vap / ver*miş / o*la*maz*sın ↷) You can’t (couldn’t) have answered all the questions.

Fenerbahçe yenil-miş ol-amaz mı?

(fe*ner*bah*çe / ye*nil*miş / o*la*maz / mı ↷) Can’t Fenervahçe have been beaten?


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should have (ought to have) “noun + infinitive + gerek-ir-di” This perfect modal composition is used to express a past obligation or expectation that was not carried out: (Sen-in) ev ödev-in-i yap-ma-an gerek-ir-di. noun + infinitive compound (subject)

(ev / ö*de*vi*ni / yap*man / ge*re*kir*di ↷) That you had done your homework was necessary. (You should have done your homework.) (But you didn’t.) Bu araba-/y/ı satın al-mak için daha çok para biriktir-me-en gerek-ir-di. (bu / a*ra*ba*yı / sa*tın / al*mak / i*çin / da*ha / çok / pa*ra / bi*rik*tir*men /

ge*re*kir*di↷) You should have saved more money to buy this car. (But you didn’t.) Sınav-da daha dikkat-li ol-ma-am gerek-ir-di. (sı*nav*da / da*ha / dik*kat*li / ol*mam / ge*re*kir*di ↷) I should have been more careful in the examination. (But I wasn’t.) Dün bana telefon et-me-en gerek-mez mi/y/-di?

(dün / ba*na / te*le*fon / et*men / ge*rek*mez / miy*di ↷) Shouldn't you have telephoned me yesterday? Ödev-in-i yap-ma-an gerek-mez mi/y/-di?

(ö*de*vi*ni / yap*man / ge*rek*mez / miy*di ↷) Shouldn't you have done your homework? (You haven't done your homework. Why?) To change the above modal composition into the negative form, the ♫ [me] or [ma] negative making allomorphs are put after the verb roots, stems or frames, and then the ♫ [me] or [ma] infinitive allomorphs follow them pre-ceding the personal subject allomorphs: Ekmek al-ma-ma-an gerek-ir-di. noun + infinitive compound (ek*mek / al*ma*man / ge*re*kir*di ↷) You shouldn’t (needn’t) have bought bread. (But you did.) (Advice) Kız kardeş-in-e bağır-ma-ma-an gerek-ir-di.

(kız / kar*de*şi*ne / ba*ğır*ma*man / ge*re*kir*di ↷) You shouldn’t have shouted at your sister. (But you did.) (Advice) Yalan söyle-me-me-/s/i gerek-ir-di.

(o*nun / ya*lan / söy*le*me*me*si / ge*re*kir*di ↷) He shouldn’t have told a lie. (But he did.)


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Mehmet’-in sınav-da kopya çek-me-me-/s/i gerek-ir-di.

(meh*me*din / sı*nav*da / kop*ya / çek*me*me*si / ge*re*kir*di ↷) Mehmet shouldn’t have cheated in the examination. (But he did.)

may have “verb - [miş, mış, müş, muş] + ol-abil-ir-[pers]”

This modal form adds possibility to verb roots, stems and frames:

Dışarı-/y/a çık-mış ol-abil-ir. (The brown underlined words are subject com-plements.) (dı*şa*rı / çık*mış / o*la*bi*lir ↷) He may have gone out. (Perhaps he has gone out.)

Dışarı-/y/a çık-mış-tır.

(dı*şa*rı / çık*mış*tır ↷) He must have gone out. (I am sure he has gone out.)

Otobüs-ü kaçır-mış ol-abil-ir. (o*to*bü*sü / ka*çır*mış / o*la*bi*lir ↷) He may have missed the bus. (I am sure he has missed it.)

Otobüs-ü kaçır-mış ol-abil-ir mi?

(o*to*bü*sü / ka*çır*mış / o*la*bi*lir / mi ↷) Is he likely to have missed the bus?

Sen-i yanlış anla-mış ol-abil-ir.

(se*ni / yan*lı*şan*la*mı*şo*la*bi*lir ↷) (Liaison) She may have misunderstood you. (Perhaps she misunderstood you.)

Büro temizlen-miş ol-abil-ir.

(bü*ro / te*miz*len*miş / o*la*bi*lir ↷) The office may have been cleaned. (Perhaps it has been cleaned.)

Haber-i işit-miş ol-abil-ir-ler mi? (ha*be*ri / i*şit*miş / o*la*bi*lir*ler / mi ↷) Are they likely to have heard the news?

Vazo-/y/u kedi kır-mış ol-abil-ir mi?

(va*zo*yu / ke*di / kır*mış / o*la*bi*lir / mi ↷) Is the cat likely to have broken the vase?

Bir anlaşma-/y/a var-mış ol-abil-ir-ler.

(bir / an*laş*ma*ya / var*mış / o*la*bi*lir*ler ↷) They may have reached an agreement.


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might have “verb- [ebil, abil]-[ir]-[di]-[pers]” Kaza geçir-ebil-ir-di-ik.

(ka*za: / ge*çi*re*bi*lir*dik ↷) We might have had an accident. (It was probable, but we didn’t.) Pencere-/y/i kır-abil-ir-di-in.

(pen*ce*re*yi / kı*ra*bi*lir*din ↷) You might have broken the window. (It was probable, but you didn’t.) Maç kaybet-il-ebil-ir-di. (It was probable, but it wasn’t lost.)

(maç / kay*be*di*le*bi*lir*di ↷) The match might have been lost. (The /t/ changes into /d/.) (Passive) Ön-ün-de-ki araba-/y/a çarp-abil-ir-di-in.

