Motivation

To understand motivation, let us see other related terms like Motive, motivating and morale

Motive.

The term motivation, motive or motivating have their origin in Latin word, mōtīvus or ‘movere’ meaning  serving to move, or movement and what maintains it.

The term Motive is used to describe the drive that impels an individual to work.

What we imply from the word motive is :-

Something that causes a person to act in a certain way, do a certain thing, etc.; incentive. The goal or object of a person's actions:

As for as definition of the word motive is concerned it can be defined as desire to reach a goal that has value for the individual.

The inner state that energizes, activates and directs the behavior of individuals towards certain goals.

The strong motives or needs cause restlessness or stress in human beings. To keep them under control, the individual is propelled into action. Thus motives induce individuals to channel their behavior towards such action that would reduce their state of restlessness or inner disequilibrium.

Thus motives can be defined as drives that energize people to action.

Motivation. The word motivation means ‘reason for doing’While motives are energizers of action, motivation is the actual action that is works behavior itself.

For example, when an employee works hard, his level of motivation is considered high and if an employee shirks work, his level of motivation is considered low.

Thus, the level of motivation of an employee is judged by his actual work behavior.

Motivating.

Motivating is a term that implies that one person induces another to engage in action or work behavior by ensuring that a channel to direct the motive of an individual becomes available and accessible to the individual.

Managers play a significant role in channelizing the strong motives in a direction that is satisfying to both the organization and the employee.

They also have to ensure that such goal directed behaviours are sustained or maintained over time in the interest of the organization.

Managers are also responsible for awakening or activating the latent motives in individuals-i.e. the needs that are less strong or and somewhat dormant, and harness these for the benefit of the organization.

Latent potentials can be tapped by proper understanding of how to motivate people at the work setting.

Classification of Motives.

Basically the motives can be classified as the Primary motives or the drives and Secondary motives .

Primary motives.

Primary motives are unlearned and physiologically based.

They play pivotal role in ‘homeostasis’ or the maintenance of bodily stability.

Brain ensures that homeostasis is preserved by maintaining continuous supply of all essential substance to our cells.

When any of these substance is in short supply, we experience drive or primary motive.

Primary motives can be defined as pattern of brain activity resulting from physiological imbalance threatening homeostasis.Common Primary motives include hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of pain, sex and maternal concerns.

Secondary Motives.

Secondary motives are product of learning.Some of the examples are the need for power, achievement, affiliation, security and status.

Behavioural Science or industrial psychology is concerned with understanding an individual through his motives.

It studies individual’s socio-psychological motives in detail to find out why man behaves the way he does.

Socio-psychological motives

These are neither inborn nor related directly to a man’s survival. These originate from the training which he acquires from different social organizations to which he belongs.

Socio-psychological motives unlike physiological motives are largely learnt and vary from culture to culture.

These include acquisitiveness, security, status, autonomy, affiliation, achievement, dependence, aggression, power and nurturance.

They can be divided in to affiliate and egoistic motives; both are related to people.

Affiliate Motives.Deal with belonging ness, friendship or affection with people.

Egoistic Motives.Relate to a position over people. Power, status, prestige, esteem etc fall under this category.

`The Complexity of Motivation

Human Motivation is quite complex.

Human behavior is multi-motivational.

More than one motive can be at work simultaneously and many a times the individual himself may not be aware of this.

Under such circumstances, motivational analysis of behavior is difficult.

Also, same motive can give rise to various different kind of behavior and various different motives may lead to same behavior. For example desire to be rich and famous may induce someone to start an industrial unit, write a book, to marry the only daughter of some industrialist, Excelling in sports or art. All these different behavior may lead to same end.

Conversely, different motives sometimes may result in one type of behavior. For example a person may write a book to utilize his knowledge, for creativeness, or for acquiring wealth.

To add to the complications, people often do things without being aware of the basic motive or motives involved. Like person dismissed from the service may genuinely believe that his boss was biased rather than realizing his own inefficiency.

Whether motives are consciously present or unconsciously, many of them may act on an individual simultaneously. This may lead to an individual being in conflict.

For example- a person may have caused damage to his organization, may be willing to tell his management honestly. But fear of losing the job may force him to remain quite. This person is in conflict.

To sum up, difficulties in inferring motives from behavior are:-•Similar motives may be manifested through different behavior.•Different motives may be expressed through similar behavior.•Motives may appear in disguised form.•Any single act of behavior may express several motives.•Expression of motives differs from culture to culture and from person to person within a culture.•Motives vary in strength not only from one individual to another but within the same individual at different times.

Since it is difficult to anticipate or know everything about the motives operating within an individual and from outside, it is difficult to predict behavior.

Moreover for accurately predicting behavior it is essential to know the relative strength of these drives at that particular moment.

It is important to understand that decision to strike, to quit the job, to ask for salary hike, to talk back to the boss, to argue with a colleague rarely result from a single motive, irrespective of the fact that the employee one asked to explain may have given one reason. Known or unknown to him at that time are the consequences of satisfying various psychological needs and the social drives of various strengths operating in the situation and in him.

