I. INTRODUCTION 1.1 METHODOLOGY, METHOD AND TECHNIQUES Methodological issues in the social

sciences concern the nature of knowledge and the process of understanding. The theoretical basis of social science

methodologies helps us with the production of valid knowledge about the

social world.

Science is in this sense is a set of principles or a

methodology that tells us how to produce valid

knowledge.

So it can be said that science is an ideology,

which is constructed on the basis of a particular

form of methodology.

Methodology- broadly speaking,

methodology refers to sum of

techniques of data collection, tools and

methods of analyzing data and

theoretical perspectives or orientations

that govern research.

More specifically, methodology refers to

perspectives that guide research and the logic of

enquiry.

Thus,scientific investigation is frequently

presented as being based upon the following

methodological rules.

A methodology involves presenting rules of procedure about matters such as the collection of data and their analysis.

The rules are impersonal, in that they are meant to apply equally to all researchers.

It assumed that any two researchers who approach the same problem should arrive at

identical results.

Thereby, it is hoped that individual bias is

excluded from the research process.

In this way, methodology attempts to

standardize the practice of social sciences

and to eliminate quirkiness/nonconformity.

Method(orderliness) - refers to the way one applies the theoretical perspectives to explain facts or data collected.

Or it refers to the combination of various techniques along with the procedural rules of carrying out research. Example, observation, case study, etc.

Technique- is an apparatus, verbal or

mechanical, used for eliciting information from

the respondents.

It is the actual instrument such as questionnaire

and interview, which aid the collection of data.

However, methodologies, methods and

techniques are highly interrelated.

No data may be systematically collected without an

adequate knowledge of techniques of data

collection.

Similarly, no explanation of data is possible if there

is no clearly understood method guiding the

collection of data. It is also true that perspectives

or methodologies are not possible to develop in

vacuum. We need data which need to be explained.

The need to explain certain data gives an impetus

to the development of a methodology.

Such is the interdependence of these concepts

that it is not easy to comprehend one without the

others. Generally, The entire research process is

guided by the methodology and carried out by the

help of methods and techniques.

If science as an ideology is a form of methodology

and within a general ideology of science we may

find various competing methodologies.

This is the reason why we use the words

“methodologies” and “methods” in stead of

“methodology” and “method”.

Despite science is said to be an ideology,

there is difference between the common

sense perception of ideology and science.

Very often, people take ideology to be

one’s subjective opinion, and science to

be objective and factual.

The example of a subjective opinion may be given

as, “it is an opinion that boys are socially more

superior to girls.”

An important element that the social sciences share

with natural sciences is a respect for logical theories

and for disciplined empirical investigation.Social

sciences, like other natural sciences, share the

necessity of being logical and of being rooted in

empirical research.

1.2 UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL REALITY

Understanding social reality elaborates the ways

to make sense of the social world around us

through the image of social sciences.

There are different approaches for

understanding social reality.

1.2.1 Logic of enquiry in Social Research

To begin with, it is necessary to understand that the

philosophical foundations of the science of social

sciences began in the West with its roots in Europe

or in the early Greek philosophies.

Aristotle (384-322 B.C) was the first logician, who

gave primacy to the faculty of reasoning of the

human mind above what is handed down to us by

tradition or custom.

He put the most elementary form of logical enquiry

viz. a major premise, a minor premise and a

conclusion.

The line of argument is that if the two were correct

or based on facts, the conclusion would be correct

too.

For example, a major premise is that all

humans are mortal and a minor premise is that

David is a human; the conclusion is would be

that David is mortal.

This form of reasoning is known as Aristotle’s

theory of deductive reasoning as opposed to

inductive reasoning.

The historians and philosophers of the late seventh and eighteenth century projected certain basic premises regarding the truth of social existence.

These were in the form of universal history, holding a basic supposition that all societies are evolved and have gone through various transformations to be what they are today;

An idea of progress that things are going towards better and the triumph of reason is the ultimate goal of human kind.

All of us attach a special status to the notion of

scientific knowledge because it depicts the world

as it is rather than as anyone of us may wish it to

be.

In this sense scientific knowledge provides us the

possibility of gaining a true understanding of the

nature of the social and natural world.

This understanding is not based on opinion or

unproven faith.

We can find the earliest development of such

understanding in the work of Auguste Comte (1798-

1857).

Written in the nineteenth century, Comte’s works

reflect his engagement with the methodology of

scientific thought.

He argued that, like scientists who studied

the natural world and discovered the nature

of laws determining the behaviour of matter

in the physical world, it was possible to

discover the laws which determined the

behaviour of people in the social world.

Comte said that social scientists could use the

methodology and insight of the natural sciences

as the model for the development of social

physics.

According to Comte, the aim of science is not

to explain why things came into existence or

the cause of their being.

He stated that the aim of science is the

explanation of how things related to one

another in terms of invariable and universal

laws.

In this sense, observable phenomena are the

main ingredients of positive science, which aims

to establish law-like relations between

phenomena through gathering factual knowledge.

Gathering of factual knowledge is carried out through observation, experimentation, comparison and prediction.

The idea is that after discovering a wide range of laws, it would be possible to explain the laws in terms of their relationship to each other.

Comte assumed that the social world is as regular and objective as is the natural world.

Comte, thus, considered the methodology of the natural sciences the ideal way to discover law governing the social world and he advocated the development of a new positive outlook, based on the methodology of the natural sciences.

Hence, according to Comte, the task of social science researchers is to discover the Laws of development by:

i) systematic observation, ii) collection of data or facts and iii) development of theories to explain the facts.Comte’s first assumption was that societies pass

through a process of evaluation and their stages of development are from the simple to the complex.

Distinction between inductive and Deductive Forms of Logic

The deductive method takes a few axioms or so-called true statements with the aim of proving other true statements or theorems, which logically emanate from them.

The inductive method, on the other hand, makes

many observations about nature, with the aim of

discovering a few but strong statements about

how nature works or about what are the laws and

theories that are at the back of how nature

appears to us.

In the deductive method, logic is the main operating tool.

If a statement emanates logically from the axioms, it must be true.

In the inductive method , observation of nature is the main operating tool. If an idea is in conflict with what occurs in nature, the idea has to be given up as useless.

Adherents of traditional logic, who were the

descendants of Aristotelian logic, became rivals of

those following the new inductive method of natural

sciences, with different notions of reasoning or logic.

Even if, science is inductive by definition, in the

sense that observations are the only valid evidence of

truth, the process of science can be deductive.

cont’d

Observation in Social SciencesIt is clear that unlike the observations conducted

in the natural sciences that depend only on the

senses of the observer, the observations in social

sciences need the participation of the observed.

Con’d

While one can rely on the senses to see what is

happening, one needs to inquire from the

actors as to what is the meaning or their acts

for any explanation to take place.Let us take for

example the utter bewilderment a complete

outsider would face if taken to witness a football

match.

The meaningless actions (observably) of adult

men kicking a round object and running around

for no practical purpose and, worse, thousand of

spectators getting so emotionally charged at the

sight of such meaningless acts, would not appear

reasonable to any outsider and objective observer.

The observer may put forward the verdict of

collective insanity if not made familiar with the

meaning systems that prompt the actions as

well as a large amount of conceptual data as to:

What is a game? Why is it played? What is the

relationship between a game and national

pride, and so on and so forth.

cont’d

So it is with every act of observation of society that we need to refer to more generalized concepts and also meaning systems of the actors.

This is not to say that one relies only on explanations given by the actors but true explanation in the social sciences would then contextualize the observations, the

meanings and the actor’s frame of reference to

a larger and more generalized system of

concepts and relationships, to try to get at a

true meaning, truth or explanation.

Thus inductive data is contextualized by a

logical process or deduction.

cont’d

Social scientists have devised ways to

make observation more meaningful or

more scientific.

Social scientists interpret data or basic

observations made by anyone.

For example, in the eighteenth and nineteenth

centuries, travellers, missionaries and administrators

collected large parts of data, which are still used and

form the basis of much of social theory, especially

those accounts that could never be duplicated, as the

situations, societies and cultures depicted in them

have since disappeared.

cont’d

In the nineteenth century, the trend

was on a pure scientific methodology

or on nomothetic generalizations rather

than on ideographic explanations.

All explanations are of two types, nomothetic and ideographic. The former refers to generalized laws and the latter to individual facts. For example, the laws of evolution is nomothetic and the specific events of history is ideographic.

Since social science is a science of society, it

aspires to be more nomothetic rather than

ideographic.

Thus, the attempts of early social scientists was to

find the laws that make society run and the

assumption was that society too has an objective

existence like all natural objects and it too follows

same laws or principles.

Cont’d

The study of society uses, on one hand, formal

theory, with assumptions, concepts,

propositions and laws and in this sense is

similar to natural science, and as such it

explores empirical data, practices and

institutions and tries to find causal and

generalizable statements.

On the other hand, many social scientists have

argued that given the diversity and multiplicity

of the social world, it is not possible to develop

generalizable and causal explanations.

They hold that social sciences focus on observation of social actions and interaction helps to develop analyses of various social contexts.

Irrespective of which perspective one accepts, social theory thrives and survives best when it is engaged with empirical research and/or public issues.

Logical Understanding of Social RealityImportant characteristics of scientific enquiry into

social reality would include: i) emphasis on relevant empirical source of data, ii) the general line of demarcation between

observation and theory, iii) the focus on logical consistency and deductive

coverage.

