motivation and emotion

PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGYAN EXPLORATIONAN EXPLORATION

PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGYAN EXPLORATIONAN EXPLORATION

CHAPTER

Second EditionSecond Edition

Psychology: An Exploration, Second EditionSaundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White

motivation and emotion

8


why study motivation and emotion?The study of motivation not only helps us understand why some people are more driven to achieve than others but also why some people are driven to abuse drugs. Sexual behavior is another motivated activity, one that many struggle to understand—why are there different sexual orientations, for example? Emotions are a part of everything we do, affecting our relationships with others and our own health, as well as influencing important decisions. In this chapter, we will explore the motives behind our actions and the origins and influences of emotions.


Learning Objective Menu

• LO 8.1Instinct and drive-reduction approaches motivation• LO 8.2Three types of needs• LO 8.3Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation• LO 8.4Maslow’s hierarchy of needs• LO 8.5How drug addiction occurs• LO 8.6Motivation of sexual behavior and its variations• LO 8.7Three elements of emotion• LO 8.8James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion• LO 8.9Cognitive arousal theory, facial feedback hypothesis and Co

gnitive-mediational theory


Motivation

• Motivation – Activities are started, directed, and

continued– Physical or psychological needs or wants

are met

• Extrinsic motivation – Action leads to outcome separate from

or external to the person

LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation


Instinct Approaches to Motivation

• Instincts – Biologically determined and innate

patterns of behavior– Exist in both people and animals

• Instinct approach – Assumes people are governed by

instincts similar to those of animals



Drive Reduction Approaches

• Connection between internal physiological states and outward behavior– Need

Requirement of material such as food or water

Essential for survival of the organism



Drive Reduction Approaches

• Connection between internal physiological states and outward behavior– Drive

Psychological tension and physical arousal

Arises from need – Motivates organism to act – Fulfills the need and reduces tension



Some people are driven to do strenuous, challenging activities even when there is no physical need to do so. When a drive is acquired through learning, it is called an acquired or secondary drive. Fulfilling an acquired drive provides secondary reinforcement. What might this rock climber find reinforcing about scaling this steep cliff?


Drive Reduction Theory

• Assumes behavior arises from physiological needs

• Needs cause internal drives to push the organism – Satisfy need – Reduce tension and arousal




• Primary drives – Drives involving needs of the body such

as hunger and thirst

• Acquired (secondary) drives – Drives learned through experience or

conditioning Examples: need for money or social

approval




• Homeostasis – Tendency for body to maintain a steady

state



Figure 8.1 HomeostasisIn homeostasis, the body maintains balance in the body’s physical states. For example, this diagram shows how increased hunger (a state of imbalance) prompts a person to eat. Eating increases the level of glucose (blood sugar), causing the feelings of hunger to reduce. After a period without eating, the glucose levels become low enough to stimulate the hunger drive once again, and the entire cycle is repeated.


Three Types of Needs

• Need for achievement (nAch) – Involves a strong desire to succeed in

attaining goals– Includes realistic and challenging goals

• Need for affiliation (nAff)– Need for friendly social interactions– Relationships with others

LO 8.2 Three types of needs


Many people are driven by a need to attain both realistic and challenging goals. This young girl seems eager to provide an answer to the teacher’s question, and the teacher’s positive feedback will help foster the girl’s need for achievement.


Three Types of Needs

• Need for power (nPow) – Need to have control or influence over

others

LO 8.2 Three types of needs


Donald Trump stands triumphant at the opening of his Trump International Hotel and Tower in New York. Many people who are as wealthy as “The Donald” continue to buy new houses, businesses, clothing, and cars (among other things) even though they do not need them. Such actions are examples of the need for power. How might this need for power be expressed in a person’s relationships with others, such as a spouse, employee, or friend?


Table 9.1 Sample Items From the Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire


Arousal Approaches

• Stimulus motive – Appears to be unlearned – Causes an increase in stimulation

Example: curiosity

LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation


Arousal Approaches

• Arousal theory– People have an optimal (best or ideal)

level of tension – Seek to maintain tension by increasing

or decreasing stimulation– Moderate level of tension appears best

for most tasks



This daring preschool boy has climbed high into this massive tree and looks as though he might try to climb higher still.