Morale

According to Alexander H. Leighton, "morale is the capacity of a group of people to pull together persistently and consistently in pursuit of a common purpose".

Morale, also known as esprit de corps when discussing the morale of a group, is an intangible term used to describe the capacity of people to maintain belief in an institution or a goal, or even in oneself and others..

The second term applies particularly to military personnel and to members of sports teams, but is also applicable in business and in any other organizational context, particularly in times of stress or controversy.

While the term is often used by senior authority as a generic value judgment of the willpower, obedience and self-discipline of a group tasked with performing duties assigned by a superior, more accurately it refers to the level of individual faith in the collective benefit gained by such performance

Managers cannot overlook employee morale when evaluating a team's success or productivity.

Although it is often difficult to measure and takes several data points to gauge its impact, when morale is low, you feel it.

Gone are the days when employers could ignore the interests and commitment levels of their employees. A war for talent is overshadowing loyalty and longevity with one company. This war incites employees to shop around for the organization that best caters to their needs. As a result, taking time to understand and connect with employees is critical and expected.

Unfortunately, low morale is contagious and can spread like a cancerous cell through a team or organization. The good news is you can treat it. Keeping morale high and employees positive should be at the top of every leader's list. Do not just count on short-lived programs, bonuses, or ice-cream breaks to change morale in your team.

Make it an everyday practice.

Research on low morale

You have heard the saying employees leave managers, not companies. Now, research is backing that claim.

A study by the Corporate Leadership Council in 2003 reveals managers have a tremendous impact on an employee's level of commitment.

In fact, more than 70% of their commitment is based upon manager interaction. We have all probably endured at least one manager in our career with less than desirable characteristics that have frustrated us or did not make us feel valued.

Unfortunately, this disconnect yields thousands of hours of lost productivity and results in employees feeling disconnected from their daily work and the organization as a whole. 

Improving morale is good for business.

The Gallup Organization estimates there are 22 million actively disengaged employees costing the American economy up to $350 billion per year in lost productivity, including absence, illness, and other problems that result when workers are unhappy at work.

Leaders who keep their employees involved, engaged, and connected are ultimately improving business performance through their people. Employees want to believe their ideas are being heard and want to feel empowered to make decisions and changes in the workplace.  Taking time to build relationships with employees through personal interactions is a key step managers can take to keep morale high.

David Lee, a consultant, speaker, and executive coach out of Bar Mills, Maine, offers a quick check list, called the Top Three, managers can use on a daily basis to make sure they're contributing to high morale:

•Notice when your people do something well and tell them about it.•Listening cultivates respect. Do not just talk at employees; listen to their ideas, concerns, and opinions.•Show more appreciation. Appreciation is the biggest motivator for employees. Managers who do not express appreciation sow the seeds of discontent and disengagement.

INTRODUCTION TO MOTIVATION

Earlier employees were treated as just another

input into the production of goods & services.

(Scientific school of management)

HAWTHORNE STUDIES conducted by ELTON MAYO

(1924-32) changed this way of thinking

Found that money is not the sole motivator;

employee behavior is linked to their attitudes

This study began the HUMAN RELATIONS

APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT whereby needs &

motivation of employees became the primary focus

of Managers.

MOTIVATION DEFINED

Motivation has been defined as the

psychological process that gives

behavior purpose & direction;

Is operationally an inner force that

drives individuals to accomplish

personal & organizational goals

Mullins (1993) defines

motivation as the driving

force within individuals by

which they attempt to

achieve some goal in order to

fulfill some need or

expectation.

Motivation could be Motivation could be extrinsicextrinsic: related : related

to tangible rewards such as money to tangible rewards such as money

promotions, perks etc.promotions, perks etc.

It could also be It could also be intrinsicintrinsic: Related to : Related to

psychological rewards such as a sense psychological rewards such as a sense

of challenge and achievementof challenge and achievement

…….. IS THE SELF PROPELLING FORCE WITHIN A MAN WHICH KEEPS PROMPTING HIM TO IMPROVE HIS PERFORMANCE, HIS BEHAVIOUR. IT IS HIS WILL AND KEENNESS TO ACHIEVE NOT WHAT HE IS SUPPOSED TO ACHIEVE BUT WHAT HE SETS FOR HIMSELF TO ACHIEVE.

(PROF SL DASS)

……. ATTEMPTING TO MOBILISE THE SELF TO APPLY IT IN THE PURSUIT OF ONE’S GOAL OR OBJECTIVE.

(PULIN GARG)

……… HOW BEHAVIOUR GETS STARTED, IS ENERGISED, IS SUSTAINED, IS DIRECTED, IS STOPPED AND WHAT KIND OF SUBJECTIVE REACTION IS PRESENT IN THE ORGANISMS WHILE ALL THIS IS GOING ON.

(JONES)

MOTIVATION THEORIES: MAJOR APPROACHES

*Douglas McGregor’s Traditional Theory-X and Theory-Y

*Abraham Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory.

*Frederick Herzberg’s Two factor Theory.

*Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory.

*Mc Clelland’s Achievement/MotivationTheory.

*Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory.