(ö*nün*de*ki / a*ra*ba*ya / çar*pa*bi*lir*din ↷) You might have hit the car in front of you. (But you didn't hit it.) Ön-ün-de-ki araba-/y/a carp-ma-/y/abil-ir-di-in.

(ö*nün*de*ki / a*ra*ba*ya / çarp*ma*ya*bi*lir*din ↷) You might not have hit the car in front of you. (But you hit it.)

needn’t have “noun + infinitive-[e, a] + gerek yok-tu” This modal composition is used to express absence of obligation or ne-cessity. The noun compounds used in the following sentences are showed between inverted commas. “Ayşe’-/n/in acele et-me-/s/i”-/n/e gerek yok-tu. noun + infinitive comp - [e] (adverbial) (ay*şe*nin / a*ce*le / et*me*si*ne / ge*rek / yok*tu ↷) Ayşe needn’t have hurried. (But she did.) “Bütün soru-lar-a cevap ver-me-en”-e gerek yok-tu.

(bü*tün / so*ru*la*ra / ce*vap / ver*me*ne / ge*rek / yok*tu ↷) You needn’t have answered all the questions. (But you did.) “Maç-ı ertele-me-ler-i”-/n/e gerek yok-tu.

(ma*çı / er*te*le*me*le*ri*ne / ge*rek / yok*tu ↷) They needn’t have postponed the match. (But they did.) “Çiçekler-i sula-ma-anız”-a gerek yoktu. (çi*çek*le*ri / su*la*ma*nı*za / ge*rek / yok*tu ↷) You needn’t have watered the flowers. (But you did.)


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“Üç çift ayakkabı al-ma-an”-a gerek yoktu.

(üç / çift / a*yak*ka*bı / al*ma*na / ge*rek / yok*tu ↷) You needn't have bought three pairs of shoes.

Note: “git-me-se de olurdu”, “sula-ma-sa-lar da olurdu” sentence types can also be used as alternatives to the sentences above. The noun compounds in the sentences above and below are all showed between inverted com-mas. The consecutive vowels combine and verbalize as single vowels:

didn’t need to “noun + infinitive-[e, a] + gerek kal-ma-dı”

This modal form is used to express unfulfilled necessity in the past:

“Uzun zaman bekle-me-em”-e gerek kal-ma-dı. noun + infinitive comp -[e] (adverbial) (u*zun / za*man / bek*le*me*me / ge*rek / kal*ma*dı ↷) It was not necessary for me to wait for a long time. I didn’ need to wait for a long time.

“Okul-a yürü-/y/erek git-me-emiz”-e gerek kal-ma-dı.

(o*ku*la / yü*rü*ye*rek / git*me*mi*ze / ge*rek / kal*ma*dı ↷) We didn’t need to walk to school.

“Çiçek-ler-in sulan-ma-/s/ı”-/n/a gerek kal-ma-dı. (çi*çek*le*rin / su*lan*ma*sı*na / ge*rek / kal*ma*dı ↷) The flowers didn’t need to be watered. (Passive infinitive)

“Bir araba kirala-ma-amız”-a gerek kal-ma-dı.

(bir / a*ra*ba / ki*ra:*la*ma*mı*za / ge*rek / kal*ma*dı ↷) We didn’t need to hire a car.

Toplantı yap-ma-amız”-a gerek kal-ma-dı.

(top*lan*tı / yap*ma*mı*za / ge*rek / kal*ma*dı ↷) We didn’t need to hold a meeting.

“Yardım iste-me-emiz”-e gerek kal-ma-dı.

(yar*dım / is*te*me*mi*ze / ge*rek / kal*ma*dı ↷) We didn’t need to ask for help.

“Bekle-me-emiz”-e gerek kal-ma-dı.

(bek*le*me*mi*ze / ge*rek / kal*ma*dı ↷) We didn’t need to wait.


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LINKING VERBS IN ENGLISH AND TURKISH

Linking verbs are the verbs that carry information about the subject des-cribing who, what, how, and where the subject is, was, can be, etc. The fol-lowing are all linking verbs: is, are, was, were, has been, have been, will be, had been, must be, may be, etc. The information that the linking verbs carry to the subjects are called “subject complements”.

Present positive:

The subject allomorphs used with present “be” (am, is, are) are as follows: (ben): [im, ım, üm, um]; (sen): [/s/in, /s/ın, /s/ün, /s/un]; (o): [ø]; (biz): [iz, ız, üz, uz]; (siz): [/s/iniz, /s/ınız, /s/ünüz, /s/unuz]; (onlar): [(ø) or (ler, lar)]

The subject complements that give information about the subjects may be “nouns”, “pronouns”, “adjectives” or “prepositional phrases”. They are as follows:

Nouns: Öğretmen-im (öğ*ret*me*nim) I am a teacher. Doktor-/s/un (dok*tor*/s/un) You are a doctor. O bir doktor (dok*tor). She is a doctor. Biz doktor-uz (dok*to*ruz) We are doctors. Siz bir öğretmen-/s/iniz (siz / öğ*ret*men*si*niz) You are a teacher. Onlar asker (on*lar / as*ker) They are soldiers. (No time allomorphs are used when the linking verbs are present in Turkish.) Adjectives: Tembel-im (tem*be*lim) I am lazy. Çalışkan-/s/ın (ça*lış*kan*sın) You are hardworking. O mutlu(dur) (o / mut*lu). She is happy. İyi-/y/iz (i*yi*yiz) We are all right. Yorgun-/s/unuz (yor*gun*su*nuz) You are tired. Onlar isteksiz. They are unwilling. Postpositional adverbial phrases: The Turkish place allomorphs [de, da, te, ta] are expressed in English with the prepositions of “in”, “at”, “on”, “be-hind”, “in front of” such as, “ev-de”, “okul-da”, “sokak-ta”, “örnek-te”, “bura-da”, “alt-ın-da”, “yan-ın-da”, “ön-ün-de”, “arka-/s/ın-da”, “üst-ün-de” “yakın-ın-da”. These Turkish adverbials may be used either as subject complements or prepositional phrases. For instance; the boys are playing in the garden; “In the harden” is a prepositional phrase. However, “The boys are in the garden”, in the garden is a subject complement. ev-de (at home); okul-da (at school, in school); masa-da (on the table, at the table); kapı-da (at the door); kutu-da (in the box); bahçe-de (in the garden); hastane-de (in hospital, in the hospital); uçak-ta (on the plane), kapı-/n/ın ön-ü/n/-de (in front of the door).