Arousal Approach to Motivation

• Yerkes-Dodson law – Performance is related to arousal– Moderate levels of arousal lead to better

performance Effect varies with the difficulty of the

task: – Easy tasks require a high-moderate level– More difficult tasks require a low-moderate

level



Arousal Approach to Motivation

• Yerkes-Dodson law – Sensation seeker

Needs more arousal than the average person

May be related to temperament



Figure 8.2 Arousal and PerformanceThe optimal level of arousal for task performance depends on the difficulty of the task. We generally perform easy tasks well if we are at a high–moderate level of arousal (green) and accomplish difficult tasks well if we are at a low–moderate level (red).


Incentive Approaches

• Behavior is explained as a response to an external stimulus and its rewarding properties– Incentives

Attract or lure people into action Motivate



Incentive Approaches

• Expectancy-value theories – Tolman and others– Actions cannot be predicted without

understanding beliefs, values and importance associated



Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Presents a more positive view of human behavior

• Includes both deficiency needs and growth needs

LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs



• Self-actualization – Point that is seldom reached – Individual has sufficiently satisfied lower

needs – Achieved full human potential– Peak experiences

Times where self-actualization is temporarily achieved



In the movie Castaway, Tom Hanks’s character is stranded on a deserted island. His first concern is to find something to eat and fresh water to drink—without those two things, he cannot survive. Even while he is building a crude shelter, he is still thinking about how to obtain food. Once he has those needs met, however, he gets lonely. He finds a volleyball, paints a handprint and then a crude face on it, and names it “Wilson.” He talks to the volleyball as if it were a person, at first as a kind of way to talk out the things he needs to do and later as a way of staying relatively sane. The need for companionship is that strong.


Figure 8.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow proposed that human beings must fulfill the more basic needs, such as physical and security needs, before being able to fulfill the higher needs of self-actualization and transcendence.



• Cross-cultural research– Suggests order of needs does not

always hold true for other cultures

• Other theorists have developed and refined Maslow’s hierarchy




• Alderfer (1972)– Believed that more than one need could

be active at a time – Progression up and down the hierarchy

is common– One need assumes greater importance

at a particular time than other needs



Self-Determination Theory

• Three inborn universal needs to gain a complete sense of self– Autonomy

In control of one’s own behavior and goals

– Competence Able to master challenging tasks of one’s

life



Self-Determination Theory

• Three inborn universal needs to gain a complete sense of self– Relatedness

Sense of belonging, intimacy, and security in relationships with others



Intrinsic Motivation

• External reward given for performance can have a negative impact– Only with tasks that are not interesting– External rewards may improve

performance if value of task is understood



Researchers have found that when tasks are interesting, external rewards may actually increase intrinsic motivation, at least for a short while. This boy seems actively engaged in the learning process in his classroom, suggesting that he finds the subject interesting. External rewards such as praise from the teacher or gold stars may actually enhance his intrinsic motivation to succeed in this class. How might this child’s enthusiasm for learning affect the teacher’s intrinsic motivation?


Psychoactive Drugs

• Psychoactive drugs – Alter thinking, perception, and

memory

• Physical Dependence– Body craves drug– Tolerance

More of drug is needed to achieve the same effect

LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs


One of the dangers of psychoactive drugs is that they may lead to physical or psychological dependence. Cocaine is a powerful and addictive stimulant and can be sniffed in through the nose or injected, as the man in this photograph is doing.


Psychoactive Drugs

• Physical Dependence– Withdrawal

Physical symptoms Can include nausea, pain, tremors,

crankiness, and high blood pressure Results from a lack of drug in the body

system



Psychoactive Drugs

• Psychological dependence – Drug is needed to continue emotional or

psychological well-being– Powerful factor in continued drug use– Any drug can become a focus of

psychological dependence– No physical withdrawal



Four Major Drug Categories

• Stimulants– Increase functioning of nervous system

• Depressants– Decrease functioning of nervous system

• Narcotics – Painkilling depressant drugs derived

from opium poppy



Four Major Drug Categories

• Hallucinogenics – Alter perceptions– May cause hallucinations



Stimulants

• Amphetamines – Synthesized in labs rather than found in

nature– Quick tolerance and dependence– Amphetamine psychosis

Causes user to become delusional



Stimulants

• Cocaine– Derived from coca plant leaves– Produces euphoria, energy, power, and

pleasure



Stimulants

• Nicotine – Raises blood pressure and accelerates

the heart– Active ingredient in tobacco



Nicotine is highly addictive, and many smokers will go to great lengths to be able to smoke—including smoking right next to the “no smoking” sign.