Theories of Motivation

The studies can be classified into two groups, on the basis of convenience and simplifications viz

Traditional Theories/ Early Theories . Modern Theories./ Contemporary Theories

Traditional Theories.

These are based on mostly the “ human relation approach” in management, with little attention to psychological processes that occur.

Modern Theories.

Prescription Theories.Content Theories.Process Theories.Behavior Model Theories.Cognitive Theories.

Prescription Theories.

•Taylor’s scientific mgt.•Hawthorne's Human Relation Model.•McGregor’s Y-Theory.

Content Theories.

•Maslow's Need Hierarchy.•Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory.•McClelland’s Need for achievement Theory.

Process Theories.

Behaviour Model Theories.

Cognitive Theories.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theories.

MOTIVATION THEORIES

INDL CENTREDAPPROACH

MASLOW’SHIERARCHY OFNEEDS

ERG THEORY

MCLELLAND’SNEEDS THEORY

PAREEK’S MOD

WORK CENTREDAPPROACH

HERBERG’S THEORY

THEORY X/Y

EXPECTANCY THEORY

ADAM’S EQUITYTHEORY

SOCIO ACTIONMODEL

There are basically two types of theories that relate to and define the motivational processes:-

*Content Theories*Process Theories

Content theories*They attempt to determine and specify drives and needs that motivate people to work.*They focus on factors within a person that initiate and direct a certain type of behavior or check certain other types of behavior.*The basic idea underlying these theories is that people have some fundamental needs, both physiological and psychological in nature, and that they are motivated to engage in activities that would satisfy such needs.*The nature of needs establishes the nature of motivation that results in a specific behavior aimed at reaching the goals of satisfying such needs.

The following theories can be categorized as part of Content Theories:-

*Mcgregors’s Theory X and Theory Y*Maslow’s Theory.*ERG Theory.*McClelland’s theory of needs*Herzberg’s two factor Theory

Process Theories

While need theories of motivation concentrate on” what” motivates a person, Process theories concentrate on how motivation occurs

Cognitive models of motivation are based on the idea that people make conscious decisions about their job behavior. Accordingly, if managers want to motivate workers in better way, they must understand the process by which individuals makes decisions about how much efforts they will put on the job.

The following theories can be categorized as part of Cognitive or Process Theories:-

*Victor Vroom’s Expectancy theory.*Equity theory.*Goal Setting Theory

THEORIES

Content Theories

ReinforcementTheory

Contemporary Theories

Early Theories

Scientific Management

Human Relation model

Process Theories

Vroom’s ExpectancyModel

Adam’s Equity Theory

Porter and Lawler’s Performance Satisfaction Theory

Maslow’s NeedHierarchy Theory

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory

Theories of Motivation

McGregor’s Theory ’X’ and Theory ‘Y’

Douglas McGregor, a professor of Industrial Administration at MIT, in his ‘human side of the enterprise’ he proposed two distinct views and assumptions about human behavior. One basically negative- theory ‘X’ and one basically positive theory ‘Y’

TRADITIONAL THEORY ‘X’• Most people dislike work and avoid it wherever

possible.

• Assumes that people are lazy, hate work, have no

ambition, take no initiative & avoid taking

responsibility.

• They need to be directed, controlled and

threatened with punishment to make them work.

• All they want is security, & to get them to work

they want rewards, and are to be

coerced,intimidated & punished- ‘The carrot &

stick philosophy’

Managers who hold Theory X are likely to

constantly police their staff, whom they cannot

trust & who will refuse to co-operate.

Managers style would be autocratic, would use

threat of punishment to make people work.

Communication is top down.

Environment is minimum manager-employee

relationship

A negative theory

THEORY ‘Y’ – • People wanting to learn & work is their natural

activity

• people see their reward not only in cash payments

but also in the freedom to do difficult &

challenging jobs by themselves.

• Commitment to goals and objectives is a natural

state of behavior for most individuals.

• They will exercise self direction and self control in

pursuit of organizational objectives

• Many individuals seek leadership role in

preference to the security of being led.

Is in sharp contrast to theory ‘X’

Managers who hold Theory Y treat workers as

responsible persons and give them more lattitude.

Communication is multi-directional.

Managers encourage innovation and creativity,

minimize supervision and control.

The Manager’s job is to dovetail the human wish

for self-development into the organization’s need

to maximize productive efficiency

With both these assumptions, in theory ‘X’ managerial role is to coerce and control employees and in theory ‘Y’ it is to develop the potential in employees and help them release their potential towards common objective.

Compared to Theory X, Theory Y as greater potential to develop positive job relationship and motivate employee performance.

In situations where workers require close supervision and greater controls, Theory X is more eff in achieving org goals.

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Theory developed in 1943 base on Maslow’s clinical experiences.

Theory is based on two assumptions.(a)Humans have many needs that are different in nature, ranging from biological needs at lower level( level of survival) to psy needs at the upper extreme( level of growth). (b)These need occur in an order of hierarchy i.e lower level needs must be satisfied befor higher level needs arise.

Needs categorized in five levels : Physiological needs (lowest)Safety needsSocial needsSelf-esteem needsSelf-actualization needs (highest).