Cont’d

For understanding social reality, social

science research needs to discover

regularities, derived form underlying

causal properties of social phenomena.

What kind of generalizations or regularities are we talking about?

A law of nature refers to a governing regularity, that is, as per a particular law of nature, there will always be generalization of a particular kind of behaviour.

Phenomenal or phenomenological regularities refer to common features of social entities and their effects on individual agency.

For example, it has been observed that land-tenure

systems with a particular structure create common

incentives for individuals wherever they are implemented;

It is then regularity of these systems that they have

common features; like underinvestment in capital

improvements.

Since social reality is highly diverse and constantly experiencing cross-cutting varieties of causation, it is possible only to produce scientifically valid knowledge in terms of ‘exception-laden phenomenal regularities’ and the highly qualified regularities is the one that derive from institutional-logic analyses.

In methodological terms, in the social

sciences, we need to be aware of the

scope of the nature of our subject

matter.

1.2.2 Empirical Approach

Empirical approach refers to the methodology of

collecting facts through observation and other

first hand methods of data collection.

There is however, difference of opinion and

method in whether one relies on the data collected

only by a particular method designated as

‘scientific’ or on data collected by any lay parson.

From the notion that the collection of data must be done without any subjective understanding, preconceived notions or prejudices came up the dictum that the scientist must remain ethically and emotionally neutral.

The rule of cultural relativism is the outcome of such a mind set.

One must accept that whatever does not belong to one’s own culture is not ‘wrong’ or ‘strange’.

The principle of getting over ‘ethnocentrism’, or regarding

only one’s own conceptions and values as proper, is

something that is taught to all students of the social

sciences but is the most difficult to overcome.

There is also the question of subjectivity as to what extent

we can remain objective as observers when something that

we see evokes intense emotions in us as human beings.

In the social sciences the question has still not been resolved completely but certainly many social scientists have abandoned the stand of neutrality and you will find many scholars activists who consider it ethically wrong to remain neutral and emotionless when dealing with human situations.

There is a recognition among such scholars that we can set up some universal criteria such as universal concept of human rights to intervene in situations that we enter as observers.

Sometimes the entry may be for the specific purpose of intervention as in development studies or when social scientists are called in as advisors and consultants.

But the debate whether to intervene or not to intervene is never-ending.

Difference between Common Sense and Science

If in the ultimate analysis what we need to relay upon is our sense perception of the social, the major question is how to exercise the use of the sensory with the caution that no ideas should be formed independent of the sensory perceptions.

This is the fundamental difference between common sense and science, the common sense views relay on perceptions formed not necessarily with reference to scientific methods of causality.

Science gives more attention to underlying causality rather than to superficial resemblances or lack of resemblances.

Scientific approaches use theories to explain facts and propositions, or hypotheses are tested by reference to new facts that either support or refute theories.

Generally, science is a way of generating and testing the truth of statements about events in the world of human experience.

It is for the scientist to look beyond individual

manifestations to identify and classify phenomena.

Scientific methods deliberately and systematically seek to

annihilate the individual scientist’s standpoint.

We would like to be able to say of every statement of

scientific information (observation, empirical

generalization, theory, hypothesis, or decision to accept or

reject a hypothesis) that it represents an unbiased image

of the world.

Managing Diversities in Social ResearchWhile collecting data for social science research,

we need to recognize that diversities have to be both accepted and also explained in terms of the meanings they express.

Social science observations are time consuming and require painstaking sincerity in recording data.

There is no short cut if one wants to get a real understanding of social phenomena, for all such phenomena are complex and have multiple causations and effects.

When explanations in the social sciences become problematic, one has to accept rather than ignore or reject them.

Moreover the search for a perfect explanation is also illusory and one has to accept that human beings are creative and have freedom of expression.

This is again not to say that no regularities can be observed or no generalizations can be made, which otherwise there would be no social science.

The social scientists often tread a delicate balance between regularities that are real and those that one would wish to impress upon one’s data.

This is the classic duality between structure and action and action that has to be faced in the social sciences.

It is argued that the wider the applicability of or generalizations, the more we lose out on ground level explanations of particular events.

The general often remains an essential condition for explanation of the specific.

There is still another problem that empirical observations and interpretations have to deal with.

For example, what do we do when certain things that seem to lie beyond our own perceptions appear to be well within the sensory perceptions of others, or at least that is what they claim?

How do we interpret it when we are told in the field by our informants that they see sprits on a regular basis or they converse with the dead as they converse with living or that they have spouses and children in the other world with whom they communicate all the time?

If one should follow the scientific rationality of relying on one’s senses, then the only way to explain this would be either say that everyone in the culture is suffering from hallucinations or is speaking lies.

Another way to explain this could be that people of different cultures have different cognitive abilities and can actually see things that we cannot.

However, there is still limit to our credibility.

Considering the various problems encountered in trying to make sense of the data collected, we keep coming back to the sanctity of the term empirical reality, while dealing with the terms of society

1.2.3Diverse Logic of Theory Building Formulations and methodological rigor in

empirical research go hand in hand and do not in any way pose any problem of ascendance of one over the other.

Your logic of theory building is your asset to carry out a useful empirical investigation and vice versa, a methodologically sound social research leads to growth of verifiable and valid outcome in terms of their theoretical significance.

The process of theory building deals with hypothesis, description and experimentation.

Theory refers to knowledge arranged so that the facts are subsumed under general principles.

The difference between commonsensical knowledge and scientific knowledge is that the latter is systematized and classified.

Unlike commonsensical knowledge that satisfies with the desired effects, scientific knowledge looks into the causes of a phenomenon.

It is the task of theory to organize such causal relationships into observable repetitive or classifiable regularities so that one can make general observations that encompass diverse but related phenomena and explain them by not individual and specific relationships only but higher and abstracted general relationships.

Establishing the correct causal relationship between facts is followed by bringing together diverse facts within a single framework of causality; the process by which this is done is called theory building for the resulting relationship is often called a theory.

There are three properties of theory, viz. i) explanation, ii) prediction and iii) verification. The systematically interrelated sociological

propositions, which hold in different contexts, comprise theories.

You can put to test each of these propositions as to how well it conforms to data and how well in relation to each of these propositions account for the outcomes in a given setting.

If such a prediction is possible, you can say that the result has been explained in terms of known propositions.

While verifying the sociological propositions, one needs to look for a logical relationship as well as empirical relationship.

Theory is an account of the world which goes beyond what we can see and measure.

It embraces a set of interrelated definitions and relationships that organizes our concepts of and understanding of the empirical world in a systematic way.

In this sense social theory needs to be abstract and separable from the social practices that the theory has addressed.

Such a theory needs to also focus on a specific thematic arguments that runs through the set of propositions providing them coherence and force.

i) Explanation – the theory has to be logically consistent and explanatory, that is, it needs to have a thesis about social phenomena to account for their form or existence.

Further the theory is to be general enough to account for all instances of the phenomena it proposes to explain.

Also the theory cannot be reduced to the explanations informants or participants themselves provide to explain their behavior.

ii) Predictability - a theory needs to be substantially valid, that is, it is to be consistent with what is already known about the social world by its participants and by the social scientists.

This means that is should be possible to link the theory to other bodies of knowledge.

The best way to test the validity or truth of a theory is to test its predictability.

The sciences by definition need to be predictive on the basis of their theories.

In the natural or ‘pure’ sciences, there is a set limit on the probable range of failure of predictability of a theory before it is rejected.

In the social sciences, theories rarely have the capacity for predictability yet some degree of ascertaining the truth of a situation has to be assigned to a statement for it to take on the mantle of a theory.

iii) Verifiable – any theory should be provable by any interested person in diverse contexts using the same methodology on the basis of which that theory was developed.

Propositions are always open to scrutiny and continued research in a scientific manner means that we keep testing earlier statements for their validity.

This is why science is recognized as a never-ending process. However, statements of absolute validity, like two plus two is equal to four, is rarely possible in the social sciences.

Concepts: Basic Elements of TheoriesConcepts are nothing but shorthand versions of a

large range of phenomena that may be brought under one heading to describe something.

As basic elements of theories, concepts are developed through a process of definition.

Theories basically connect concepts to one another in a logical manner.

Each concept is usually accomplished by a standardized description called its definition.

In the natural sciences, such definitions are very precise in social sciences however, they may not be so.

Different disciplines of the social sciences may not define the same concept to mean the same thing.

That is why all scientific disciplines have their own terminology of concepts popularly known as the scientific jargons.

The concepts are abstractions that are not made randomly but by a recording of structural properties rigorously selected from the visible traits exhibited by the phenomenon under study.

Why theory is needed?

Fred N. Kerlinger defines theory as"a set of interrelated

constructs (concepts), definitions and propositions that presents

a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among

variables“

public organizations are social entities that are goal-oriented;

are designed as deliberately structured and coordinated activity

systems, and are linked to the external environment” (Daft,

2004).

cont’d

The need for theory lies in that theories help us to put order in a bewildering range of phenomena that might seem unrelated.

A theory provides a means for dealing with reality in terms of providing neat and compact explanations that can be set into a known explanatory framework.

With the help of theory, we may summarize in terms of a few principles the nature of relationships between them.

