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vestigated when a fit opportunity occurs,and repeated, as often as means are afford-ed. Having demonstrated the compagesof the human body, and treated of its

physiology, we shall turn our attention toa practical application of anatomy, by de-scribing such diseases as usually engagethe attention of the surgeon, and then weshalt proceed to the chirurgical opera-tions, bandages, &c. Comparative ana-tomy will come in at the latter end of thecourse, after having relieved our mindsfrom the more arduous and indispensableduties which we are bound to perform.And having achieved this part of our

engagements, we then shall be suffi-ciently at liberty to pursue speculations,which are but too much looked upon asonly amusing ; but if the distinguishedabilities of a Hunter, a Monro, or a Catn-per, the brightest medical luminaries ofthe late century, and the first comparativeanatomists then living, can at all stimu-late our enthusiasm, we shall experiencemany truths from the dissection of ani-mals.Gentlemen, now suffer me to add, that

contributing thus to diffuse the knowledgeof a science scarcely more necessary to thepractitioner than beneficial to our fellow-creatures at large, will be the pride, thepleasure, and ambition of my life.

MR. BRANSBY COOPER.

New Theatre, Guy’s Hospital.

GENTLEMEN,IT grieves me that the first word I have

to utter in this theatre is one of discord ;but most of you are aware of the circum-stances which have this day occurred inone of the theatres of this Institution. Itwas my intention to have entered into thedetails of this transaction, but when Ifound that the Treasurer of Guy’s Hospi-tal had arrived here ; when I found him, as indeed he is always to be found, at hispost, and knowing him as I do, to be a man Iof high integrity and just feeling, andfully capable of judging between the rightsof man and man, I thought I could not dobetter than leave the matter in his hands.He will no doubt form a just estimate ofthe conduct of Dr. Cholmeleyon,this occa-sion ; I have no hesitation in naming theindividual. (Cries of " Bravo !") I muststill say, however, gentlemen, that it isnot in Dr. Cholmeley’s power either to raiseor depress the name of ASTLEY COOPJER.(Bravo !), Gentlemen, before we enter into the sub-

ject of the lecture, I think it incumbent onme to say a few words on the structure ofthe building, under the roof of which weare now for the first time assembled, andwhere I trust many a lecturer may con-tinue to pour forth one uninterruptedstream of science for years to come. I willnot advert to the circumstances which haveoccurred to separate two bodies which,therewas reason to suppose, were united by theclosest bonds. I would say rather in thelanguage of the great dramatic Poet :Be all the clouds that lower’d upon our

houseIn the deep bosom of the ocean buried."But there is one topic on which I con-

sider myself bound to touch, I mean the

deep sense of gratitude which I entertaintowards the Treasurer of this house forthe honour which he has conferred uponme in placing me in this chair, and thusaffording me the opportunity of addressingyou. But I conceive he is entitled to amuch higher eulogy than my poor tributeof thanks-he is entitled to the thanks ofthe public for having so nobly applied thefunds intrusted to his hands, for the pur-pose of opening a new source for the dif-fusion of anatomical and medical know-ledge. For what would avail the muni-ficence of princes or generous subjectsiu founding institutions for the receptionof the sick, if schools were not erected toteach that science which can alone minis-terto their sufferings ?

Gentlemen, when we consider that thestudy of our profession, if pursued onscientific principles, enables us, by the re-moval f disease, to alleviate the onlysubstantial affliction to which the humanframe is exposed, we cannot but feel a

deep sense of the importance of that sta-tion which we are destined to hold in thescale of society; nor can we avoid reflect-ing how incumbent it is upon us to esta-blish the principles of the science on themost solid foundatiun. It is only by anaccurate knowledge of the structure andfunctions of the human body in a state ofhealth, that we can judge of the nature ofdisease, and act upon just and rationalprinciples in its treatment.The science which enables us- to, ascer-tain the structure and functions of or-

ganized matter is termed anatomy. Thadepartment which relates to the humanbody is termed human anatomy. Andthat which points out the differences ofstructure in man and the inferior animals,is designated by the term-comparativeanatomy. In these lectures, I shall confinemyself chiefly to the subject of humananatomy, without entering into that of theinferior animals further than may be ne-

cessary to illustrate some important differ-ences in their structure and economy.

54

Before we proceed to consider the humanbody as, organized matter, or attempt toinvestigate its constituent parts, let uspreviously inquire in what it differs from,and in what it resembles all common mat-ter. We find that it possesses the essen-tial properties common to all matter, suchas extension, form, divisibility, inertia,and attraction. Hence we are led to con-clude, that the animal, vegetable, and mi-neral kingdoms are but different modifi-cations of the same elementary matter,and that in this respect there are pointsof similarity between the component par-ticles of a man, an oak, and a mountain.Nor need man feet degraded by this re- flection, for the modification of matter in the human subject is so much elevated inevery respect, and so different in many, asjustly to entitle him to the superior distinotion of being called the noblest work ef Gud. The vital principale, and the func-tions dependent on that principle, con-stitute- a marked line of distinction be-tween animate and inanimate matter.There are many points of affinity betweenthe’two. classes- of organized matter, name--ly, the animal and vegetable kingdoms.They both possess the power of producingchanges within themselves, of generatingnew matter during their growth and de-velopment, and in this way recruiting thatwaste of the body which is constantly go-ing on by the assimilation of foreign matter.These are the phenomena which consti-tute the great distinction between organiz-ed and inert matter; accordingly, those ob-jects in which this inherent vital principleis found, are classed under the term ofliving, matter, while those which do notpossess it, are comprehended under thegeneral designation of inorganic matter.Living bodies are properly divided into