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The other [e, a] and [den, dan, ten, tan] allomorphs, which turn nouns into adverbials, are not used with the linking verbs “be”; they are used together with action verbs like “go”, “come”, “wait“, “sleep”, “jump”, etc.

When the subject complements above end in vowels, they are linked to the personal subject allomorphs by the /y/ glides:

Postacı kapı-da. The postman is at the door. Onlar şimdi uçak-ta. They are on the plane now. Ben kapı-da-/y/ım. I am at the door. Sen okul-da-/s/ın. You are at school. O mutfak-ta. She is in the kitchen. Biz haklı-/y/ız. We are right. Çiçek-ler vazo-da. The flowers are in the vase.

The [E], [DE] and [DEN] morphemes are also used attached to “ön”, “arka”, “yan”, “üst”, “karşı”, “sol”, “sağ”, “alt”, “bitişik” nouns, such as “ön-e”, “arka-/y/a”, “yan-a”, “üst-e”, “karşı-/y/a”, “yukarı-/y/a”, “ön-de”, “arka-da”, “yan-da”, “alt-ta”, “üst-te”, “karşı-da”, “sağ-da”, “sol-da”, “bitişik-te”, “ön-den”, “arka-dan”, “yan-dan”, “üst-ten”, “karşı-dan”, “sağ-dan”, “yakın-dan”.

These words are all nouns when they are without suffixes; if they were not, the [E], [DE] and [DEN] morphemes would not be attached to them. When they are together with these suffixes, they function either as adverbials, or when the [de, da, te, ta] allomorphs are used with the verbs “be” they are used as subject complements in sentences.

Consequently, as these words are all nouns, they are also used in noun compounds like the simple noun compounds, such as “oda-/n/ın kapı-/s/ı”; “perde-/n/in arka-/s/ı”; “ayna-/n/ın ön-ü”; “vazo-/n/un yan-ı”; “yatak-ın alt-ı” (ya*ta*ğın / al*tı); “bakkal-ın bitişik-i” (bak*ka*lın / bi*ti*şi*ği); “koltuk-un sağ-ı” (kol*tu*ğun / sa*ğı); “bakkal-ın karşı-/s/ı”; “ev-in arka-/s/ı”.

When the [de, da] allomorphs are attached to the noun compounds above, they take the /n/ glides attached to the noun compounds to maintain a harmonious link between the noun compounds and the [de, da] allomorphs. The noun compounds attached to the [de, da] allomorphs function as subject complements when “be” verbs are used. The brown underlined parts are all subject complements whether they are adjectives, nouns or prepositional phrases. All the subject complements below are underlined brown:

Kedi perde-/n/in arka-/s/ı/n/-da. (per*de*nin / ar*ka*sı) subj noun compound - /n/da (subj complement) predicate)

ke*di / per*de*nin / ar*ka*sın*da ↷). The cat is behind the curtain. (“behind the garden” is subject complement.)


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Gözlük-ler-im ayna-/n/ın ön-ü/n/-de. (ay*na*nın / ö*nü)

(göz*lük*le*rim / ay*na*nın / ö*nün*de ↷) My glasses are in front of the mirror. (The “im, ım, üm, um, em, am” Turkish possessor subject allomorphs all mean “ben-im”: “my”.) Terlikler-in karyola-/n/ın alt-ı/n/-da.

(ter*lik*le*rin / kar*yo*la*nın / al*tın*da ↷) Your slippers are under the bed. (The “in, ın, ün, un, en, an” allomorphs mean “sen-in”: “your”.) Ben-im ev-im bakkal-ın bitişik-i/n/-de.

(be*nim / e*vim / bak*ka*lın / bi*ti*şi*ğin*de ↷) My house is next to the grocer. Sen-in dükkân-ın bakkal-ın karşı-/s/ı/n/-da.

(se*nin / dük*kâ*nın / bak*ka*lın / kar*şı*sın*da ↷) Your shop is opposite the grocer. İstasyon sol-da.

(is*tas*yon / sol*da ↷) The station is on the left. İstasyon bakkal-ın sol-u/n/-da.

(is*tas*yon / bak*ka*lın / so*lun*da ↷) The station is on the left of the grocer. Karı-ım ev-de.

(ka*rım / ev*de ↷) My wife is at home. Postane-/n/in ön-ü/n/-de-/y/im. (The “im” means “ben”: “I”.)

(ben / pos*ta:*ne*nin / ö*nün*de*yim ↷) I am in front of the post office. In the sentences above, there are no time morphemes attached to the words “arka-/s/ı/n/-da”, “ön-ü/n/-de”, “karşı-/s/ı/n/-da”, “ev-de”, etc. The absence of these time morphemes in the sentences above the “∅” zero morphemes im-ply that the time is present. Present negative: To change the positive “be” linking verbs into negative forms, the negative making adverb “değil” is used after a subject complement, such as: Mutlu değil-im. (mut*lu / de*ği*lim) I am not happy.