Man’s behavior is dominated by his unsatisfied needs & when one is satisfied he aspires for the next higher one

The highest state of self-actualization is characterized by integrity, responsibility, magnanimity,simplicity and naturalness

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

SELF ACTUALISATION NEEDS

EGO NEEDS/ SELF ESTEEM

SOCIAL NEEDS

SAFETY & SECURITY NEEDS

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS.BASIC NEEDS OF HUMAN ORGANISM.

MUST BE SATISFIED TO MAINT LIFE.

THESE NEEDS INCL OXYGEN,FOOD , DRINK, LIGHT ETC.

THEY ARE REPETITIVE IN NATURE .ie TO REMAIN SATISFIED THEY MUST BE MET REPEATEDLY.THUS ARNGS ARE MADE TO PROVIDE FOR THEM ON LONG TERM BASIS.

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS TAKE PRECEDENCE OVER OTHER NEEDS.

WHEN ONE OF THEM IS DOMINANT MAN’S WHOLE PHILOSOPHY REVOLVES AROUND THAT. EG-HUNGRY MAN –BREAD, DROWNING MAN-

Org Context-

Physiological needs represented by employees’ concern for salary and basic working conditions.

Org’s Role-

It is duty of the HR managers to see that these needs are met so that employees can be motivated to strive for gratification of higher order needs.

SAFETY NEEDS.

ONCE PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS ARE RELATIVELY SATISFIED, DESIRE FOR SAFETY & SECURITY BECOMES DOMINANT.

THEN MAN WANTS TO BE FREE FROM DANGER/THREAT/INSECURITIES.

HE WANTS ECONOMIC SECURITY.

HE DOES’NT WANT TO DEPEND ON OTHERS FOR SATISFYING HIS NEEDS.

HE WANTS TO LIVE IN PREDICTABLE AND ORDERLY WORLD.SAFETY NEEDS LINKED WITH SOCIAL SECURITY AND DESIRABLE FUTURE.

Org contextSafety needs co-relate to factors like job security, salary increase, safe working conditions, unionization and protective legislations.

Managerial practices-Measures to satisfy these needs incl pension schemes, gp insurance, PF, gratuity, safe working conditions, grievance redressal procedures.

SOCIAL NEEDS.

*ONCE PHYSIOLOGICAL AND SAFETY NEEDS ARE REASONABLY SATISFIED , SOCIAL NEEDS BECOME DOMINANT.

*MAN IS A GREGARIOUS ANIMAL .LIKES COY, WANT TO LIVE WITH OTHERS, BELONG TO OTHERS.

*WANTS TO BE ACCEPTED & RESPECTED. TO ACHIEVE THIS, HE IS READY TO SACRIFICE HIS INDIVIDUALITY AND EGOISTIC NEEDS TO A CERTAIN DEG.

*MAN LIKES NO INTERFERENCE IN MANNER OF SATISFACTION OF HIS SOCIAL NEEDS.

*LEADERS TRYING TO CONT SUBORDINATES’ RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHERS, FACE DIFFICULTIES.

Org contextThese needs represent need for compatible working gps, peer acceptance, professional friendships, and friendly supervision.

Org PracticeOften friendly relations among employees are viewed as threat to mgt. Managers tend to control and direct employees relationships. They also do not like informal gps.

EGO/ ESTEEM NEEDS.

MAN DOES NOT WANT TO FEEL WEAK,INFERIOR OR HELPLESS.

HIS ESTEEM NEEDS ARE RELATED TO HIS SELF IMAGE,CREATED BOTH BY HIM AS WELL AS OTHERS ESTIMATION OF HIM.

ESTEEM NEEDS ARE IN TWO PARTS:-

* FIRST PART RELATED TO MAN’S SELF RESPECT, SELF CONFIDENCE. COMPETENCE,SENSE OF ACHIEVEMENT AND INDEPENDENCE.

* SECOND PART REFERS TO NEED FOR REPUTATION,RECOG AND APRE.

IN PRAC TWO ASPECTS OF ESTEEM NEEDS TAKE THE FORM OF COMPETETION.

THE COMPETETIVE SPIRIT, THE DESIRE TO EXCEL AND SURPASS THE PERFORMANCE OF ONE’S COLLEAGUE IS A UNIVERSAL HUMAN TRAIT.

IN THE ORG,SELF ESTEEM IS DERIVED FROM ONE’S FEELING ABOUT ONE’S WK AND ITS EVALUATION BY OTHERS.

Org contextSelf esteem needs correspond to job title, merit pay, peer/ supervisory recognition, challenging assignments, responsibility and publicity in company publications.

Org PracticeTo fulfill these needs managerial practices must incl challenging work assignments, performance feedback, performance recognition, personal encouragement and involving employees in goal setting and decision making.

SELF ACTUALISATION NEEDS.

WHEN ALL NEEDS OF MAN ARE SATISFIED, HIS DESIRE TO GROW PSYCHOLOGICALLY STILL REMAINS.

THIS NEED IS REFERRED AS NEED TO GROW PSYCHOLOGICALLY, TO ATTAIN A DEG OF AUTONOMY AND CHOICE ABOUT SELF AND TO UTILISE ONE’S POTENTIAL.