The more generalized a theory, the wider is its application, but the further away it from actual situations.

Theory is most inclusive and basic in the sense

that it aims to isolate a single set of principles,

which are the foundation for social life.

Through these principles, you can explain every

social phenomenon.

Evolutionary theory for example makes

some broad generalizations regarding the

nature of society and the nature of

transformations that one expects to see.The

second task of theory, apart from the

explaining reality, is to generate a

hypothesis that can be tested.

1.3 WHY RESEARCH IS NEEDED?

Research is needed because there are a number questions we raise or problems to be addressed.

Even at times when we think that we know the answer to our question, or we think that it can be answered through common sense, until we have subjected our problem to rigorous scientific scrutiny, our 'knowledge' remains little more than guesswork or at best, intuition.

Man has come to know the miracles of the social and

natural environments through research, without

which there would have been no change in human

history.

In fact, without trustworthy and tested published

research available to all of us, we would be locked in

the opinions of the moment, either prisoners of what

we alone experience or dupes(tricked)to everything

we hear.

Of course, we all want to believe that

our opinions are sound; yet mistaken

ideas, even dangerous ones, flourish

because too many people accept to

many opinions not very good evidence.

The basic purpose of social science research is to

make sense of what goes around us in our own

society and in a society other than our own so that

there is better understanding of each other within

a society and across societies.

In this context, it could be said that the aim of social science research is to arrive at a better world where we understand each other and do not suffer the consequences of conflicts that may be avoided or resolved on the basis of our understanding of the social and natural world around us.

Researchers are engaged in research in their chosen subject with the aim of contributing to the body of existing knowledge on that subject.

Researchers in public administration for example need to generate new knowledge through research to guide theory development, influence the practices and even the decisions of public managers and policy makers based on empirical evidence.

Public administration professionals

may raise how, why and what

questions to find answers to practical

problems.

Fore example:

1.How a a civil service reform program has been implemented?

2.To what extent it has been successful in achieving its objectives?

3.What do citizens think about the policy or quality of services?

4. What are the major bottlenecks for the successful implementation of the program?

5.What courses of actions should be addressed in order to improve the pace

of implementing the program?

WHAT IS RESEARCH? Pause for a moment, think of the word

'research' what images come into your mind?

Don't try to define it, just think about what it means to you.

Write down a few ideas below. It may mean different things like:

i. To search or investigate exhaustively

ii. Gathering, processing and interpreting data, then intelligently and cogently communicating the results in a report that describes what was discovered new.

iii. Studying something in a planned manner and reporting it so that other inquiries can replicate the process if they choose.

iv.Studious(careful& painstaking)enquiry or examination; especially: • investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery

and interpretation of facts; • revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new

facts;• or practical application of such new or revised theories.

v. Research is a systemic investigation towards increasing the sum of knowledge.

VI. Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.

vii. Research refers to a systematic study of one’s

chosen subject for arriving at both new and valid

conclusions.

On the bases of the above definitions we may

conclude that research refers to the systematic

methods consisting of:

Articulating problem, formulating a

hypothesis (if needed);

Collecting and analyzing data; and

Arriving at certain conclusions either in the

form of solutions for the problem or certain

generalizations for some theoretical

formulation.

1.4 TYPES OF RESEARCH

There are several types of research, which can be

chosen based on the subject of enquiry.

However, it should be noted that some of them

work better in combination.

Their placement as specific types may give the

impression that each type is distinct entity not

compatible with another type.

However, based on the nature of the

subject and purpose of the research,

two or more methods of research can

be combined in a single research.

The following are some of the major research types arranged in pairs:

i. Basic and applied

ii. Descriptive and analytical

iii. Empirical and exploratory

iv. Explanatory (causal) and longitudinal

1. Basic (fundamental or pure) and applied research

Basic/pure research concerns the principles or

laws or fundamental rules and aims the quest for

achieving knowledge for its sake.

It is concerned with the development of

theoretical frame for a particular phenomenon

for which so far no generalized principles are

available.

Basic research is directed towards

finding information that have a broad

base of application and thus, adds to

the already existing organized body of

knowledge.

Applied Research- while pure/basic research

discovers principles and laws, applied research

discovers ways of applying them to solve social

problems.

In all organizations, administrators are often

demanded to find solutions to various problems

and make appropriate decisions.

In this kind of situations they are required to

undertake applied research, which basically

aims at finding solutions for pressing

practical problems.

Evaluation of the political, social and

economic impacts on a particular institution

is an example of applied research.

2. Descriptive and analytical

Descriptive research- describes a social situation,

event, systems, structures etc.

Its purpose is to describe the state of affair as it is.

It gives answer to questions like who, what, when

and where the problem occurred.

The main characteristics of this research is

that researchers have no control over

variables; they can describe only what has

happened or is happening.

Descriptive research usually uses a survey

method to accurately and precisely describe

the research population.

Analytical research- aims at critical evaluation of the given phenomenon or problems expressed in facts, figures and narrative information.

The researcher looks beyond the facts and figures already collected; and assumes that behind the accumulated data there is something more important and revealing than the facts and figures.

The analyst needs to have a thorough

knowledge of the data, because without

penetrating and insightful knowledge,

analysis is worthless.

3. Empirical and exploratory research

Empirical research-relies on experiences and

observations.

It is a data-based research to come up with

conclusions which are capable of being verified by

further observation or experiment.

In this research, developing a working

hypothesis and setting up an

experiment is mandatory.

Such a research is appropriate when

proof is sought that certain variables

affect other variables in some way.

Exploratory research-it is conducted with a view to clarify

and define the existence and nature of a problem.

It provides the basic qualitative and quantitative information relating to the subject matter of the study.

There are three interrelated activities:

A) Diagnosing a situation

B) Scanning the alternatives

C) Discovering new ideas

Exploratory studies are appropriate for persistent

social phenomena like deficiencies in the functioning

of educational systems, corruption among political

elite, rural poverty etc.

4.Explanatory (causal) and longitudinal

Explanatory (causal) research- explains the

causes of social phenomena.

The aim is to establish a relationship between

variables, i.e. how one is the cause of the other, or

how when one variable occurs the other will also

occur.

It seeks explanations of observed phenomena, problems, or behaviors. While descriptive research examines the what, where, and when of a phenomenon, explanatory research seeks answers to why and how types of questions. It attempts to “connect the dots” in research, by identifying causal factors and outcomes of the target phenomenon.

The relationship between drug abuse and

lack of family control.

Generally explanatory (causal) research is

concerned with the why of factors like a

research on violence against women would

be interested in why men commit violence?

Examples include understanding the reasons

behind adolescent crime or gang violence, with

the goal of prescribing strategies to overcome

such societal ailments. Most academic or

doctoral research belongs to the explanation

category.

Longitudinal research- involves the study of

a problem or the same body of phenomenon

over a period of time.

For example, prevalence of AIDS among

males and females in a particular city, town

or country in the period 1990-2000.

1.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH

So far, scientists in social science methodologies

have ‘ preached’ and urged you to build a

responsible social contract with readers of your

research report, to create an ethos that will lead

them to:

Trust you

Guard against your inevitable biases in collecting

and reporting evidence

Avoid plagiarism

Such are the most important elements of

ethical and moral considerations in social

science research.

As researchers you are responsible for both those

who rely on your research and to those on whose

research you relay.

Conceptually research ethics refers to the

application of moral standards to decisions made

in the planning, conducting, and reporting the

results.

According to Mitchell, the four

practical ethical principles include:

1. Truthfulness- it is unethical for

researchers to purposefully lie, deceive

or in any way employ fraud.

Deliberately misrepresenting the purpose of

a study, inflating or understating the

findings of a research project are examples

of research that fails to meet the

truthfulness principles.

2.Thoroughness-means methodologically

thorough or undertaking scientific

research by following all the necessary

steps in a study.It means also that all

results and findings are reported- both

good and bad news.

3.Objectivity- refers to the need for the

researcher to remain objective and

impartial throughout all aspects of the

study.The researcher should avoid

interjections of personal feelings or bias in

the research design.

4.Relevance- means that research should never be

done because a researcher wants to.

The research should be understandable to people

and useful.

If one fails to justify the relevance of the research

he/she is undertaking, he/she is wasting the time

of respondents, which is unethical.

Generally, ethical researchers should not:Plagiarize or claim credit for the results of

othersMisreport sources or invent results.Submit data whose accuracy they have

reason to question, unless they raise the questions.

Distort opposing views.Destroy or conceal sources and data

important for those who follow.

II. RESEARCH DESIGN

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Carrying out a research project is a

complex and lengthy activity.

It is agreed with the fact that the initial

stage of a research project often proves to

be the hardest part of all- even to

experienced ones.

A research project needs to incorporate a coherent

body of activities, resulting in meaningful and

sound insights.

The starting-up problems can cause great

uncertainty, both to those carrying out the project

and their supervisors, and consequently become

detrimental to the quality of the research.

2.2. RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A proposal/design is a kind of blueprint that

researchers prepare before actually carrying out

research.

It is a systematically prepared outline stating the

manner in which you plan to carry out your

research.

2.2.1 IDENTIFYING RESEARCH AREA AND DEVELOPING INTEREST

Research is not something that a researcher goes

into accidentally.

It, particularly academic research, requires a

thorough thinking and decision to deal with a

particular subject matter.

