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What is morphology?• the study of the structure and content of word forms• the part of linguistic that deals with the study of words,
their internal structure.• It is also interested in how the users of a given language
understand complex words and invent new lexical items.• It is the subdiscipline of grammar.
What is lexicon?• A collection of linguistic knowledge that cannot be
captured by rules• The collection of words--the internalized dictionary--that
every speaker of the language has.• An understanding of the rules that govern the formation of
words• Similarities and differences in the behavior of words• The function of words
By the end of the class, you will have the linguistic background to answer the following questions:
• What is morphology?• What is a morpheme?• How are morphemes classified?• How are words structured in Turkish?• What is an allomorph?
• Why is karşılıksız acceptable, but sevgiliksiz outrageous?
• What makes evdeler different from evlerde?
• Why is evdemler terrible, but dedemler perfectly fine?
• Key words:• Morphology• Morpheme• Free morpheme • Bound morpheme• Derivational morpheme• Inflectional morpheme• Morpheme ordering• Allomorphy
THE STRUCTURE OF WORDSSyllable structure vs Morpheme structure
Free morphemes vs Bound morphemes
Derivational morphemes vs Inflectional morphemes
The gist here:
• Simply coding the syllables of a word is not reliable way to code the morphemes of that word.
So,• What is a morpheme?• What is the criterion to identify a morpheme?
• Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units that construct words in a language.
Our examples are constructed in the following way:
(1)
Yaş
Yaş-lan
Yaş-lan-dı
Yaş-lan-dı-m
(2)
Hasta
Hasta-lan
Hasta-lan-dı
Hasta-lan-dı-m
Eg. gözcüler
(4)
Göz+ cü+ lerStem 1st morph. 2nd morph.
unit of grammatical function
Organ of form Ns from Ns not mean göz anymore
seeing
Remark• Morphemes might have different meanings, functions and
morphological standing.• Although morpheme and syllable boundaries of a word
may sometimes overlap, lack of correspondence between these boundaries is common.
• A single morpheme may be composed of more than one syllable.
• A single syllable may include more than one morpheme.
In terms of their morphological stand,ng, morphemes in gözcü can be classified into two groups
• Free morphemes• Bound morphemes
Morphemes
Free morphemes Bound morphemes
Content morp. Functional morp.
Ns postpositions
ADJs conjunctions
ADVs determiners
Vs pronouns, etc.
• Affixation: the attachment process of a bound morpheme to another morpheme.
• Affixes: the attached bound morphemes.
• Roots: words that are not affixed.
• An overwhelming number of roots in Turkish are monosyllabic:
• More than one syllable in a root is also permissible:
Stem: the root or roots of a word, together with any derivational affixes, to which inflectional affixes are added. They are morphologically complex.
Eg. Yaş-lı stem
yaş-lı-lar stem
Çağ root
çağ-daş stem,
çağ-daş-lık stem
Complex words are formed through 3 types of affixation in a language:
• Suffixes: placed after stem• Prefixes: before stem• Infixes: within stem
What about affixation in Turkish?• Sev-gi• Sev-gi-li• Sev-gi-li-ler
Loan words:• Anti-propaganda > propaganda• Gayri resmi > resmi• Bihaber > haber• Postmodern > modern
Back to the case of gözcülerGöz- cü- ler
Free morphemes bound morphemes
content morpheme : derived N from a N having a meaning different from that of the stem
That is, some suffixes can change both the meaning and the syntactic class of the stem
Derivation: a process of forming new words by using bound morphemes
Derivational morphemes: the morphemes which add to or change the meaning of a stem word or the syntactic class of it.