ALSO REFERRED AS DESIRE FOR SELF FULFILMENT.

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

BASIC NEEDS

INDEP OF EACH OTHER

SPECIFIC LOC IN BODY

REPETITIVE

SAFETY & SECURITY

FREEDOM FROM DANGER

ECONOMIC SECURITY

SELF DEPENDENT

PREDICTAB- ILITY

SOCIAL NEEDS

BELONGING-NESS

FRIENDS

AFFECTION

EMOTIONAL

WILLING TO FORGO PART OF FREEDOM

EGO & ESTEEM

SELF IMAGE

SELF RESPECT

CONFIDENCE

COMPETENCE

INDEP

REPUTATION

APPRE

SELF ACTUALISA-TION

ALL NEEDS SATISFIED

PSY GROWTH

ACCOMPLISH-MENT

ATTAINMENT

LOW ORDER

MAINT NEEDS

HIGH ORDER GROWTH NEEDS

Analysis of Maslow’s Theory.

Analysis of Maslow’s Theory.

The theory is based on assumption. But it is true that man is continuously wanting.

All his needs are never fully satisfied.

As soon as one need is reasonably satisfied, its prepotency diminishes and another need emerges to replace it.

So at last some needs remain unsatisfied which keeps the man to continue to strive to satisfy them.This presents a simple solution to managerial problems.Managers can try to satisfy the needs of people in Maslow’s hierarchical order.

There are some basic questions.Does every man tries to satisfy all his needs based on Maslow’s model.Is his hierarchy rigid.If answers to these questions are ‘yes’, then there is no problem in motivating people.

But there are loopholes in this theory.Rigid hierarchy of needs does not exist.A man in need of self actualization , can not froget his food.Even if we presume that hierarchy exists, it may not be same for all.Need Hierarchy will be different for managers from USA, UK and from Japan.Even with in same country, people from culturally disadvantaged background will have different need hierarchy.

Actually hierarchy is not so rigid for all the people for all the time.•Some people may be deprived of their lower orders of needs but they may try for self actualization. E.g. Mahatma Gandhi.•There are some people for whom self esteem needs are more important than social needs. •There is considerable disorder amongst Physiological needs, safety needs, social needs and esteem needs. E.g. some people do not care for job security ( security needs ) but care for social needs. Some people do not care for social needs but self esteem needs.

•For some people many of the needs may not form part of their need hierarchy. •There is not only question of reversal of hierarchy but discontinuation of hierarchy..E.g. some people may be deprived of social needs from their child hood. They may develop apathy towards such needs, they may even develop high order for such needs.

•Even if this theory is accepted to be entirely valid, will managers have time to leisurely place all employees in Maslow’s need hierarchy. Will they be able to find tailor-made solutions for every employees’ needs.

Abraham Maslow’s Theory has many un answered questions.Actually Maslow did not propound this for motivation.Infact, it was used as Motivation theory almost 20 years later.These unanswered are to some extent answered by ERG Theory.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory.

Alderfer classified various needs into three categories :-

Existence needs.Relatedness needs.Growth needs.

First letters of these three needs are used to call the theory ERG theory.

Existence Needs.

All needs related to physiological and safety aspects of an individual.

Relatedness Needs.

All those needs that involve relationship with other people whom the individual cares.

Growth Needs.

Growth needs involve individuals making creative efforts to achieve full potential in the existing environment.

Analysis of ERG’s Theory

Relationship between Maslow’s need Hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG theory.

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

SELF ACTUALISATIONNEEDS (REALISATION OFPOTENTIAL)

EGO NEEDS/ SELF ESTEEM

SOCIAL NEEDS

BELONGINGNESS / AFFECTION

SAFETY & SECURITY NEEDS

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

ALDERFER’S MODIFIED THEORY - ERG

EXISTENCE - RELATEDNESS - GROWTH NEEDS.

GROWTH NEEDS

RELATEDNESSNEEDS

EXISTENCENEEDS LOW

ORDER--MAINTNEEDS

HIGH ORDER GROWTH- NEEDS

Implications of ERG Theory

ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY

1. Compressed Maslow’s five levels into three.

2. There is no rigid hierarchy.

3. A person may be working on growth even though existence and relatedness needs are unsatisfied.

4. More than one need may be operative or activated at any one time.

1. Maslow advocated climbing levels. Maslow’s theory implied that a person will stay at certain level until that need is satisfied. ERG counters it by stating that when higher level need is frustrating, indl’s desire to increase a lower level need takes place.

2. For example- inability to satisfy need for social interaction, might increase the desire for money or for better working conditions.

3. Thus, the ERG theory contains a frustration-regression dimension.

4. Frustration at higher level need can lead to regression at lower level need.

ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY(FRUSTRATION – REGRESSION CYCLE

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

BASIC NEEDS

INDEP OF EACH OTHER

SPECIFIC LOC IN BODY

REPETITIVE

SAFETY & SECURITY

FREEDOM FROM DANGER

ECONOMIC SECURITY

SELF DEPENDENT

PREDICTAB- ILITY

SOCIAL NEEDS

BELONGING-NESS

FRIENDS

AFFECTION

EMOTIONAL

WILLING TO FORGO PART OF FREEDOM

EGO & ESTEEM

SELF IMAGE

SELF RESPECT

CONFIDENCE

COMPETENCE

INDEP.