Hence, the researcher need to identify the

research area through reading as well

develop interest in specific subject matter.

Students have ample opportunity to identify

and develop interests during the period in

which they take different courses.

You may find that some courses, and may be even

some sections of these courses interested you

more than others.

If you have developed a strong personal research

interest, this is very fortunate, and you would do

well to build on it.

The best research is nearly based on a

high enthusiasm for the subject.

You should never let yourself be led

into a research area by someone else’s

enthusiasm if that issue has no appeal

for you.

An important issue to note at this juncture

is that it is very easy to get caught up in

some area of study that seems to be

currently fashionable or is for some reason

enjoying some momentary prestige.

But this research is going to be hard

work- you may occasionally wish you

would never got involved in it at all-

and if you are not personally interested

in your results, you may find it

impossible to carry on.

2.2.2 SELECTING A TOPIC

From an interest we move to a researchable topic.

Of course, research topics are selected from

course readings that you found particularly exiting

or would like to explore in more depth.

However, at the beginning, it is often found hard to

find a focused enough.

You must not only choose an

interesting topic that you can bear to

live with for several months or years,

but you must also focus your interest

sharply within that topic.

Alternatively, as another source of research topic,

you also have your own professional interests and

experience to draw on.

You may already be working on problem within the

broad area of your discipline that you would like to

investigate more rigorously, with some of the

techniques and within the theoretical paradigms

that you have met in your studies.

It may be even true that you have

already available data necessary to do

the research or at least the means of

getting hold of such information.

Important things in selecting topic:

1. Start with what interests you most deeply

because nothing contributes the quality of

your work more than your commitment to it.

2. Start by listing two or three interests that

you would like to explore.

3. Look for sources in the libraries

before you decide to choose one

because you may choose an interesting

topic that does not have enough

sources. Your research should be

supported by sufficient relevant material.

4. Try to have more specific topic to the extent that you can give a short answer when someone asks you what you are working on.

2.2.3 BASIC COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL/DESIGN

Research proposal/design is a series of advanced decisions that, taken together, comprise a master plan or model for the conduct of an investigation.

b1.The Research Problem/Statement- the researcher

has to clearly define the problem to be researched.

It should not be vague.

A research problem refers to some enquiry, which

a researcher undertakes in the context of either a

theoretical or practical situation and wants to

obtain an explanation of the same.

The two steps in this regard include

understanding the problems

thoroughly and rephrasing it into

meaningful terms from the analytical

point of view.

Formulating or defining a research problem

is an important step in the research process

and a clearly stated problem is research half

done.

2.The Research Questions- the researcher need to clearly state the research questions in the light of the problems, topic and the theoretical foundations on which it rests.

The research questions should be clear as much as possible that give clear guide to data collection and analysis processes.

The common mistake that most researchers make

is that once they have chosen the topic, they rush

to a data dump: they go straight to searching out

sources.

Serious researchers however, do not gather and

report data for their own sake, but to support the

answer to a question that they (and they hope their

readers) think is worth asking.

Hence, to find out what is not known

about the topic through systematic

questions is an important job of a

researcher.

You need to systematically ask

analytical questions such as:

The compositions of the topic, i.e. what are the different parts of the topic and how do they relate to one another? How the topic is part of a larger system?

The value of the topic, i.e, what values the topic add in terms of contributing to existing knowledge and as well its implications for practical applicability.

The history of the topic, i.e. how and why the topic changed through time; how have different stories developed differently?

3. Research Objectives – specific and concrete objectives

which appear to be achievable should be developed as per

the requirements of the research question.

Research objectives form the basis for judging the

remainder of the proposal.

It sets the stage for showing how one intends to solve or contribute to the problem, which has been set.

Research objective grows out of the previous research by citing goals that go beyond what has already been accomplished, by opening new territory, redoing a study in a new and better way, or possibly replicating an important study to ascertain the generality of its findings.

Make sure that the methodology section adequately encompass all of the objectives.

Common Errors in formulating objectives:

i. Vague generalities rather than clear-cut criteria against which the rest of the project can be judged.

ii.Not setting them forth clearly in priority order, imbedding them, usually by implication rather than explicit statement.

iii. The tendency to include objective statements that are not included in the scope of the research.

4. The Research Hypothesis- it is a tentative

assumption made in order to test its logical or

empirical consequences. It could also be defined as

a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an

explanation for the occurrence of some specified

phenomena either asserted merely as provisional

conjecture to guide some investigation or accepted

as highly probable in the light of established facts.

Hypothesis should be related to a

theoretical base and should be used

whenever there is a basis for

prediction.

Hypothesis should be clear and precise and

capable of being tested.

Hypothesis needs to explain what it claims to

explain and should have empirical reverence.

A hypothesis may have variables and it my be

looking for the nature of the relationship between

the variables.

Hence, you need to make distinctions between dependent and independent variables.

The variable that a researcher wants to explain is dependent variable while the

variable expected to explain the change in the dependent variable is called independent variable, example consumption and income.

Variables can have three types of

relationships:

i.Positive relationship, i.e. an increase in one

variable leads to an increase in another.

ii.Negative relationships, i.e, an increase in one

variable leads to a decrease in the other.

iii. Zero relationship, no significant relationship

between two variables.

5.Theoretical Orientation of the Research

A research proposal/design needs to have a

clearly spelt out methodology, methods and tools.

Theoretical/methodological and philosophical

orientations govern the choice of methods.

The research design would elucidate

the methodological and theoretical

basis of research and help the

researcher identify appropriate

methods and techniques of data

collection.

For example, if you are empiricist, you would rely

on observational methods and techniques of data

collection.

If you are rationalist, you would employ various

kinds of interviews to unravel the logico-

mathematical model of social reality.

6. Scope/Universe and Unit of the Research

Before starting with data collection you have

to identify the universe and the unit of study.

The identification of the universe implies

demarcation of the physical area and social

unit of study.

The universe consists of the population within a

well-defined area where the study is to be

conducted.

Within the broad universe further specification of

the possible units that could be studied makes up

the actual or effective universe.

7. Significance of the study

This entails the contribution of the research

to theoretical development and/or to solve

practical problems by introducing new ideas

or working methods to organizational, local,

regional, national or international contexts.

2.3APPROACHES TO RESRARCH DESIGN

There are two broad approaches to social sciences research, viz. qualitative and quantitative.

The most important factor that determine the selection of qualitative or quantitative method is the nature of the problem at hand.

That means the problem selects the method, and not vice versa.

For example, a researcher studying mental illness

may adopt a qualitative approach through a strategy

of interviewing patients, their families, and

professionals responsible for their treatment.

2.3.1 Qualitative Approach

Qualitative research methods such as

case studies, comparative studies,

descriptive studies, and explanatory

studies are based on the paradigm of

social constructionism and interpretation.

It is characterized by an emphasis on

describing, understanding, explaining

complex phenomena- on studying, for

example, the relationships, patterns

and configurations among factors; or

the context in which activities occur.

The focus is on understanding the full-multi-dimensional,

dynamic picture of the subject of study.

This enables us to understand the subtle aspects of social

relations.

It is particularly useful when one is interested in probing a

specific question in depth, its meaning and their different

interpretations.

Qualitative approach to research is widely applicable to many social science fields such as sociology, psychology, cultural studies, education, and public administration.

In the social sciences, there is, in the broadest sense, hardly any area of research in which it is not at least partially used.

Qualitative research is a tradition in social science

that basically depends on watching people in their

territory and interacting with them on their own

terms, in their own language.

In other words, qualitative research claims to

describe life worlds ‘from the inside out’ from the

point of view the people who participate.

By so doing it seeks to contribute to a better understanding of social realities and to draw attention to processes, meaning patterns and structural features.

It is thus, seen to be naturalistic, ethnographic and participatory in its approach.

The four tendencies of qualitative research 1. Emphasis to the oral, i.e. carrying out research

through the use of language, narratives and communication.

2. Emphasis to the particular, i.e. to concentrate on specific, concrete problems which arise in specific situations rather than concentrating on abstract, universal questions

3. Emphasis to the local, i.e. studying systems of knowledge, practices and experiences in their local context, instead of assuming and attempting to test their universal validity.

4. Emphasis to timely, i.e. locating problems and identifying solutions in their historical context and describing and explaining them accordingly.

Generally, qualitative research is rooted in understanding lived experiences as expressed and articulated by people themselves.

It aims at understanding the issues at hand without resorting to cosmetic generalizations and it accounts for the socio-historical context of behavior.

2.3.2 Quantitative Approach

Quantitative social research uses quantitative

methods such as sampling, cross-sectional, time

series, and experimental methods.

These methods choose a hypothetico-deductive

(use of hypothesis testing) approach to construct

social reality.

In this way, quantitative research is

based on a critical interpretation of

empirical data.

Quantitative research uses

mathematical models and statistical

techniques.

Mathematical models/formula help to draw logical

relationship between variables.

Whereas statistics is a science of organizing,

summarizing and describing quantifiable data, and

the methods of drawing inferences and

generalizing upon them.

Sampling methods, measure of central

tendency, measure of dispersion and

variability, testing of hypothesis,

correlation and regression are the

most common statistical techniques in

social science research.

Complementarities between qualitative and quantitative methods.

The two approaches seem to be used in

‘opposition’.

However, the frontier between the two does not

need to be quite impenetrable.