Eg. Sat-ıcı
-ICI: a derivational morpheme forming Ns from Ns
4 types of stems formed through derivation
Suffixes that attach to verbs
Deverbal nominal stems: V > N
Deverbal verbal stems: V > V
Suffixes that attach to nominals
Denominal nominal stems: N > N
Denominal verbal stems: N > V
Other derivational suffixes in Turkishnote that some suffixes are more productive than the others
• V>N: Kaz-I, güldür-Ü, kay-AK, sev-ECEN, san-AL, diz-GE
• V>V: dürt-ÜKLE, şaş-ALA, kaç-IN, ara-ŞTIR,
Consider the semantic differences –(I)ş provides• Koşuş-: denotes an unorganised manner• Bölüş-, kırış-: denotes a shared act• Kokuş-: denotes the intensity of a property of the root verb
Other derivational suffixes in Turkishnote that some suffixes are more productive than the others
• N>V: tür-E-, kara-R-, şakır-DA, göz-ÜK-, güneş-LEN-, haber-LEŞ-, kir-LET-, su-SA-
• N>N: ana-Ç, sol-AK, yer-El, kök-En, dört-GEN,
Consider semantic differences –lI provides:• Atlı, sevgili, hızlı, akıllı : denotes the attribute of something• Üniversiteli, köylü: indicates a person belonging to or
coming from• Üçlü, altılı: indicates groups made of items containing that
number of objects
Another productive suffix -lIk(1) Ns from Ns, adjectives or adverbs to indicate:• İyilik, çabukluk : the state relating to a particular concept• Askerlik, krallık: institutionalisation of the concept• Gözlük, başlık: an object associated with the body• Kitaplık, odunluk: a storage place• Zeytinlik, mezarlık: a place where the entity denoted by the N is found
collectively• Analık, evlatlık: a person whose relationship is analogous to the blood relation
(2) Adjectives which indicate:• Dolmalık, elbiselik: suitability for the type of entity• Günlük, aylık: periods of time• Ellilik: approximate age of a person
(3) Bir kiloluk, üç saatlik: express weight, length, capacity, value, price.
Is the lexicon composed of only free lexical morphemes and derivational bound morphemes?
Consider this:
* Bu sınıf öğrenci hep öğretmen kız.
• Which noun is the subject above?• How are the other nouns and the verb related to it?
Modified sentence with grammatical inflection:
• Bu sınıfta öğrenciler hep öğretmeni kızdırırlar.
Spatial relation plural direct obj.
temporal structure of event
person agreement with subj
These morphemes did not create new words but mark grammatical relations: inflectional morphemes.
Number, case, tense and agreement markers in Turkish are inflectional morphemes.
How different characteristics can combine in a single morpheme?• Let’s test «insan-lık» following the chart to discover type of the morpheme
Another test to discover the type of the morpheme
• Consider the use of the infinitive marker –mAk
• Claim: whatever precedes the infinitive marker –mAk should be considered as the stem; therefore anything in it as derivational
Eg. Koşuş-tur-du
The infinitive form: koş-uş-tur-mak
What precedes –mAk: koş-uş-tur
Derivational morphemes
Morpheme ordering Why are a and c are possible but not b?
a) Kalınlaştırılmamışlardanmışmş
b) *Kalıntırlaş
c) kalınlaştırılmamıştanmışmışlar
! Considering that Turkish is an agglunative language, the
order of morphemes in a sentence is fixed and each morpheme is used in the position specified for it.
b)Ungrammatical: causative-DIr is used after -lAş
If the morphemes are in right order, you can produce the followings grammatically
• öl-üm-süz-leş-tir-t-tir-il-e-me-yebil-in-en-ler-de-ki-ler-den-mi-ymis-ler-ce-sin-e
• Gör-üş-tür-ül-e-me-ye de bil-iyor-mu-ydu-nuz?