REPUTATION

SELF ACTUALISA-TION

ALL NEEDS SATISFIED

PSY GROWTH

ACCOMPLISH-MENT

ATTAINMENT

EXISTENCE NEEDS

RELATEDNESS NEEDS

GROWTH

NEEDS

SUCCESS

SUCCESS

FRUSTRATE

FRUSTRATEREGRESS

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory or Two Factor Theory

Frederickk Herzberg (1959)extended work of Maslow and developed a specific ‘Content Theory of Work Motivation’.

Based on an analysis of 200 engineers & accountants in the Pittsburgh area, USA

People work first & foremost in their own self-interest, for they are truly happy & mentally healthy through work accomplishment

Herzberg identified two kinds of needs-HYGIENE FACTORS and MOTIVATORS

Herzberg found that there are some job conditions which operate primarily to dissatisfy employees when the conditions are absent,

however, their presence does not motivate them in a strong way.

Another set of job conditions operate primarily to build strong motivation and high job satisfaction,

but their absence rarely proves strongly dissatisfying.

The first set of job conditions have been referred as Maintenance or Hygiene Factor.

And second set of job conditions as Motivational Factors.

job conditions which operate primarily to dissatisfy employees when the conditions are absent, but their presence does not motivate them in a strong way are called Hygiene Factors.

job conditions which operate primarily to build strong motivation and high job satisfaction, but their absence rarely proves strongly dissatisfying are called Motivators.

HYGIENE FACTORS

ABSENCEDISSATISFACTION

PRESENCE NO SATISFACTION (PREVENT DISSATIS- FACTION)

MOTIVATORS

ABSENCENO SATISFACTIONNOT LEAD TO DISSATIS-FACTION

PRESENCESATISFACTION

HERZBERG’S TWO FACTORS THEORY

HUMAN NEEDS

THOSE WHICH SUSTAIN MOTVN

HYGIENE FACTORS

THOSE WHICHPROMOTE MOTVN

MOTIVATORS

Hygiene factors are related to job environment-working conditions ,money, status, perks etc.

Motivators involve feelings of achievement, professional growth, recognition etc

Unsatisfactory hygiene factors can act as de-motivators, but if satisfactory, their motivational effect is limited

Motivators ,on the other hand, are effective in motivating people to superior performance

HYGIENE FACTOR AND MOTIVATION

• Herzberg theory-highlighted the imp of needs in motivated behaviour.

• He divided human needs in two broad cats-• those which sustain motivation • those which promote motivation.

When dissatisfied ,they blame work environment.

This implies- factors which satisfy them are embedded in content of their job and factors which dissatisfied them are related to context of their job.

When people satisfied with their job, they mainly appriciate the intrinsic nature of work and opportunity it provides in revealing their professional competence.

When we improve content of job in terms of making it more challenging, imp or innovative, we arouse intrinsic desire.

When we improve contextual factors like wkg conditions, status etc, we stall existing level of their motivation from going down.

The first set of needs is called the motivators and the other are called hygiene

MOTIVATION AND HYGIENE FACTORS

MOTIVATOR HYGIENE FACTOR

THE JOB ITSELF THE ENVIRONMENT

•ACHIEVEMENT

•RECOGNITION FOR ACCOMPLISHMENT

•CHALLENGING WORK

•INCREASED RESPONSIBILITY

•GROWTH & DEVP•PROMOTION OPPORTUNITIES

POLICIES & ADM

QUALITY OF SUPERVISION

WORKING CONDITIONS

IP RELATIONS

MONEY, STATUS, JOB SECURITY PAY, PROMOTION

Hygiene Factors.

*Company policy and Administration.•Technical supervision.•Interpersonal relationship with supervisor.•Interpersonal relationship with peers.•Interpersonal relationship with subordinates.•Salary.•Job security.•Personal life.•Working conditions.•Status.

Motivational factors.

•Achievement .•Recognition.•Advancement.•Work itself.•Possibility of growth.•Responsibility.

Analysis of Herzberg Theory.

Herzberg has made an important contribution in the field of work motivation and job satisfaction.

His theory draws attention of the mgt to the fact that for ensuring efficiency of employees, attention has to be paid to the motivators in addition to the hygiene factor.

Theory insists that the key to motivation lies in structuring meaning full jobs, provide sense of achievement, recognition and responsibility.

The theory makes the managers responsive to the intrinsic factors instead of extrinsic factors of motivation.

The theory played an important part in encouraging organizations to enrich jobs, make them more demanding, increase the degree of workers’ control over his environment and work activities.

McClelland’s Need Theory.

In 1940s David C McClelland , a Harvard psychologist and his associates began to study the three needs that motivate human behaviour-power, affiliation and achievement.

As per this, each person has a need for all three as well as others too. But people differ in degree to which various needs motivate their behaviour.