They are more and more frequently being linked together for the purpose of joint design.

For example, qualitative research can compliment ‘hard data’ on patients with more subjective views such as perceptions of the patients about the degree of satisfaction with the treatment.

2.4Types of research design

There are different research design methods that social

scientists use.We limit our discussions to experimental and survey for

quantitative approach and case study and descriptive for qualitative approach.

2.4.1 Experimental design

Experimental designs are characterized by comparing two or more groups, at least one of which is experimental and the other is control group.

When the nature of the research requires trial of the proposed course of action or testing of hypothesis, the researcher selects experimental design.

Experimental design is common in the biological

sciences, but social researchers have also started to use

it when the effects of a proposed course of action can be

observed (measured) objectively and distinguished from

the effects of extraneous variables.

For example, say you are interested in the cultivation

methods of modern farming.

You wanted to find out what effects the various cultivation methods have in terms of yield, environmental burden and bio-diversity.

In such a case you can conduct experiment on the basis of test fields where crops are cultivated in different conditions:

1.You may carry out the experiment by your own in which you control every thing.

2. Or you may decide to get farmers interested in the project and persuade them to work according to specific cultivation methods and to adhere strictly to some rules of behavior formulated by you, which are important for the research.

In this case you will be vesting the farmers regularly to carry out various measurements and to interview them (qualitative information).

All those involved will obtain a clear picture of the effects of the various cultivation methods.

2.4.2 Survey design

Survey research is basically a method of gathering

information from a population on a given subject.

Surveys serve the purpose of counting and

classifying sets of events/opinions/and other

items.

Survey research is popularly identified by opinion polls and market research such as customer satisfactions about a product or service.

Survey method provides researchers a way to manage obtaining the data from large and complex societies.

Quantification involved in surveys lends more

reliability and accuracy to a large quantum of

information.

Survey research could be census or sample

based.

In the first case the whole population is covered

for information.

In the second case only a portion of the

population is covered to arrive at an

understanding of the whole.

The common type of survey is the sample

based since covering the whole population

is very lengthy and time consuming.

Survey research is typically carried out with the help of a questionnaire or interview-schedule.

Hence, preparing a questionnaire or interview schedule is the most important step.

Once the data have been collected, the researchers have to codify and process the data in a manner that it becomes presentable in tabular form and charts.

It should also become accessible for use for statistical treatment that would tell us about the different qualities of the data.

2.4.3 Case studyCase study research method is an empirical

enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used.

Case study is an ideal qualitative method when a holistic, in-depth investigation is needed.

Case study is not a sampling research, because each individual case study consists of a ‘whole’ study, in which facts are gathered from various sources and conclusions drawn on those facts.

Selecting cases must be done carefully so as to maximize what can be learned in the period of time available for the study.

It involves systematically gathering enough information about a particular person, social setting, event, or group to permit the researcher to effectively understand how it operates or functions.

Case studies are designed to bring out the details from the view point of the participants by using multiple sources of data through data collection techniques.

Hence, case study is not a data gathering technique, but a methodological approach that incorporates a number of data gathering techniques such as life histories, documents, oral histories, in-depth interview, and participant observation.

Case studies are multi-perspective analysis, i.e. the researcher considers not just the voice and perspectives of few actors, but also of the relevant groups of actors and the interaction between them.

That is why case study is known as triangulated research method.

Triangulation may occur among others:1. Data source triangulation- when the researcher looks for

the data to remain the same in different sources2. Instrument triangulation –when the researcher uses two

or more instruments of data collection. The unit of analysis is a critical factor in the case study. It can be rather pointed in its focus, or can approach a

broad view of life and society. Case studies however, tend to be selective, focusing on

one or two issues that are fundamental to understanding the system being examined.

Another important point is that case study could be single-case or multiple-cases depending on the interest and objectives of the researcher.

Case study could be applied for different purposes, which include at least the following;

1.To explain complex causal links in real-life interventions

2.To describe the real-life context in which the intervention has occurred

3.To describe the intervention

4.To explore those situations in which the intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes.

2..4.4 DescriptiveDescriptive designs are widely used by

administrators and policy analysts.They provide opportunity for a wealth of

information that is easy to understand and interpret.

Descriptive designs are preferred to answer research questions such as:

How much or how many? How efficient and effective?How adequate?They are always used in opportunity-oriented

research and performance feedback research.

The several purposes of these types of research include:

Perceiving difficulties and opportunitiesIdentifying significant problemsDetermining what problems are to be solvedDefining decisions tentativelySelecting best alternative courses of actionDefining decisions operationallyAll these create opportunity to produce data for

planning, monitoring and evaluating.

2.5 PLANNING THE RESEARCHSo far we have discussed the largest part of the

research design, which basically give answers to what (research objectives and issues) and how (the research method and material needed).

However, the issue of when has not yet been dealt with.

Planning a research project is understood to mean (making) an overview of: The activities to be carried out, The intermediate products and end products produced by

these activities, and The order and periods in which the activities are to be

carried out.

In the design process, the planning stage, for the first time, gives an opportunity to have an overview of all activities that are to be carried out in the research project.

In particular, it refers to reviewing the research questions that must be answered and the choices made with respect to the research material and the research method to be followed.

Such processes may identify and suggest an adjustment to the design.

This shows that planning is not only a mechanism of controlling future activities but also forms an important element of the design processes.

An important contribution to the function of a research plan is the compilation of a table of contents for the final report.

As early as in the design stage, you need to decide on the broad outline of the research report.

The most important feature of this activity is the search for significant and especially brief titles for the various chapters and, possibly sections.

Titles may change in the course of the reseach and thinking about them makes you constantly consider the critical points of your research project.

III. DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES Collecting the necessary data for a study is an important

step next to the research design. Researchers collect not every data but data that have to

answer the research question.Data are generally categorized into two: primary and

secondary data.3.1 Primary and secondary dataPrimary data are those collected by the researchers from

original sources/unpublished sources.Or data that have been observed and recorded by the

researchers for the first time, to their knowledge.

There are different sources of primary data, which among others include:

Documentation- include letters, memoranda, agendas, study reports and the like.

Archival records- includes service records, maps, charts, lists of names, survey data, and even personal records such as diaries.

Interviews- include information collected through open-ended and structured questions.

Direct observation-this occurs when the researcher makes a site visit to gather data.

Non-participant vs. participant observationNon-participant observation- the researcher does not

participate in the events being studied.

Participant observation-is unique mode of observation in which the researcher may actually participate in the events being studied.

It is used in studies of neighborhood or organization, and frequently in anthropological studies.

Physical artifacts-could be any physical evidence that might be gathered during a field visit, which may include tools, art works, etc.

Secondary data are those gathered from the published sources.

Statistical reports of the CSA, revenue generation data published by the MoR and annual budgets published by MoFED are good examples of secondary data.

Not only quantitative but also qualitative data could be collected from secondary sources, i.e. from research results undertaken by others.

Most research on past events has to rely on secondary sources to a large extent.

However, the information gathered from secondary sources may not meet specific needs in many cases.

Further, we can not even assess the accuracy of the information provided by secondary sources as we know little about the conditions under which the previous research took place.

Secondary information might be lost and sometimes it might be obsolete even before it is available in the published format.

3.2 Date collection techniques3.2.1 Quantitative data collectionThe are different techniques of collecting quantitative data. Interview, survey questionnaire, and survey of statistical

reports and organizational documents are the most commonly used tools of quantitative data collection.

Interview for quantitative data seek for facts in stead of opinions.

Identifying a data base such as WB data base is another important mechanism to find quantitative data.

However, identifying the data base is only half the battle.

The researcher must determine whether he/she can access it and he/she must review its documentation.

3.2.2 Qualitative data collection In the case of qualitative data, there are different

techniques of collection, which include, focus group discussion, key informant interview, and observations.

Unlike quantitative data collection, interviews and other tools in qualitative data collection primarily focus on gathering the opinions and underlying understanding of the respondents about a social phenomenon.

3.2.3 Mixed MethodWe discussed already that quantitative and qualitative

research methods are complementary.

And so also are the data collection techniques where a researcher may adopt both techniques to gather different information.

Brief overview of some of the techniques1. Interviews –is a two way process in which both the

interviewer and the respondent have a mutual view of each other, engage in an interactive situation, and communicate ideas.

It is an effective tool of collecting information for certain types of assumptions, particularly when investigators are interested in understanding the perceptions of participants or learning how participants come to attach certain meanings to phenomena or events.

Interviews are generally classified into three types:

i. structured interview- involves formally structured schedule on interview questions.

They are designed to elicit information using a set of predetermined questions in which responses are expected to be comparable.

ii.Unstructured interview- no formal schedule of questions.

In stead, interviewers develop some guiding question and follow up probes appropriate to the given situation and the central purpose of the investigation.

iii. Semi-structured interview- involves implementation of a number of predetermined questions.

Interviewees are asked in a systematic and consistent order but interviewers are allowed to digress to probe far beyond the answers to their prepared and standardized questions.

Stages of an interviewIt is very relevant to understand the interview

processes.A. Introduction- beginning with introduction and

entry.

The interviewer should be prepared for reactions such as: how did you pick me up? What good would come out of this? I don’t know about this.

B. The main part of the interview- involves asking questions and recording answers in legible writing.

C. The exit stage- thank the respondent and leave.The interviewer however, should immediately go to

a private place to edit and record details while they are still fresh in mind.