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İstekli değil-/s/iniz. (is*tek*li / de*ğil*si*niz) You are not willing. (The “/s/iniz, /s/ınız, /s/ünüz, /s/unuz” personal subject allomorphs all mean “siz”: “you”.) Yakışıklı değil-sin. (The “/s/in, /s/ın, /s/ün, /s/un” subject allomorphs all mean singular “sen”: “you”) /ya*kı*şık*lı / de*ğil*sin) You are not handsome. Ev-de değil-ler. (The “ler, lar” subject allomorphs mean “onlar”: “they”.) (ev*de / de*ğil*ler) They are not at home. Baba-am ev-de değil. (ba*bam / ev*de / de*ğil) My father is not at home. Present positive question: To turn the positive linking verbs into the positive question forms, the [mi, mı] interrogative allomorphs are attached to the personal subject allomorphs, which are used followed by the subject complements: Deli mi-/y/im? (de*li / mi*yim) Am I crazy? Ev-de mi-/s/in? (ev*de / mi*sin) Are you at home? Fatma-/n/ın göz-ler-i mavi mi? (fat*ma*nın / göz*le*ri / ma*vi / mi) Are Fatma’s eyes blue? Dikkatsiz mi-/y/iz? (The “iz, ız, üz, uz” subject allomorphs mean “biz”: “we”.)

(dik*kat*siz / mi*yiz) Are we careless? Hazır mı-/s/ınız? (ha*zır / mı*sı*nız) Are you ready? İyi-ler mi? (i*yi*ler / mi) Are they all right?


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Present negative question: To turn a positive linking verb form into a negative linking verb form, the ne-gative making adverb “değil” is used after the subject complement: Çalışkan değil mi-/y/im? (ça*lış*kan / de*ğil / mi*yim) Am I not hardworking? Sorumlu değil mi-/s/iniz? (so*rum*lu / de*ğil / mi*si*niz) Aren’t you responsible? Anne-en ev-de değil mi? (an*nen / ev*de / de*ğil / mi) Isn’t your mother at home? İsteksiz degil-ler mi? (is*tek*siz / de*ğil*ler / mi) Aren’t they unwilling? Hazır değil mi-/y/iz? (ha*zır / de*ğil / mi*yiz) Aren’t we ready? Güzel değil mi-/y/im? (gü*zel / de*ğil / mi*yim) Am I not beautiful?

Question words used with the linking verbs: Nerede-/s/iniz? Ev-de-/y/im. (One word) (ne*re*de*si*niz) Where are you? I am at home. Nasıl-/s/ınız? İyi-/y/im. (na*sıl*sı*nız) How are you? I am quite well. Niçin hazır değil-/s/in? (ni*çin / ha*zır / de*ğil*sin) Why aren’t you ready? Kim-/s/in? (Ben) Ahmet-im. (kim*sin) Who are you? I am Ahmet.


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Nerede-/y/iz? İstanbul-da-/y/ız. (ne*re*de*yiz) Where are we? We are in İstanbul.

English does not have enough suffıxes or prefixes to turn all adjectives into verbs. Therefore, this deficiency is fulfilled by some linking verbs such as get, grow, look, turn, smell, sound, become, which are followed by nouns or adjectives (subject complements). As some Turkish adjectives can be turned into verbs by attaching some suf-fixes to adjectives, some English linking verbs are not used in Turkish. Therefore, verbs are used instead. In the following examples, you can see how Turkish adjectives or nouns turn into verbs by attaching some suffixes to them:

Güzel → güzel-leş, yaşlı → yaş-lan, soguk → soğu, uzun → uza, kısa → kısal, yorgun → yorul, hazır → hazır-lan, sarı → sarar, sinirli → sinir-len, sıcak → ısın, şüphe → şüphe-len, sakin → sakin-leş, kırmızı → kızar, güç → güç-leş, koku → kok, sarı → sarar.

Example sentences:

Herkes yaşlan-ır. (“Yaşlan” is an intransitive verb which means “grow old”.) (her*kes / yaş*la*nır) Everybody grows old. (“Grow” is a linking verb, “old” is an adjective.) Hava soğu-uyor. (“Soğu” is an intransitive verb which means “get cold”) (ha*va / so*ğu*yor) It is getting colder. (“Get” is a linking verb, “cold” is an adjective.) Yorgun görün-üyor-/s/un. (“Görün” is a reflexive verb, “yorgun” is an adjective) (yor*gun / gö*rü*nü*yor*sun) You look tired. (“Look” is a linking verb; “tired” is an adjective.) Yaprak-lar sonbahar-da sarar-ır. (“Sarar” means “turn yellow”.) (yap*rak*lar / son*ba*har*da / sa*ra*rır) Leaves turn yellow in the autumn.

Çorba nefis kok-uyor. (“Kok” is an intransitive verb; “nefis” is an adjective.) (ço*ba / ne*fis / ko*ku*yor) The soup smells delicious. (“Smell” is a linking verb; “delicious” is an adjective.)

Öğrenci-ler sessiz kal-dı-lar. (öğ*ren*ci*ler / ses*siz / kal*dı*lar) The students remained silent. (“Remain” is a linking verb; “silent” is an adj)


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Kendim-i iyi hisset-iyor-um. (ken*di*mi / i*yi / his*se*di*yo*rum) I feel good. (“Feel” is a linking verb; “good” is an adjective.)

Aptallık et-iyor-/s/un. (“Et” is a transitive verb; “aptallık” is its indefinite object.)

(ap*tal*lık / e*di*yor*sun) You are being foolish. (“Are being” is a linking verb; “foolish” is an adjective.)