Stimulants

• Caffeine – Found in coffee, tea, most sodas,

chocolate, some over-the-counter drugs– Mild stimulant, maintains alertness– Can increase effectiveness of pain

relievers such as aspirin



Depressants

• Known as major tranquilizers – Drugs that have a strong depressant

effects

• Barbiturates – Have a sedative (sleep-inducing) effect– Overdoses can lead to death

Breathing and heart action are stopped



Depressants

• Benzodiazepines – Also called Minor Depressants– Lower anxiety– Include Valium, Xanax, Halcion, Ativan,

Librium



Depressants

• Alcohol – Product of fermentation or distillation of

vegetable matter– 10 to 20 million alcoholics in US– Often confused as a stimulant– Alcohol induced deaths in 2003: 20,687



Although many young adults see drinking as a rite of passage into adulthood, few may understand the dangers of “binge” drinking, or drinking four to five drinks within a limited amount of time. Inhibitions are lowered and poor decisions may be made, such as driving while intoxicated. Binge drinking, a popular activity on some college campuses, can also lead to alcoholism.


Narcotics

• Opium-related drugs that suppress sensation of pain

• Bind to receptor sites for endorphin– Opium

Derived from the opium poppy

– Morphine From opium, used to treat severe pain



Narcotics

• Bind to receptor sites for endorphin– Heroin

Derived from opium, extremely addictive

– Methadone Does not produce euphoria, treat

addiction with



Hallucinogens

• Causes brain to alter its interpretation of sensations

• Produces sensory distortions– LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)

Synthesized from ergot Powerful synthetic hallucinogen



Hallucinogens

• Produces sensory distortions– PCP

Used as an animal tranquilizer Can cause stimulant, depressant,

narcotic, or hallucinogenic effects Violent behavior often associated with

use



Hallucinogens

• MDMA (Ecstasy)– Designer drug– Stimulant and hallucinatory effects

possible– Dehydrates body, raises body

temperature



Many of these young people enjoying themselves at a rave may be using MDMA, or Ecstasy. The dehydrating effect of the drug, together with the intense dancing and physical activity at raves like this one, can have a deadly effect on the user.


Hallucinogens

• Mescaline– From buttons of the peyote cactus– Used in some Native American religious

and spiritual rituals

• Psilocybin – Hallucinogen found in certain

mushrooms



Marijuana

• Mild hallucinogen derived from the leaves and flowers of hemp plant

• Does not produce physical dependency or physical withdrawal symptoms– Psychological symptoms often seen

• Considerable exposure to carcinogens when smoking



Table 8.2 How Drugs Affect Consciousness


Kinsey Studies

• Sexual behavior surveys takenduring 1940’s and early 1950’s

• Revealed that sexual practices such as masturbation, anal sex were common in US

• Believed sexual orientation wasnot an either/or situation– One is not completely heterosexual

or completely homosexual

LO 8.6 Motivation of sexual behavior and its variations


Alfred Kinsey conducted many of his interviews face-to-face, as seen here. How might having to answer questions about one’s sexual behavior be affected by Kinsey’s presence?


Table 8.3 Key Findings from Kinseys Sexual Behavior Surveys


Janus Report

• Large-scale survey of sexual behavior in the United States in 1990s

• Results did not differ widely from Kinsey’s – Looked at more types of sexual behavior

and related factors– Sexual deviance

Behavior unacceptable according to societal norms and expectations.



Table 8.4 Findings from the Janus Report


Sexual Orientation

• Sexual orientation– Attraction preference for members of a

particular sex

• Heterosexual – Attracted to opposite sex

• Homosexual – Attracted to the same sex

• Bisexual – Attracted to both men and women



Elements of Emotion

• Emotion – The “feeling” aspect of consciousness– Characterized by three elements:

Physical arousal Behavior that reveals feeling to the

outside world Inner awareness of feelings

LO 8.7 Three elements of emotion


Physiology of Emotion

• Amygdala– Located within the limbic system– Associated with fear– Emotion travels to amygdala by two

routes Fast, crude “low road”- quick Slower, more complex “high road”

involving cortical structures



The Behavior of Emotion: Emotional Expression

• Darwin– Types and manner of facial expression

are universal

• Recent research reveals at least seven basic emotions universal to all people– Anger, fear, disgust, happiness, surprise,

sadness, and contempt

• Display rules differ across cultures



Figure 8.4 Facial Expressions of EmotionFacial expressions appear to be universal. For example, these faces are consistently interpreted as showing (a) anger, (b) fear, (c) disgust, (d) happiness, (e) surprise, and (f) sadness by people of various cultures from all over the world. Although the situations that cause these emotions may differ from culture to culture, the expression of particular emotions remains strikingly the same.