2. Questionnaire- refers to a set of questions.Of course interview uses questions to which respondents

are asked to replay.However, questionnaire could be mailed or sent through

internet e-mail).Questionnaire cold be structured (closed questions),

unstructured (open-ended) questions and semi-structured ( both closed and open-ended) questions.

Some guidelines in designing a good questionnaireA good questionnaire is clear, unambiguous and uniformly

workable.Two principles in designing a good questionnaire are:

avoid confusion and keep respondents’ perspective in mind.

Furthermore, questionnaire construction is an art: requires skill, practice, patience and creativity.

The following are among important guidelines: A. Introduction- description for the purpose of the study and

instructions for responding to the questionnaire and promise of confidentiality

B.Order of questions- from simple to complexC. Form of question –determine whether structured,

unstructured or semi-structured questions are preferred to the subject matter.

D. Clarity- make sure that respondents can understand the questions.

E. Cross-questions- ask questions in different ways to see that respondents answer in the same way.

F. Pre-test- administer the questionnaire in small sample and check for the above considerations.

3. Focus group discussions- are group discussions organized to explore a specific set of issues such as people’s views and experiences of contraception, drinks, participation in local issues, etc.

The group is focused in the sense that it involves bringing different people who may not know each other to undertake some kind of collective activity- such as debating on a particular set of questions.

Focus group is known for the interaction of members in explaining or describing a social phenomenon.

4. Direct observation- a tool where the researcher directly observes the social phenomenon or event and gathers information in the field.

3.3 Sampling and sample design Sampling is a technique that identifies a representative

number from a given universe of population so as to predict a fact, circumstances or results about the universe.

Hence, sample is the smaller portion of the study population or sub group of the population.

A sample should be adequate and representative of the population because the objective of sampling is to get reliable or representative information about the larger study population

A well selected sample may provide superior results. Sampling design or strategy refers to the method we use to

select the samples.

3.3.1 Sample Vs populationSample or units of analysis is the small group of

people from whom a researcher draws out information about the total population.

Unless distinctions made clearly, population may refer to either sample population or study population/universe

The study population refers to the total population form which we select the few to sample.

3.3.2 Sample sizeSample size is another important concept that

refers to the number of respondents involved in the sample survey.

A prudent choice of the sample size for a particular survey involves many considerations, which include among others: resources in manpower, cost per sample unit and funds available.

At any cost however, a sample should be adequate to draw conclusions about the population.

Sampling methods are classified into probability and non-probability .

1. Probability sampling- in this method, each member of the population has a known non- zero probability of being selected.

Probability methods include random, systematic and stratified sampling.

A. Random sampling- a sampling design is considered random, if each member in the population has an equal and known chance of being selected.

Hence, random sample can be defined as a sample where the probability that any individual member from the population being selected as part of the sample is exactly the same as any other individual member of the population.

The prerequisite for a random sample is that each and every item of the population has to be identified.

Random selection is effective in a clearly defined population that is relatively small and self-contained.

Random sampling is not a haphazard, arbitrary, but the opposite.

The reason for using the term is to avoid bias.

B. Systematic sampling- involves selecting elements from a population list in a systematic rather than random fashion.

The researcher calculates a sampling interval rather than using a list of random numbers.

The interval serves as quasi-random selection method. Thus, in a systematic sample, every ‘n’th member has a

chance to be included in the sample.C. Stratified sampling- involves dividing the population into

homogenous groups (sub-groups or strata) each group containing subjects with similar characteristics.

Example dividing a student population into female and male then after use random/systematic sampling.

2. Non-probability sampling It is a type of sampling that does not use probability

theory and it is used when number of elements in a population is not distinguished or known.

The non-probability samples are drawn based on judgment regarding the characteristics of the target population and needs of survey.

In this sampling method, some members of the eligible target population have a chance of being chosen and others do not.

Examples of non-random sample include quota, purposive/judgmental and snowball sampling.

A. Quota sampling The researcher divides the population into-sub

groups/categories such as men and women, arts and commerce, younger and older, etc.

Thus, the number of respondents is fixed in various categories of the sample.

The selection is influenced by researcher’s preference or access to sampling.

Information about the whole population is not necessarily needed.

B. Purposive SamplingThe researcher contacts only most relevant

respondent whom he/she thinks are with sampling characteristics he/she is interested in.

The judgment of the researcher is used in selecting cases with a specific purpose in mind.

It is usually common in gathering historical facts, describing phenomena or when the subject of discussion is not widely known.

C. Snowball Sampling Snowball sampling is also known as network or

reputational sampling since it used uses networking to obtain the required information from those capable individuals.

Here, the first people who are contacted will create their own contact with others and so on until the necessary data is collected.

The quality of data that could be gathered from such sample is therefore, liable to the influence of the first group.

3.4 Monitoring data collection processes Data collection involves a series of processes and

hence, needs to be monitored so that desired results could be achieved out of the research endeavors.

Researchers should monitor the proper use of data instruments/techniques for the identified sources and type of information.

Monitoring data collection processes helps to identify problems in the data collection techniques and gives opportunity to use others before the entire time elapses.

IV DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 Managing Data: coding and data entry

The previous chapter has familiarized us with some of the key techniques of gathering data.

Data should be managed and hence, once the data have been collected, the next task is to reduce the mass of data obtained to a form suitable for analysis.

In this step, researchers are confronted with many questions, which include:

1. How can I make sense of all this material?2. How can I organize it to make it meaningful to others and

myself?3. How do I put it all together so as to present a concise and

thoughtful formulation of the topic under study?Hence, before you start analyzing the data, be clear about:1. What is the level of measurement of each variable being

used in any particular piece of analysis.2. How many variables will any particular piece of analysis

require.3. What type of analysis is required? Is descriptive analysis

required or contextual analysis or nay other.

Working with the original data collection forms to analyze the data is insufficient.

Consider the difficulty of going through hundreds of questionnaires each time you wanted to evaluate the response to an item.

Hence, data should be coded and entered before meaningful analysis could be carried out.

Coding represents the operations by which data are broken down, conceptualized and put back together in new ways.

A systematic listing of the topics to be covered is always very essential.

The data should be coded, formatted, processed, and analyzed in line with the topics.

Coding and data entry is applicable both to quantitative and qualitative analysis.

Coding quantitative data- survey data for example requires that answers are converted into numbers.

Many variables also require that answers be classified into categories.

Classifying responses- involves the creation of a classification system that imposes a particular order on the data.

Classification schemes can be developed either before a questionnaire/interview schedule is administered or after.

Much of the work of classifying responses is done at the questionnaire construction stage where set of fixed responses are provided to the respondents.

The process involves assigning a code number to each answer to a question in the questionnaire/interview schedule.

If the data are classified and coded, and entered accordingly, a simple command of computer gives the tabulations that are anticipated for data analysis.

Coding qualitative data- data collected in the field are not easy to use.

Theoretical coding is an important approach to qualitative data, which tries to convert the material on the schedules into suitable code form.

This task is very tedious and demanding. The method of coding qualitative data is open coding, which

refers to close examination of the data so that phenomena may be named and categorized.

An observation, a sentence, a paragraph from the interview transcript is taken apart and given a name which stands for or represents the phenomena.

We ask questions, like what is this? What does it represent?

In this process, we make comparisons so that similar phenomena may be given the same name.

Example, Studying how children are playing.One child pulls away a toy, ‘grabbing’, another

hides, ‘hiding’, a third ‘avoiding’ interaction.You may ask what ‘grabbing’, ‘ hiding’ , and

‘avoiding’ represent and come to conclusion that these are all ‘strategies to avoid sharing a toy’.

The coding will be with the latter one rather than with the first three.

Ways of doing open codingLine-by-line coding- so that concepts and

categories are freely generated.

Paragraph-wise or in terms of document or case with the aim of breaking down and understanding a text in order to generate categories.

The result of open coding should be a list of codes and categories written along side the text itself, along with code notes that explain the content of the codes.

Data entry will be done on the basis of codes and categories.

4.2 Data cleaning and identification of gaps Data cleaning is an important task of a researcher that

adds substantially to the quality of the collected data. The purpose is to identify and eliminate errors occurred in

the course of data collection.

Data cleaning involves three tasks:1. Completeness- checking that there is an answer to

every question. Whenever there is missing, if it could not be cross-

checked from other sections, respondents should be contacted.

2. Accuracy- as much as possible, a check is made that all questions are answered accurately.

Inaccuracies arise out of carelessness on the part of either the respondent or the interviewers.

A tick in the wrong box, a ring around wrong code, an error in simple arithmetic can reduce the validity of the data unless they are picked up during the cleaning time.

3. Uniformity- checking that interviewers have interpreted instructions and questions uniformly.

Identification of Data Gaps Once cleaning is done, a researcher tries to look the data

in a holistic manner. The focus is not what is missing for each survey/interview

question, but what is missing to answer the research questions and achieve the stated objectives.

Hence, there is a need for a serious examination of the whole data.

This enables a researcher to find ways of filling the gaps before it is too late in relation to the research period.

4.3 Analysis of Qualitative Data There is a need for dialectic between ideas and qualitative

data.Because we cannot analyze the qualitative data without

ideas, but our ideas must be shaped and guided by the data we are analyzing.