Üşü-dü/y/-se-en ceket-in-i giy. (“Üşü” is intransitive; it means “feel cold”) (ü*şü*düy*sen / ce*ke*ti*ni / giy) If you feel cold, put your coat on. (“Feel” is a linking verb; “cold” is an adj,)

Fatma gün-den gün-e güzel-leş-iyor. (“Güzel-leş” means “get beautiful”.) (fat*ma / gün*den / gü*ne / gü*zel*le*şi*yor) Fatma is getting more beautiful day by day. Bu yumurtalar pis kok-uyor. (bu / yu*mur*ta*lar / pis / ko*ku*yor) These eggs smell nasty. (“Smell” is a linking verb.)

Proje-en ilginç görün-üyor. (pro*jen / il*ginç / gö*rü*nü*yor) Your project seems (sounds) interesting. Note: Nearly all adjectives in Turkish can be used as adverbs without changing their forms. Therefore, yorgun, nefis, sessiz and iyi words may be considered both as adverbs or adjectives in Turkish. For instance: O iyi bir kız-dır. (Adjective) She is a good girl. (Adjective)

O iyi yüz-er. (Adverb) She swims well. (Adverb) )

Bu yavaş bir araba-dır. (Adjective) This is a slow car. (Adjective)

Bu araba yavaş gider. (Adverb) This car goes slowly. (Adverb)

O güzel bir kız-dır. (Adjective) She is a beautiful girl. (Adjective)

O güzel şarkı söyler. (Adverb) She sings beautifully. (Adverb)

SIMPLE PAST LINKING VERBS

The simple past tense allomorphs of the verb “be” are [di, dı, dü, du, ti, tı, tü, tu], which are attached to the personal subject allomorphs below: (ben) [im, ım, üm, um], (sen) [in, ın, ün, un], (o) [∅], (biz) [ik, ık, ük, uk], (siz) [iniz, ınız, ünüz, unuz], (onlar) [ler, lar] Positive: Ev-de/y/-di-im. (One word) (ev*dey*dim) I was at home. (Four words)


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Hazır-dı-ınız. (One word) (ha*zır*dı*nız) You were ready. (Three words) Mutlu/y/-du-uk. (mut*luy*duk) We were happy. Sarhoş-tu-lar. (sar*hoş*tu*lar) They were drunk. Öğrenci-ler neşeli/y/-di. (öğ*ren*ci*ler / ne*şe*liy*di) The students were cheerful. Araba-am kapı-/n/ın ön-ü/n/-de/y/-di. (a*ra*bam / ka*pı*nın / ö*nün*dey*di) My car was in front of the door. Negative: To turn a positive linking verb into a negative statement, the negative making adverb “değil” is used after the subject complement, which is at-tached to past time and personal subject allomorphs: Yorgun değil-di-im. (yor*gun / de*ğil*dim) I was not tired. (I wasn’t tired.) Sorumlu değil-di-iniz. (so*rum*lu / de*ğil*di*niz) You were not responsible. (You weren’t responsible.) Ev-de değil-ler-di. (ev*de / de*ğil*ler*di) They were not at home. (They weren’t at home.) Meşgul değil-di-ik. (meş*gul / de*ğil*dik) We were not busy. (We weren’t busy.) Positive question: To turn a positive linking verb into a positive question form, one of the [mi,


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mı, mü, mu] question allomorphs is attached to time and personal allo-morphs separately: Dün okul-da mı/y/-dı-ın? (dün / o*kul*da / mıy*dın) Were you at school yesterday? Miting kalabalık mı/y/-dı? (mi*ting / ka*la*ba*lık / mıy*dı) Was the meeting crowded? Yorgun mu/y/-du-unuz? (yor*gun / muy*du*nuz) Were you tired? Sorular zor mu/y/-du? (so*ru*lar / zor / muy*du) Were the questions difficult? Negative question: In negative question forms, the negative making adverb “değil” follows the subject complement as they are in the following examples: Dün okul-da değil mi/y/-di-in? (dün / o*kul*da / de*ğil / miy*din) Were you not at school yesterday? (Weren’t you at school?) Masal ilginç değil mi/y/-di? (ma*sal / il*ginç / de*ğil / miy*di) Wasn’t the story interesting? Öğrenci-ler öğren-mek için istekli değil mi/y/-di-ler? (öğ*ren*ci*ler / öğ*ren*mek / i*çin / is*tek*li / de*ğil / miy*di*ler) Weren’t the students eager to learn? Hazır değil mi/y/-di-iniz? (ha*zır / de*ğil / miy*di*niz) Were’t you ready?

Have been, has been, had been, will be

Kız kardeş-im on yıl-dır öğretmen. (kız / kar*de*şim / on / yıl*dır / öğ*ret*men) My sister has been a teacher for ten years.


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Hava üç gün-dür çok soğuk. (ha*va / üç / gün*dür / çok / so*ğuk) It has been very cold for three days. Oğul-um yakında doctor ol-acak. (oğ*lum / ya*kın*da / dok*tor / o*la*cak) My son will be a doctor soon.

Modal Verbs with Liking Verbs Modal verbs can be used both with action verbs and liking verbs in English and Turkish. We will show only the modal verbs that are used with linking verbs in the following example sentences. Present modals positive:

ol-[abil-ir]-[personal subject allomorph] = “can be” or “may be”

Turkish modal verbs are used followed by subject complements attached

by one of the personal subject allomorphs: (ben) [im], (sen) [/s/in], (o) [∅], (biz) [iz], (siz) [/s/iniz], [onlar) [ler]: Yorgun ol-abil-ir-im. (Possibility) (yor*gun / o*la*bi*li*rim) I may be tired.

Sorumlu ol-abil-ir-/s/in. (so*rum*lu / o*la*bi*lir*sin) You may be responsible.