Since lower level needs of Maslow’s model are satisfied by, business, societal and legal systems, they are no longer motivators.

McClelland concluded that from OB pt of view, most important need is for achievement ,affiliation and power.

Achievement motivation theory of McClelland Achievement motivation theory of McClelland

[1950/1960] is based on the interplay between [1950/1960] is based on the interplay between

need for achievement and the motivational drives need for achievement and the motivational drives

of an individual. of an individual.

Need for achievement is based on a combination Need for achievement is based on a combination

of intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation.of intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation.

This is also influenced by education, awareness, This is also influenced by education, awareness,

social and cultural background and values. social and cultural background and values.

McClelland’s Need Theory.

•Need for Power.

•Need for affiliation.

•Need for achievement.

Power Motives.

Ability to induce or influence behavior or drive for superiority over others is Power

.Power need is desire to affect and control behavior of others and to manipulate surroundings.

POWER NEED ( n Pow) Power is real basis of our social & organisational functioning

Emergence of pecking order among a gp of persons is as basic a human drive as any other.

This shows that some people have high need power and some high need dependency

POWER NEED---contdPeople with high need power are more interested in monitoring & supervising other’s activities than performing them himself. Likes to work through people. In an unstructured gp likely to emerge as ldr or Atleast most dominating member of the gp. Likely to posses unusual verbal faculty to Become persuasive and argumentative. Also likely to become a talking bore-thus Lose gp eff. Likely to become a hard headed autocrat. ldr’s behaviour in two ways:-

Authoritative mannerwith little concern for Feelings of subordinates, rude in behaviour. Consider power belongs to org. Sacrifice pers Interest for the sake of the org.

Affiliation Motive.

Such people are social beings.They like to interact and be with others in situations where they feel they belong and are accepted.

NEED FOR AFFILIATION (n Aff)

A missionary at heart. Intense desire for warm, friendly, Compassionate relationship with others. Consoling estranged friends. Bringing about peace & harmony among Warring parties. Likes participating in meetings, social activities. Wants to be liked by others. An indl with overdose of this may not be eff ldr. Certain deg of this need essential for empathy.

Achievement Motive.

Behavioral scientists have observed that some people have intense desire to achieve.

McClelland feels that need for achievement is a distinct human motive that can be distinguished from other needs.

It can also be isolated and assessed in a group.

NEED ACHIEVEMENT ( n Ach) Manifestation of indl’s competitive spirit. Spends most time-how to do job better, how to advance in career, how to excel, to accomplish. Neither a dreamer nor a gambler. Hardworking, who plans his activities with foresight. Dislikes routine & easy jobs. Likes taking calculated risks Sets goals beyond his reach, but can be achieved with concentrated efforts. Believes in principle of stretching. Likely to give a push fwd to his unit. With desire to achieve results-sure to innovate & create new ideas & add to eff functioning of his command. Tends to become more a doer than a developer.

Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Based on the belief that motivation is determined by the nature of reward people expect to get as a result of their job performance.

The underlined assumption is that a man is a rational being and will try to maximize his perceived value of such rewards.

He would chose an alternative that gives him maximum benefits. People are highly motivated if they believe that a certain type of behavior will lead to certain type of outcome.

• Is based on the belief that employee effort will

lead to rewards which may be either positive or

negative

• The more positive the reward the more likely the

employee will be highly motivated

• Conversely the more negative the reward the

less likely the employee will be motivated

Focuses on:

Effort-performance relationship

Performance-awards relationship

Awards-personal goals/expectations

relationship

Efforts

Performance Rewards

Equity Theory

The core of the equity theory is the principle of balance or equity.

As per this motivation theory, an individual’s motivation level is correlated to his perception of equity, fairness and justice practiced by the management.

Higher is individual’s perception of fairness, greater is the motivation level and vice versa.

While evaluating fairness, employee compares the job input (in terms of contribution) to outcome (in terms of compensation) and also

compares the same with that of another peer of equal cadre/category.

D/I ratio (output-input ratio) is used to make such a comparison

Equity theory was first developed in 1963 by John Stacey Adams a behavioral psychologist.

It is a theory that attempts to explain relational satisfaction in terms of perceptions of fair/unfair distributions of resources within interpersonal relationships.

•Assumptions of the Equity Theory•The theory demonstrates that the individuals are concerned both with their own rewards and also with what others get in their comparison.•Employees expect a fair and equitable return for their contribution to their jobs.•Employees decide what their equitable return should be after comparing their inputs and outcomes with those of their colleagues.

Employees who perceive themselves as being in an inequitable scenario will attempt to reduce the inequity either by distorting inputs and/or outcomes psychologically, by directly altering inputs and/or outputs, or by quitting the organization

Example.Sham, B Tech from BITS Pilani, placed in a muli national coy in Delhi at Rs 9,80,000/PA It was challenging work, in a prestigious coy, excellent opportunity to gain valuable experience, highest salary for the season for campus placement.Sham was very happy. But being top ranker in nationaly reputed institute, he was expected to get that kind of job and salary.One year passed. Sham’s job was interesting and challenging as expected by him. He performed well. Mgt was happy. He got a raise of Rs 20,000/-PMSham’s motivational level dropped. He is even thinking of leaving the job.