You cannot make an omelet without breaking and then beating together eggs.

Likewise, analysis involves breaking the data down into bits and beating the bits together.

In this sense, data analysis can be divided into two broad related activities.

1. Checking and converting the data into formats that is appropriate for analysis and interpretation.

2.Generating metadata - refers to the contextual information that a researcher obtains during processing, for example creating lists of data giving biographical inputs that would make it easier to identify transcripts.

The main purpose of such exercise is to make it easier for the researcher to locate transcripts or particular items in a data set.

Qualitative data analysis involves description, classification, and making connections.

1. Description – it is the first step in qualitative analysis in which a researcher develops descriptions of the phenomena under study.

Description includes information about:A) the context of an act- situating the action within the

social, cultural and historical background against which it takes place.

Contexts are key to meaning since meaning is conveyed ‘ correctly’ only if the context is also understood.

B) intentions and meaning attributed by the actor to the action - in qualitative analysis there is a strong emphasis in understanding the subjective meanings imbued by actors to the ways in which action is organized.

C) the process in which the action is embedded- it is linked to that of change, i.e. the consequences of the action.

2. Classification – this involves sorting out our mass of data into ‘classes’ based on certain characteristics, which will then aid us in the development of a conceptual framework through which actions and events can be rendered intelligibly.

Classification and categorization should always be guided by the research objectives.

3. Making Connection- describing and classifying are not ends in themselves but serve a more important purpose, viz. to produce an account of our analysis.

The concepts we develop are little building block, which must be connected together with the mortar of ideas.

We have to look for associations between different variables and try to see the patterns within the data, so that we can discern regularities and also variation and exceptions.

4.4 Quantitative Data AnalysisQuantitative analysis involves the use of models and

statistics.Statistical analytical methods may be used in valid

ways or in specious ways.This depends both on the honesty of the researcher

in selecting the appropriate formula and data inputs and on his or her understanding of the formula and their outputs.

There are three chief phases:1. Bringing the raw data into measured order2. Summarizing the data3. Applying analytical methods to manipulate the data

so that their interrelationships and quantitative meaning become evident.

There are different statistical packages for qualitative data analysis.

SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) is the most common package.

It is a computer software program that provides access to a wide range of data management and statistical analysis

The program can perform a variety of data analysis including tables and graphical presentation.

It is particularly well suited to sample survey research.

However, it requires knowing/understanding the basic concepts and techniques of statistical analysis.

V . WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS 5.1 THE WRITE UP PROCESSWriting up is the process where the ‘world’

is transformed into words.The ‘world’ refers to a research landscape

where the researcher spends a lengthy period of time in observing and interviewing people.

In this process the researcher sees, feels, and hears, the object of the study.

Generally, write up is the process in which the field experiences are transformed into a text, a report, a monograph, or an article.

However, writing up is not an easy task because linking up words to form a meaningful whole is a demanding task.

In many instances, researchers start writing with a pencil striking it at the paper or put their fingers on the computer keyboard, waiting for the formulation of proper sentences.

Unfortunately however, at the beginning something meaningful hardly comes.

Usually researchers go to library to read more and see similar research outputs and keep on accumulating readings.

Some may even feel that they have no enough data to write.

In any case, all of them they keep on postponing the writing up process and will start to suffer from tremendous stress.

The only antidote for not writing is to write. We can always improve what we have written, editing the good staff and tossing the rest.

Until you have word in front of you to edit, thoughts can jump around forever in your head in so abstract a form that they can neither be communicated to others nor sharpened to your satisfaction.

Writing, like any other workmanship, is an art that you must practice regularly.

5.1.1 Data Presentation and Interpretation Data presentation refers to the preparation of a data in a

manner that could be used by the general audience. Tables, charts and graphs are important means of data

presentation to which most audiences are familiar. Quite often the most important point that an analyst wants to

make can be more clearly demonstrated by using a chart or graph than by describing the point verbally.

Tables serve important purpose of generating charts and graphs.

People may ‘see’ what is important more quickly by viewing a picture of it than by receiving the same information in written form.

Data interpretation- refers to the process of giving meaning to the data and spelling out the implications in relation to the research questions and objectives.

This process involves the real interventions of the investigator in which he/she draws major generalizations.

The quality and level of contribution to theoretical or empirical gaps depend on this process.

The author, uses theoretical framework in the process of interpretation.

However, researchers need to be careful not to make generalizations that are not supported by the data analysis.

5.1.2 Tracing Back to Objectives, Questions and Problems

In the course of write up, it is quite advisable that researchers need to trace back to the research problems, questions and objectives.

This helps researchers to keep themselves on track and monitor the progress of the write up.

The data analysis and interpretation may sometimes indicate that certain adjustment is unavoidable.

Researchers who fail to look back their problems, questions and objectives may find themselves having done an interesting writing up, but does not live up to the research objectives.

5.1.3 Telling the story Clearly and Making Good arguments.

Writing up involves story building, which is not an easy task.

If readers are to accept your claim, they must be able to follow your argument, and to do that they must understand the sentences that express it.

Good researchers write short and clear stories rather than taking readers around the bush.

The principles of telling a story clearly include:

1. Short stories and correct grammars

2.Old information before new

3.Choosing between active and passive

4. Complexity lastMAKING GOOD ARGUMENTSA researcher have to organize a report to support

a claim that answers his/her research question and justifies both the time he/she spent answering it and the time he/she asks readers to spend reading about it.

The support for that answer and claim takes the form of a research argument.

Though you should at first organize your materials around the elements of your argument, your final draft must reflect not only the structures of your argument but also the structures of your readers’ understanding.

Arguments should be constructed in such a way that one reinforces the other.

This process of ‘thickening’ an argument with other arguments is one way that writers gain the confidence of readers.

Readers will judge you by how well you manage the elements of an argument so that you anticipate their concerns.

In so doing, they are in effect judging the quality of your mind, even your implied character- an image of yourself that you project through your argument, traditionally called your ethos.

When you seem to be the sort of person who supports your claims thoroughly and who thoughtfully considers other points of view, you give readers reason to trust what you say and not question what you don’t.

5.1.4 Claims, Reasons and Evidence Claim is any sentence that asserts something that may be

true or false and so needs support: Example: the world’s temperature is rising.

A reason is a sentence supporting a claim. Evidence is fact, data which a researcher base reason(s). In a research report, you make claim, back with reasons

based on evidence, acknowledge and respond to other views, and sometimes explain your principles of reasoning.

Every written argument is built out of the answers for five questions that the researcher must ask on behalf of his/her readers’.

1. What do you claim?2. What reasons support that claim?3. What evidence supports those reasons?4. Do you acknowledge this alternative/objection

and how do you respond?5. What principle (warrant) justifies connecting

your reasons to your claim? BASING CLAIMS ON REASONS At the core of every research report is your

claim, the answer to your research question, along with two kinds of support for it.

The first support is at least one reason, a sentence or two explaining why your readers should accept your claim.

Examples:

1. the emancipation of Russian peasants was an empty gesture (claim) because it did not improve the material quality of their daily lives (reason).

2.TV violence can have harmful psychological effects on children (claim) because those exposed to lots of it tend to adopt the values of what they see (reason).

Of course, it should be clear that a reason could be supported by more reasons,.

Which means reasons can be based on reasons, but ultimately a reason has to be grounded on evidence.

BASING REASONS ON EVIDENCECareful readers ask for evidence, the data, the facts

on which a researcher base reasons.Evidence is something that a researcher and readers

can see, touch, taste, smell, or hear ( or is accepted by everyone as just plain fact- the sun rises in the east).

.

Let us look at example 2TV violence can have harmful psychological

effects on children (claim) because those exposed to lots of it tend to adopt the values of what they see (reason).

Their constant exposure to violent images makes them unable to distinguish fantasy from reality (another reason).

Ben (2000) found that children ages 5-9 who watched more than three hours of violent television a day were 25 percent more likely to say that most of what they saw on television was really happening (evidence supporting reasons).

5.1.5 Reliability, Validity and Triangulation

For a piece of research to be judged as ‘objective, it has to be both reliable and valid.

Reliability is meant the extent to which a measurement procedure yields the same answer whenever it is carried out.

Example, a thermometer should show the same temperature in a room whenever it is plugged under the same condition.

It is about consistency, i.e. your research would be reliable if, when repeated, using the same methods, it brings the same results.

In qualitative research, validity specifically refers to the extent to which the data reflect the thoughts, views, actions and experiences of the subject in an accurate manner.

Reliability of the data is the main concern of the scientific community because if the data are not reliable, the conclusions reached on their basis will be quite useless.

Working Towards ReliabilityA key factor is the quality of recording and documenting

data.The field notes taken by the researcher must be

documented in such a way that they can be compared and shared with other fieldworkers and colleagues.

Reliability for interview data can be increased by training the interviewers and by checking interview guides in test interviews or after the first interview.

In the case of observation, training before entering the field and regularly evaluating what has been observed can promote the reliability of findings.

In a nutshell, reliability demands that the data are presented in such a way that the reader can clearly differentiate the voice of the subject from the interpretations of the researcher.

Validity-is the extent to which a measurement gives the correct answer.

It refers to the accuracy of the data by the research instrument, whether it is an interview or questionnaire or some other means of research.

Validity has internal and external dimensions.Internal validity involves asking questions like:

Have the methods that I used color the results of my research?