• *kes-ler-im vs kesimler
! Inflection follows derivation as derivational morphemes are more firmly attached than inflectional ones:
• Root+Derivation+Inflection
Turkish inflectional suffixes
1. nominal inflectional suffixes
Those marking number, possession, case
Eg: çocuk-lar- ın-a
2. Verbal inflectional suffixes
Those marking verb forms
root-voice-negation-tense/aspect/modality-copular marker-person marker-DIr
Eg. Otur-acağ-ım
Nominal inflectional suffixes in Turkish
• plural suffix: -lAr• Possessive suffixes: evim, evin, evi, evimiz, eviniz, evleri• Case suffixes:
• Accusative: saray-ı• Dative: masa-(y)a• Locative: ev-de• Ablative: okul-dan• Genetive: çocuğ-un
• Other nominal inflectional markers: • ile (kedimle)• -ki (dünkü, odanınki)
Eg. arabanınkiyle
Verbal inflectional suffixes in Turkish• Voice suffixes
• Causative: yap-TIR, piş-İR, çık-AR, çök-ERT• Passive: yıka-N, del-İN, yap-IL• Reflexive: giy-İN, sar-IN, ört-ÜN• Reciprocal: öp-ÜŞ, gör-ÜŞ
• Negative marker: -ma, git-ME• Tense aspect modality markers:• Copular markers: (y)DI, -(y)mIş and –(y)sA (bırakmışTI,
hastaYDI, yürümekteYMİŞler, evdeYMİŞler, koşuyorSAk, hevesliYSEk)
• Person markers: (odamdayIM, kaçsaN, çalışıyorUZ)
What if more than one inflectional morpheme are used in a word?(6)
a. Kitap
b. Kitap-lık
c. Kitap-lık-lar
d. Kitap-lık-lar-ım
e. Kitap-lık-lar-ım-da
! They also combine in a predictable order.
Stem+plural+person+place marker
In the case of verbal inflections:
(7)
a. Boya-dı-m
b. Boya-ma-dı-m
c. Boya-t-tı-m
d. Boya-t-ma-dı-m
The permissible order:
(causative) + (negation) + tense + person
! Each suffix takes the preceding stem as the scope of its semantic and syntactic material• Table 7: outer layers of words are formed by inflectional;
inner layers by derivational morphemes
Allomorphy• Allomorphs: the variations of the same morpheme. • Every morpheme has predictable allomorphs in
complementary distribuiton, in that thay cannot appear in the same phonological environment (*evlar, *işlar,*okuller, *otoler).
(8)
a. [ler] ev-ler, iş-ler, kütük-ler, söz-ler
b. [lar] okul-lar, sınıf-lar, kutu-lar, toz-lar
Let’s remember
Vowel chart Turkish vowels
Turkish vowels
Front Back
Unrounded
Rounded
Unrounded
Rounded
High i ü ı u
Low e ö a o
How is the choice between /e/ and /a/ determined?
By the preceding stem vowel.
In (8a), all the preceding stem vowels are front
In (8b), all the preceding stem vowels are non front
! Front vowels + [-ler]
Back vowels + [-lar]
Other patterns of distribution for some productive allomorphs in Turkish:
• The morpheme marking reported past /-mIş/• The morpheme marking definite past /-DI/• The agentive morpheme /-CI/• First person agreement marker /-(y)Im/
The morpheme marking reported past /-mIş/
• 4 allomorphs – applies to Vs
Conditioned by the rounding harmony, the high suffix /i/• Back unrounded vowels + [-mış]• Front unrounded vowels + [-miş]• Back rounded vowels + [-muş]• Front rounded vowels + [-müş]
The morpheme marking definite past /-DI/
• 8 allomorphs – applies to Vs
Conditioned by preceding stem vowel and consonant
Consonants share voicing feature: voiced con.+/d/ vs voiceless con. + /t/
Vowels share backness and rounding features
The agentive morpheme /-CI/• 8 allomorphs – applied to Ns –means one making or
selling N
• Conditioned by consonant harmony in voicing and rounding harmony in both backness and rounding
First person agreement marker /-(y)Im/
• 4 allomorphs – marks the subject of the sentence on predicative nouns and adjectives
• Conditioned by rounded harmony.• The buffer –y is inserted when the stem ends in a vowel
summary• What is morphology?• What is a morpheme?• How are words structured in Turkish?• What is an allomorph?
Summaryhow are morphemes classified?
DERIVATIONALBound(prefix –infix-suffix)
INFLECTIONALBound(suffix)
FREE
CONTENT MORPHEME
Class and/or meaning changing affixesEg. –Lık, -sAl, -CI
x Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs
FUNCTIONAL MORPHEME
X Suffixes marking grammatical relationshipsEg. –lAr, -DI, -mIş
Postpositions, pronouns, determiners, conjuctions,etc.