Jack bahçe-de ol-abil-ir. (jack / bah*çe*de / o*la*bi*lir) Jack may be in the garden.

Meşgul ol-abil-ir-iz. (meş*gul / o*la*bi*li*riz) We may be busy.

İsteksiz ol-abil-ir-/s/iniz. (is*tek*siz / o*la*bi*lir*si*niz) You may be unwilling.

Turist ol-abil-ir-ler. (tu*rist / o*la*bi*lir*ler) They may be tourists.


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Negative:

ol-ma-/y/abil-ir-[personal subject allomorph] = may not be Ev-de ol-ma-/y/abil-ir-im. (ev*de / ol*ma*ya*bi*li*rim) I may not be at home. Mutlu ol-ma-/y/abil-ir-/s/in. (mut*lu / ol*ma*ya*bi*lir*sin) You may not be happy. Ankara-da hava güneşli ol-ma-/y/abil-ir. (an*ka*ra*da / ha*va / gü*neş*li / ol*ma*ya*bi*lir) The weather may not be sunny in Ankara. Okul-un ön-ü/n/-de ol-ma-/y/abil-ir-iz. (o*ku*lun / ö*nün*de / ol*ma*ya*bi*li*riz) We may not be in front of the school. Haklı ol-ma-/y/abil-ir-/s/iniz. (hak*lı / ol*ma*ya*bi*lir*si*niz) You may not be right. Hoşlan-mış ol-ma-/y/abil-ir-ler. (hoş*lan*mış / ol*ma*ya*bi*lir*ler) They may not be pleased. Positive question: “Can” is used in question forms in English in place of “may”: Başarılı ol-abil-ir mi-/y/im? (ba*şa*rı*lı / o*la*bi*lir / mi*yim) Can I be successful? Yarın büro-um-da ol-abil-ir mi-/s/in? (ya*rın / bü*rom*da / o*la*bi*lir / mi*sin) Can you be in my office tomorrow? Anne-en öfkeli ol-abil-ir mi? (an*nen / öf*ke*li / o*la*bi*lir / mi) Can your mother be angry? Saat beş-te hazır ol-abil-ir mi-/y/iz? (sa*at / beş*te / ha*zır / o*la*bi*lir / mi*yiz) Can we be ready at five?


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Dikkatli ol-abil-ir mi-/s/iniz? (dik*kat*li / o*la*bi*lir / mi*si*niz) Can you be careful? Birazdan hazır ol-abil-ir-ler mi? (bi*raz*dan / ha*zır / o*la*bi*lir*ler / mi) Can they be ready soon? Negative question:

To turn the “ol-abil-r” modal form into negative, “ol-amaz” modal form is used: Haklı ol-amaz mı-/y/ım? (hak*lı / o*la*maz / mı*yım) Can’t I be right? Dürüst ol-amaz mı-/s/ın? (dü*rust / o*la*maz / mı*sın) Can’t you be honest?

Jack futbol oynuyor ol-amaz mı? (jack / fut*bol / oy*nu*yor / o*la*maz / mı) Can’t Jack be playing football? Suçsuz ol-amaz mı-/y/ız? (suç*suz / o*la*maz / mı*yız) Can’t we be innocent? Dikkatli ol-amaz mı-/s/ınız? (dik*kat*li / o*la*maz / mı*sı*nız) Can’t you be careful? Sabırlı ol-amaz-lar mı? (sa*bır*lı / o*la*maz*lar / mı) Can’t they be patient?

Ol-malı = must be Positive: To arrange a “must be” model form in Turkish, a “subject complement + ol-malı-[subject allomorphs] verb phrase should be used, which expresses either certainty or necessity or both. Here are some example sentences: Hazır ol-malı-sın. (Certainty or necessity) (ha*zır / ol*ma*lı*sın) You must be ready. (Certainty or necessity)


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The Turkish and English sentences above are ambiguous because they may both mean “I am certain that you are ready” or “It is necessary for you to be ready”.

O-/n/a inan-dık-ım için aptal ol-malı-/y/ım. (Certainty) (o*na / i*nan*dı*ğım / i*çin / ap*tal / ol*ma*lı*yım) I must be stupid to believe him. (I am sure that I am stupid.)

Sinirli ol-malı-/s/ın. (Certainty) (si*nir*li / ol*ma*lı*sın) You must be nervous. (I am sure that you are nervous.)

Baba-an dahi ol-malı. (Certainty) (ba*ban / da*hi / ol*ma*lı) Your father must be genius. (I am sure your father is genius.)

Dikkatli ol-malı-/y/ız. (Necessity) (dik*kat*li / ol*ma*lı*yız) We must be careful. (It is necessary for us to be careful.)

Cesur ol-malı-/s/ınız. (ce*sur / ol*ma*lı*sı*nız) You must be brave. (I am sure you are brave, or I want you to be brave.)

Sabırsız ol-malı-lar. (Certainty) (sa*bır*sız / ol*ma*lı*lar) They must be impatient. (I am sure that they are impatient.)

Negative:

In the negative form, the negative making allomorph [ma] attaches to the verb “ol”:

Sabırsız ol-ma-malı-/y/ım. (Necessity) (sa*bır*sız / ol*ma*ma*lı*yım) I mustn’t be impatient.

Üzgün ol-ma-malı-/s/ın. (I want you not to be sorry.) (Necessity) (üz*gün / ol*ma*ma*lı*sın) You mustn’t be sorry.

Üzül-me-meli-/s/in. (I advise you not to be sorry.) (Necessity) (ü*zül*me*me*li*sin) You mustn’t feel sad.