Were there other factors that came in the way?

External validity of a research is about answering the questions:

How valid is one’s conception of the situation?How generalizable are one’s results?We can say safely that the concept of validity

refers to the extent to which our data provide the true measurement of social reality.

For example, you have collected data about power shortage in a town and you want to compare with government statistics, which are reliable.

However, the government’s definition of power shortage and your research definition may not be the same.

If this is the case, is your comparison valid? It is not, because the comparison is not between two

things alike. Ways of bringing validity in a research process1. Refrain from talking. When you are in the field, listen as much as possible.2. Produce field-notes that are as exact as possible.3. Begin to write early, so that you will not forget the little

detail that separate good research from the ordinary.

4. Write in such a way that your readers can see for themselves the points you are trying to bring out.

In other words, provide enough data to enable readers to draw out their own inferences and follow the ones that you are making .

5. Your report should be as complete as possible.6. Seek feedback on your findings and presentations from

your colleagues.7.Your presentation should be characterized by a balance

between the various aspects you have studied rather than leaning too heavily on one or the other aspect.

8.Your presentation should display accuracy in writing

Triangulation- refers to the use of multiple methods for assessing the validity of your research data.

It enables you to combine different methods and obtain a better picture of the subject of your research.

The aim of triangulation is to obtain accuracy in measurement between two points for which you require a way of measuring that is realizable.

The theory of triangulation provides us in social research some degree of control over the accuracy of data we gather.

There are two types of triangulation: methodological and theoretical triangulations.

Methodological triangulation- refers to:One researcher uses two or more research methods.Two or more researchers use the same research method.Purpose of methodological triangulation:1. To gather different types of information, for example, qualitative

and quantitative.2. Two or more researchers use the same method and then

compare their results to find out if they agree that they have similar findings.

3. To check that material collected in one form is both realizable and valid

Theoretical Triangulation- this form of triangulation is not popular, but not impossible.

It tries to look at the subject of a study from different theoretical point of view.

5.2 Contents of a Research ReportA research report generally has three major sections

viz. introduction, body and conclusion.1. Introduction- once the researcher has produced

revised chapters, s/he should revise her/his working introduction so that readers know where you will take them and why they should go there.

Grab their attention with something snappy or cute.What grabs readers is a problem they think is in

need of a solution, and what hold them is the hope that you have found it.

Introduction may differ based on the topics and problems posed in different fields as well as their intended readers.

However, they have shared rhetorical pattern that readers look for in all introductions, regardless of field.

The common structure consists of three elementsA. Contextualizing background Contextualization of information is called common ground,

because it establishes a shared understanding between reader and writer about the general issue the writer will address. It is a stable context.

B. A statement of the problem Once a writer establishes common ground, s/he can

disrupt it with a problem. The statement of the problem should be brief that focuses

on some conditions of incomplete knowledge or understanding and the consequences of not knowing or understanding.

C. A response to the problem. Once the writer disrupts the readers’ stable context with a

problem, they will expect the writer to solve it, either by explicitly stating the gist of the solution or by implicitly promising them that s/he will do so.

An example of an introduction with a gist of solution (main point)

As we have investigated environmental threats, our understanding of many chemical processes such as acid rain and the buildup of carbon dioxide has improved, allowing us to understand better their eventual effects on the biosphere.

But recently the chemical processes that have been thinning the ozone layer have been found to be less well understood than one thought (so what?).

We may have labeled hydrofluorocarbons as the chief cause incorrectly.We have found the bonding of carbon ….

An example of an introduction with a promise of solution.

As we have investigated environmental threats, our understanding… has improved, allowing us to understand better their eventual effects on the biosphere.

But recently the chemical processes … that have been thinning the ozone layer [ have proved to be ] less well understood … (so what?).

We may have labeled hydrofluorocarbons as the chief cause incorrectly. (well, what have you found?)

In this report, we describe a hitherto unexpected chemical bonding between…….

This introduction provides as a sentence that promises a solution to come.

Not every introduction has all the three, but most do.

The introduction may briefly outline the structure of the research report.

2. The body of a research reportThe body of a research report consists of design

section, theoretical framework & literature review and most important the empirical chapters.

The depth and character of these elements of the body differ from researcher to researcher.

3. ConclusionNot every research paper has a section formally

called conclusion, but they all have a paragraph or two that serves as one.

Important issues in writing a conclusion:

1. Start with your main report- if you end your introduction with your main report, state it again at the beginning of your conclusion, but state in more fully. Don’t simply repeat it.

2.Add a new significance or application- once you state your claim, say why it is significant: paraphrase the consequences of your problem or point to a new significance not mentioned in your introduction.

This new significance should be another answer to the question: So what? in the introduction.

3. Add a Call for More Research Just as you can survey research already done in

your common ground, you can also call for more research still to do at the end of your conclusion.

5.3 Styles, Citation and DocumentationAll source materials, primary or secondary,

(published or unpublished) must be credited and correctly cited.

Failure to do so constitutes plagiarism.All citations should include a reference in the

body of the text to the author as well as an entry in the bibliography.

No matter how styles may vary between Oxford, Cambridge, American Psychological Association (APA), all citations should include a reference in the body of the text to the author as well as an entry in the bibliography.

An important issue in citation is to consistently use a single citation style.

5.3.1 Quotation and ParaphraseQuotation involves taking the precise wording of

the author in a sentence or paragraph.

In such cases the researcher needs to put the sentence or paragraph in a quotation mark (“ ”) and as well s/he is required to cite the source, which includes the name of the author, the date of publication and the page number.

Note: the quoted sentence should be linked with the previous or next issue in the text.

Example: Helmsing (2001:4) explained that “decentralization has ceased to be a local government affair and has turned into a local governance issue.”

Whenever the sentence is more than five lines, it should be indented.

Example: According to Litvack et al. (1998:1), in the Third World countries, the change and the emphasis on decentralization in the current context is derived from different factors that include:

the advent of multi-party political systems in Africa; the deepening of democratization in Latin America; the transition from a command to a market economy in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union; the need to improve delivery of local services to large populations in the centralized countries of East Asia; the challenge of ethnic and geographic diversity in South Asia, as well as ethnic tensions in other countries[…] and the attempt to keep centrifugal forces at bay by forging asymmetrical federations; and the plain and simple reality that central governments have often failed to provide effective public services.

Where a quotation has been changed or words are added, it should be indicated as follows:

1.“[…] it is clear that according to the current understanding of governance, government is one among many societal players or actors that are concerned with public issues.”

This indicates omitted parts before the sentence included in the quotation.

2.“Development is […] a cumulative process.”This indicates that something has been omitted in between. 3. “The change should be very well felt by [ the community ] and

local officials.”This shows that the community is the author’s own insertion.Sentence that is quoted from secondary source, which was

quoted by another author should be indicated by stating as quoted by Alex (2006:43)

Paraphrasing- sources may be paraphrased where exact wording is not essential.

This means the researcher is adopting the view pints of the author.

Care should be taken however, not to change the original meaning through paraphrase, and all paraphrased sources must be fully cited.

Example: Traditionally, political scientists have used governance to express the nature of the relationships between the ‘RULES, RULERS, and the RULED’ (Olowu, 1999, 2002a).

Citing within the paper/chapterSingle author: example Gorge Smith 1999 should be cited

as (Smith, 1999) Two authors: example Mathew White and Fresew Belay

2004 should be cited as (White and Fresew, 2004). The same is true for three authors. If it is more than three authors, use “et al.”Example, (Jackson et al.,2003)5.3.2 Bibliography Bibliography is a complete documentation of the source

materials used in the research.The documentation system is not the same for all types of

source materials.

Bibliography/Reference citationA. Book with a Single AuthorFleming, T. (1997) Liberty!: The American Revolution. New York:

Viking. Important Elements: Author, date of publication, title of the book,

place of publication, publisher.B. Book with two or three AuthorsSchwartz, D., S. Ryan & F. Wostbrock (1995) The Encyclopedia of TV

game shows. New York: Facts on File.C. Book with more than three authorsAzfar, O. et al. (1999) Decentralization, Governance and Public Services:

the Impact of Institutional Arrangements: A Review of Literature. IRIS Centre: Maryland University Press.

D. Article within a BookAdhana H. (1994) “Mutation of Statehood and Contemporary Politics”, in

Abebe Z. and S. Pausewang (eds.) Ethiopia in Change: Peasantry, Nationalism and Democracy, pp. 12-29. London: British Academic Press.

Important Elements: Author of the article, date of publication, title of the article, editor(s) of the book, title of the book, page numbers of the article, place of publication, and publisher.

E.Articles from a Printed JournalAbbink, J. (1997) “Ethnicity and Constitutionalism in

Contemporary Ethiopia”, Journal of African Law 41(2): 159-174.

Important Elements: Author of the article, date of publication, title of the article, title of journal, volume and issue number of the journal, page numbers of the article.

G. Article from a Printed Newspaper

Holden, S. (1998, May 16) Frank Sinatra dies at 82: Matchless stylist of pop. The New York Times, pp. A1, A22-A23.

Important Elements: Author of article, date of publication, title of article, name of newspaper, section, page location of article.

H. Website sources

Brosio, G. (2000) Decentralization in Africa. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/seminar/2000/fiscal/brosio.pdf (accessed 24/10/2007)