His coy has hired Suresh this year straight from the campus. Who does not have the one year experience what Sham has gained. But his package is Rs 1.25 million PA, Rs 25, 000/ Pm more than Sham.Example highlights role that equity plays in motivation

Goal Setting Theory

In 1960’s, Edwin Locke put forward the Goal-setting theory of motivation. This theory states that goal setting is essentially linked to task performance.

It states that specific and challenging goals along with appropriate feedback contribute to higher and better task performance.

In simple words, goals indicate and give direction to an employee about what needs to be done and how much efforts are required to be put in.

Important Features of Goal setting Theory

The willingness to work towards attainment of goal is main source of job motivation.

Clear, particular and difficult goals are greater motivating factors than easy, general and vague goals.

Specific and clear goals lead to greater output and better performance.

Unambiguous, measurable and clear goals accompanied by a deadline for completion avoids misunderstanding.

.

Goals should be realistic and challenging. This gives an individual a feeling of pride and triumph when he attains them, and sets him up for attainment of next goal.

The more challenging the goal, the greater is the reward generally and the more is the passion for achieving it.

Better and appropriate feedback of results directs the employee behaviour and contributes to higher performance than absence of feedback.

Feedback is a means of gaining reputation, making clarifications and regulating goal difficulties. It helps employees to work with more involvement and leads to greater job satisfaction. Employees’ participation in goal setting is not always desirable. Participation of setting goal, however, makes goal more acceptable and leads to more involvement.

Goal setting theory has certain eventualities such as:

Self-efficiency- Self-efficiency is the individual’s self-confidence and faith that he has potential of performing the task. Higher the level of self-efficiency, greater will be the efforts put in by the individual when they face challenging tasks. While, lower the level of self-efficiency, less will be the efforts put in by the individual or he might

even quit while meeting challenges.

Goal commitment- Goal setting theory assumes that the individual is committed to the goal and will not leave the goal. The goal commitment is dependent on the following factors:

*Goals are made open, known and broadcasted.*Goals should be set-self by individual rather than designated. Individual’s set goals should be consistent with the organizational goals and vision

•Advantages of Goal Setting Theory

•Goal setting theory is a technique used to raise incentives for employees to complete work quickly and effectively.•Goal setting leads to better performance by increasing motivation and efforts, but also through increasing and improving the feedback quality.

•Limitations of Goal Setting Theory.•At times, the organizational goals are in conflict with the managerial goals. Goal conflict has a detrimental effect on the performance if it motivates incompatible action drift.•Very difficult and complex goals stimulate riskier behaviour.•If the employee lacks skills and competencies to perform actions essential for goal, then the goal-setting can fail and lead to undermining of performance.•There is no evidence to prove that goal-setting improves job satisfaction.

Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by BF Skinner and his associates.

It states that individual’s behaviour is a function of its consequences.

It is based on “law of effect”, i.e, individual’s behaviour with positive consequences tends to be repeated, but individual’s behaviour with negative consequences tends not to be repeated.

Reinforcement theory of motivation overlooks the internal state of individual, i.e., the inner feelings and drives of individuals are ignored.

This theory focuses totally on what happens to an individual when he takes some action.

Thus, according to Skinner, the external environment of the organization must be designed effectively and positively so as to motivate the employee.

This theory is a strong tool for analyzing controlling mechanism for individual’s behaviour.

However, it does not focus on the causes of individual’s behaviour

Methods used by the managers for controlling the behaviour of the employees

:

Positive Reinforcement- 

This implies giving a positive response when an individual shows positive and required behaviour.

For example - Immediately praising an employee for coming early for job.

This will increase probability of outstanding behaviour occurring again.

Reward is a positive reinforce, but not necessarily.

If and only if the employees’ behaviour improves, reward can said to be a positive reinforcer.

Positive reinforcement stimulates occurrence of a behaviour.

It must be noted that more spontaneous is the giving of reward, the greater reinforcement value it has.

Negative Reinforcement- 

This implies rewarding an employee by removing negative / undesirable consequences.

Both positive and negative reinforcement can be used for increasing desirable / required behaviour.

Punishment- It implies removing positive consequences so as to lower the probability of repeating undesirable behaviour in future.

In other words, punishment means applying undesirable consequence for showing undesirable behaviour.

For instance - Suspending an employee for breaking the organizational rules.

Punishment can be equalized by positive reinforcement from alternative source.

Extinction- 

It implies absence of reinforcements. In other words, extinction implies lowering the probability of undesired behaviour by removing reward for that kind of behaviour. For instance - if an employee no longer receives praise and admiration for his good work, he may feel that his behaviour is generating no fruitful consequence. Extinction may unintentionally lower desirable behaviour

Implications of Reinforcement Theory

•Reinforcement theory explains in detail how an individual learns behaviour. •Managers who are making attempt to motivate the employees must ensure that they do not reward all employees simultaneously. •They must tell the employees what they are not doing correct. They must tell the employees how they can achieve positive reinforcement.

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