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Tertipsiz ol-ma-malı. (Necessity) (ter*tip*siz / ol*ma*ma*lı) He mustn’t be untidy.

Dikkatsiz ol-ma-malı-/y/ız. (Necessity) (dik*kat*siz / ol*ma*ma*lı*yız) We mustn’t be careless.

Kayıtsız ol-ma-malı-/s/ınız. (Necessity) (ka*yıt*sız / ol*ma*ma*lı*sı*nız) You mustn’t be indifferent.

Geç kal-ma-malı-lar. (Necessity) (geç / kal*ma*ma*lı*lar) They mustn’t be late.

Positive question:

In question forms, the [mı] interrogative allomorph attaches to the subject allomorphs, and they follow the [ol-malı] verb together as a separate word:

Hazır ol-malı mı-/y/ım? (Is it necessary?) (ha*zır / ol*ma*lı / mı*yım) Must I be ready?

Sabah-leyin okul-da ol-malı mı-/s/ın? (Is it necessary?) (sa*bah*le*yin / o*kul*da / ol*ma*lı / mı*sın) Must you be at school in the morning?

Balıklar kızar-mış mı ol-malı? (Is it necessary?) (ba*lık*lar / kı*zar*mış / mı / ol*ma*lı) Must the fish be fried?

Sabırlı mı ol-malı-/y/ız? (Is it necessary?) (sa*bır*lı / mı / ol*ma*lı*yız) Must we be patient?

Kuşkulu ol-malı mı-/s/ınız? (Is it necessary?) (kuş*ku*lu / ol*ma*lı / mı*sı*nız) Must you be doubtful

Uçak-ta mı ol-malı-lar? (Is it necessary?) (u*çak*ta*mı / ol*ma*lı*lar /) Must they be on the plane?


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Interrogative words used with linking verbs:

Question words can be put in the beginning of all interrogative sentences using linking verbs in Turkish and English. Additionally, the modal verbs change their places and they are put before the subjects in English. In Turkish, the rest of the sentences are either in positive or negative form as they are in the example sentences below: Ne zaman hazır ol-malı-/y/ız? (ne / za*man / ha*zır / ol*ma*lı*yız) When must we be ready? Nere-de ol-malı-lar? (ne*re*de / ol*ma*lı*lar) Where must they be?

ol-ama(z) = can’t be (Impossibility)

When the subject allomorphs attach to the “ol-ama(z)” modal verbs, they change as follows: For the first person singular “ben” and for the first person plural “biz” the “ama, eme” negation allomorphs are used. However, for the rest of all subjects and in interrogative sentences the “emez” or “amaz” negation allomorphs are used. (ben) ol-ama-am (o*la*mam), (sen) ol-amaz-/s/ın (o*la*maz*sın), (o) ol-amaz (o*la*maz), (biz) ol-ama-/y/ız (o*la*ma*yız), (siz) ol-amaz-/s/ınız (o*la*maz*-sı*nız), (onlar) ol-amaz-lar (o*la*maz*lar). (Ben) sen-siz ol-ama-am. (sen*siz / o*la*mam) I can’t be without you. Ciddi ol-amaz-sın; şaka yap-ıyor ol-malı-/s/ın.

(cid*di / o*la*maz*sın↷ / şa*ka / ya*pı*yor / ol*ma*lı*sın↷) You can’t be serious; you must be joking. Jack ders çalış-ıyor ol-amaz; futbol oyna-uyor ol-malı.

(jack / ders / ça*li*şi*yor / o*la*maz ↷/ şa*ka / ya*pı*yor / ol*ma*lı) Jack can’t be studying; he must be playing football. Hatalı ol-ama-/y/ız. (ha*ta*lı / o*la*ma*yız) We can’t be wrong.


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Sabırlı ol-amaz-/s/ınız. (sa*bır*lı / o*la*maz*sı*nız) You can’t be patient. İsteksiz ol-amaz-lar. (is*tek*siz / o*la*maz*lar) They can’t be unwilling. Question: İyi bir yüzücü ol-amaz mı-/y/ım? (i*yi / bir / yü*zü*cü / o*la*maz / mı*yım) Can’t I be a good swimmer? Yardımcı ol-amaz mı-/s/ınız? (yar*dım*cı / o*la*maz / mı*sı*nız) Can’t you be helpful? Söyle-dik-i doğru ol-amaz mı? (söy*le*di*ği / doğ*ru / o*la*maz / mı) Can’t what he said be true? Başarılı ol-amaz mı-/y/ız? (ba*şa*rı*lı / o*la*maz / mı*yız) Can’t we be successful? Büro-da ol-amaz mı-/s/ınız? (bü*ro* da / o*la*maz / mı*sı*nız) Can’t you be in the office? Sorumsuz ol-amaz-lar mı? (so*rum*lu / o*la*maz*lar / mı) Can’t they be irresponsible?

Perfect modals:

should have been

Although past modals are used with action verbs, they are not much used with linking verbs. However, perfect modals may be used with linking verbs as follows. Positive: Daha dikkatli ol-malı/y/-dı-ın.

subj compl verb subj

(da*ha / dik*kat*li / ol*ma*lıy*dın) You should have been more careful.


