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Motivation
Theories of Motivation
Theories of Motivation
I. Instinct/Evolutionary theoryII. Drive Reduction theoryIII. Incentive theoryIV. Optimal arousal theoryV. Humanistic theoryVI. Cognitive constancy theory
Instinct/Evolutionary
• Based on Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory
• “Natural selection”• Our goals are to
survive and reproduce
• Proximate v. ultimate causes
Proximate v. Ultimate Causes
Proximate Cause
Ultimate Cause
Instinct/Evolutionary
• Why are we attracted to certain people?
• Why do we try to look a certain way?
• Why do we strive for success?
• What makes us take risks?
Is behavior pushed or pulled?
Drive reduction theory
• Behavior is pushed internally• A physiological need creates a
psychological drive to reestablish homeostasis
• When the physiological need increases, so does the psychological drive
• When the need is met, the drive is reduced
Drive-reducingbehaviors
(eating, drinking)
Need(e.g., for
food, water)
Drive(hunger, thirst)
Incentive Theory
• Behavior is pulled externally• Positive and negative stimuli either
lure or repel us• Our individual learning histories
determine what motivates us
So which is correct?
• We are most driven when there is both a need and an incentive
• Intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation
Optimal Arousal Theory
• Not all behaviors achieve homeostasis or fulfill a need-based drive
• Despite having biological needs satisfied, we feel driven to experience stimulation
• Everyone has an “optimal level” of arousal
• Optimal level is different for everyone and situational
Yerkes-Dodson Law*
Humanistic Theory
• Maslow’s Hierarchy– Some needs take
priority over others– People are
naturally driven to better themselves
– The order of needs is not fixed and can change based on the situation
Self-actualization needsNeed to live up to one’s
fullest and unique potential
Esteem needsNeed for self-esteem,
achievement, competence,and independence; need for
recognition and respect from others
Safety needsNeed to feel that the world is organized and
predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable
Belongingness and love needsNeed to love and be loved, to belong
and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation
Physiological needsNeed to satisfy hunger and thirst
Cognitive Constancy*• Beliefs that are in opposition
often produce conflict (cognitive dissonance)
• Behaviors counter to beliefs produce conflict
• The individual is motivated to reduce the tension created by conflict
– Tension reduced by changing or modifying beliefs
– Tension reduced by changing or modifying behavior