Subjective Experience: Labeling Emotion

• “Cognitive element” – Labeling process involves retrieving

memories of similar experiences– Labels are learned responses reflected

by culture Chinese tend to describe emotion in

terms of bodily experience European Americans use more emotion in

labeling



Common Sense Theory

• A stimulus leads to:1. An emotion2. A bodily arousal of Autonomic Nervous

System



Figure 8.5 Common Sense Theory of EmotionIn the common sense theory of emotion, a stimulus (snarling dog) leads to an emotion of fear, which then leads to bodily arousal (in this case, indicated by shaking) through the autonomic nervous system (ANS).


James-Lange Theory of Emotion

• Physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion1. Stimulus produces physical arousal2. Arousal creates “flight or fight” of

Sympathetic Nervous System3. Emotion is then labeled

LO 8.8 James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion


Figure 8.6 James-Lange Theory of EmotionIn the James-Lange theory of emotion, a stimulus leads to bodily arousal first, which is then interpreted as an emotion.


Cannon-Bard Theory

• Physiological reaction and emotion occur at the same time

• Physical changes caused by different emotions are distinct – Allow them to be perceived as different

emotions

LO 8.8 James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion


Figure 8.7 Cannon-Bard Theory of StimulusIn the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, a stimulus leads to activity in the brain, which then sends signals to arouse the body and interpret the emotion at the same time.


Cognitive Arousal Theory

• Schachter and Singer• Physical arousal and labeling of arousal

based on cues from the environment • Both must occur before the emotion is

experienced

LO 8.9 Cognitive arousal theory, facial feedback hypothesis and cognitive-mediational theory


Figure 8.8 Schachter-Singer Cognitive Arousal Theory of EmotionSchachter and Singer’s cognitive arousal theory is similar to the James-Lange theory but adds the element of cognitive labeling of the arousal. In this theory, a stimulus leads to both bodily arousal and the labeling of that arousal (based on the surrounding context), which leads to the experience and labeling of the emotional reaction.


Schachter and Singer’s Study of Emotion

• Both groups given epinephrine– Participants exposed to “angry” man

interpreted physical arousal as anger– Participants exposed to “happy” man

interpreted physical arousal as happiness

• Physiological arousal interpreted cognitively before it is experienced as a specific emotion



Facial Feedback Hypothesis

• Facial expressions provide feedback to the brain concerning the emotion

• Feedback causes and intensifies emotion

• Changing facial expression can impact how you feel



The facial feedback hypothesis assumes that changing your own facial expression can change the way you feel. Smiling makes people feel happy, and frowning makes people feel sad. This effect seems to have an impact on the people around us as well. If this is true, this smiling woman may make the airline steward handing her the food feel good, too. Is it hard for you to stay in a bad mood when the people around you are smiling and laughing?


Figure 8.10 Lazarus’s Theory of EmotionIn Lazarus’s cognitive-mediational theory of emotion, a stimulus causes an immediate appraisal (e.g., “The dog is snarling and not behind a fence, so this is dangerous”). The cognitive appraisal results in an emotional response, which is then followed by the appropriate bodily response.


Cognitive Mediational Theory

• Lazarus• Most important aspect of any

emotional experience is how the stimulus is interpreted

• Interpretation of the arousal that results in the emotion



Figure 8.10 Lazarus’s Theory of EmotionIn Lazarus’s cognitive-mediational theory of emotion, a stimulus causes an immediate appraisal (e.g., “The dog is snarling and not behind a fence, so this is dangerous”). The cognitive appraisal results in an emotional response, which is then followed by the appropriate bodily response.


Figure 8.11 Comparison of Theories of EmotionThese figures represent the six different theories of emotion as discussed in the text.


Figure 8.11 (continued) Comparison of Theories of EmotionThese figures represent the six different theories of emotion as discussed in the text.



• “Getting Things Done” (GTD) Method– Use attention grabbers - folder,

notebook, computer program, spreadsheet, index cards

– Process and define what you can take action on, identify next steps




• “Getting Things Done” (GTD) Method– Organize information and reminders into

categories or contexts, based on need– Complete weekly reviews of projects – Do next actions in appropriate time

frame



How do you keep track of all of your class assignments, appointments, and deadlines?

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