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Saat sekiz-de okul-da ol-malı/y/-dı-ın. (sa*at / se*kiz*de / o*kul*da / ol*ma*lıy*dın) You should have been at scool at eight. Geç kal-abil-ir-di-in. (geç / ka*la*bi*lir*din) You might have been late. Some sensory verbs are used in English as linking verbs: Jack is looking tired. Jack yorgun görün-üyor. In the Turkish sentence above, the verb “gör” (see) is used in place of the verb “look” (bak), and the verb “gör” has turned into “görün” verb, which is a reflexive verb in Turkish. This cake smells delicious. Bu kek lezzetli kokuyor. The verb “smell” is both a linking and an action verb in English. For ins-tance, in the sentence “Jack is smelling the cake”, the verb “smell” is an action verb. However, in the sentence “The cake smells delicious”, the verb “smell” is a linking verb. Although the verb “smell” is both an action verb and a linking verb in Eng-lish, there is a verb that is only used as a liking verb “kok” “smell” in Turkish, and there is another action verb “kokla” (smell) in Turkish, too. Jack is smelling the cake. Jack pastayı kokla-uyor. (kok*lu*yor) This cake smells delicious. (“Delicious” is an adjective.) Bu pasta lezzetli kok-uyor. As a general rule in Turkish, when a verb ends with a vowel, this last vowel drops, and the consonant preceding the vowel detaches from its syllable, and attaches to the following vowel. In the verb “kokla-uyor”, the last vowel of the verb root is “a”, which is double underlined, drops and the single un-derlined “l” detaches from its syllable and attaches to the vowel “u” to form an oral sequence. In short, “kokla-uyor” becomes (kok*lu*yor) in speech. Additionally, if a word ends with a consonant, this last consonant also de-taches from its syllable and attaches to the first vowel of the following word or allomorph. Therefore, in “kok-uyor”, the single underlined consonant “k” detaches from its syllable and attaches to the following vowel “u” when the


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Turkish sound system produce an oral sequence. In short, “kok-uyor” becomes (ko*ku*yor) in speech. Although there are a limited number of adjectives that can turn into verbs by attaching suffixes in English, most of the Turkish adjectives can be turned into verbs by attaching several allomorphs to these adjectives. These verbs are used in place of the linking verbs of the English language. There are some linking verbs that are used both as linking verbs and action verbs in English. These linking and action verbs and their Turkish equi-valents are as follows: Grow: My uncle grows vegetables. (Action verb) Amca-am sebze yetiştir-iyor. (Action verb) Everything is growing difficult. (Linking verb) Herşey güçleş-iyor. (Action verb) Look: Jack is looking at Mary. (Action verb) Jack Mary-/y/e bak-ıyor. (Action verb) Mary always looks beautiful. (Linking verb) Mary hep güzel görün-ür. (“Güzel” is an adverb.) Turn: The engine turns the wheels. (Action verb) Motor tekerler-i döndür-ür. (Action verb) Leaves turn yellow in october. (Linking verb) Yaprak-lar sonbahar-da sarar-ır. (Action verb) In place of the “linking verb + adjective” formation of the English language, the verb forms of the adjectives are used in Turkish instead. Most English linking verbs help to produce action concepts when they are used together with adjectives. You can see a list of common Turkish link-ing verbs and their English equivalents in the following list:


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ADJECTIVE VERB ADJECTIVE VERB + ADJECTIVE Aç acık hungry get (feel) hungry Aptal aptallaş foolish become confused Bulutlu bulutlan cloudy cloud, get cloudy Çirkin çirkinleş ugly get ugly Deli delir crazy go crazy Değerli değerlen precious increase in value Derin derinleş deep get deep, deepen dikkatli dikkat et careful be careful Düzgün düzelt straight correct, fix Eğri eğril bent bend Ekşi ekşi sour turn sour

Fakir fakirleş poor become (get) poor

Genç gençleş young get younger

Gerçek gerçekleş true come true

Güç güçleş difficult grow difficult

Güçlü güçlen strong grow stronger

Güzel güzelleş beautiful eabecome butiful

Hazır hazırlan ready get ready

Islak ıslan wet get wet

İyi iyileş good, well get better

Kaba kabalaş impolite become impolite

Kalabalık kalabalıklaş crowded get crowded

Karanlık karar dark get dark

Kaygılı kaygılan worried worry, feel anxious

Kirli kirlen dirty become (get) dirty

Kırmızı kızar red redden, blush

Kısa kısal short get shorter, shorten

Kıskanç kıskan envious envy

Kızgın kız angry be angry

Kolay kolaylaş easy get easy

Kötü kötüleş bad grow worse

Kuru kuru dry dry

Küçük küçül small decrease, become smaller

Mor morar purple become purple

Neşeli neşelen cheerful cheer up

Olgun olgunlaş ripe ripen


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ADJECTIVE VERB ADJECTIVE VERB + ADJECTIVE

Pahalı pahalan expensive become more expensive

Parlak parla shiny shine

Rahat rahatla comfortable relax

Renkli renklen colorful become colorful

Sakin sakinleş calm calm down

Serin serinle cool become cooler

Sert sertleş solid, hard become hard, harden

Sinirli sinirlen nervous, angry get angry

Sıkılmış sıkıl bored be bored

Soğuk soğu cold become (get) cold

Tembel tembelleş lazy grow lazier

Umutlu umutlan hopeful become hopeful

Uslu uslan well-behaved become well-behaved

Uzun uza long get (grow) longer, lengthen

Üzgün üzül sorry be (feel) sorry

Yanlış yanıl wrong be mistaken

Yaramaz yaramazlaş naughty get naughtier

Yaşlı yaşlan old grow older

Yeşil yeşillen green turn green

Yoksul yoksullaş poor get poorer

Yüksek yüksel high rise

Zayıf zayıfla weak lose weight

Zengin zenginleş rich get rich

Zor zorlaş difficult

get difficult

Note: Turkish slides are “/s/, /ş/, /n/, /y/”. Slides are consonants created by the Turkish sound system to help to pass a phoneme to another smoothly and harmoniously. They do not carry meaning.

Date post:	18-Jan-2017
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Morphemes , allomorphs and syllables in english and turkish

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