two classes, animal and vegetable; hutwhen they lose their vital funebons, or inother words, when they are deprived of the power of appropriating and assimilating foreign matter into their own substance,they retain merely the essential propertiesof common matter, into which they resolvethemselves, and in that state are capable ofbeing affected by chemical agents. Thecharacters which distinguish animal fromvegetable matter are sufficiently marked ;the former being endowed with sensation,thought, and volition, while the lattersex-hibits none of these phenomena. ’thisdistinction being recognised, we are nowto consider in what respect man stands sopre-eminent above the rest of the animalworld ; for though the deductions of com-parative anatomy demonstrate that he

possesses properties peculiar to himself,and which distinguish him from all otheranimals, they do not sufficiently show thathe is not only superior to all other animals,

hut that in fact he stands next to his Cre-.,ator. it is not merely because matt standserect, or because he has two hands, thathe is. entitled to a separate and pre-emi-nent rank in the animal kingdom, but be.cause he possesses the great faculty of reason or judgment, which enables him todistinguish what is advantageous or usefulfrom what is inconvenient or pernicious.And thus when he feels an inclination topossess any object, he does not obey themere impulse of such a feeling, but firstexercises the great prerogative of man-judgment ; considers whether the actionmeditated is right or wrong, and governshis conduct upon principles, and accord-*ing to the dictates of a discriminating faculty with which no other animal is en-dowed. When this faculty is exerted to itsfull extent, it carries man beyond thesphere of self-interest, and prompts himto contribute to the general advantage ofhis species. If these distinguishing prero-gatives of man be duly considered, it willrequire no argument to show that he is themaster-work of his Creator’s hand, and

that whatever is calculated to improveman’s condition, to promote his comfortland to provide for his health, cannot butbe an object of the highest importa

Health, I need scarcely say, is the

greatest of all earthly blessings ; it en-ables the poor, by means of industry, tobecome rich, and the rich to enjoy theadvantages of wealth. Without it the

peasant must starve, and the monarch, inthe midst of profusion, loathe the luxuiieswhich surround him. It is the source ofour highest enjoyments, and the last

earthly object human eyes and human

hope look up to. Impressed with this ton-sideration, how grateful, how delightfulmust be our task in investigating the won-derful and beautiful fabric of man, andcultivating a thorough knowledge of his

structure snd functions in a state of’ health, in order to enable us to understand, the changes which are superinduced bydisease.

In this Introductory Address, it will bemy object to lay before you the plan whichI intend to pursue in this course of ler-tures, and to point out the best mode ofacquiring a knowledge of the structure ofthe various parts of the human body;which branch of science is designated hu-man anatomy. It is obvious that a kuow-ledge of the human body, in a state of

! health, must be acquired before we canunderstand either its natural functions, orthe changes produced by disease. After-! having investigated and described thestructure of the several parts of the humlu!body, I shall proceed to explain the useand functions of the several organs; Whichbranch of scieaceis termed physiology.

55

Hence we shall be enabled to demonstrate,that pathology depends entirely upon anato-my and physiology, or a knowledge of thestructure and functions of the humanbody. To enter into a formal descriptionof the several parts of the human body,would, on the present occasion, be super-fluous ; and I shall, therefore, only takesuch a general view of the subject as maylead you to consider how beautifully themachine is adapted to the use and pur-poses tor watch it is designed. The body

consists of a duly proportioned aggregate ofsolids and fluids ; and as it is subjectto constant waste, this waste is suppliedby the intro-susception of certain externalsubstances, colkectively termed food. Mallis enabled to obtain the fresh supply re-quisite to his subsistence, through the me-dium of the senses of sight, bearing, smel-ling, taste, and feeling, four of which areexercised by particular organs, while thenerves adapted to that of feeling are dis-tributed over the entire surface of the

body. As the object of man’s wants ismore or )ess distant, it is necessary, inorder that he may approximate to them,that he should possess the power of loco-motion, and a form suited to the exerciseof that power. A firm basis is obviouslyessential for his support, and accordingly,the whole structure is firmly secured by asubstance termed bone, which gives sup-port and protection to the surrounding softparts, and maintains his proper stature.That they may not add too much to theweight of the body, the bones are hollow,and are thus rendered considerably lighter,without any diminution of their strength.As the bones are the basis of locomotion,and are to admit of the most rapid move.ments of the body, it is necessary that theyshould not constitute one continuousmass; we find them, therefore, dividedinto a great number, and so disposed asto play easily, and adapt themselves rea-dily to the various motions of the body.At their extremities, we find a substanceadmirably adapted, by its smoothness andelasticity, to prevent concussion and fric-tion, which substance is called cartilage.In the joints, which are entirely under theinfluence of the will, we find this sub-stance merely tipping the extremities ofthe bones ; but where the motion is con-fined, we find the cartilage firmly unitingbones together; as, for instance, the ribsto the sternum. Still further, to preventfriction, besides the cartilages of thehones, there is a fluid teroed synovia,which is poured out from the extremitiesof arteries, terminating by open mouthsin the internal surface of a synovial mem-brane, which prevents the escape of thefluid. This apparatus is always fawtd atarticulating surfaces, and the quantity of

synovia is proportioned to the extent ofmotion in the joint, and the consequentdanger of displacement. Another struc-ture, forming part of every articulationis ligament, so called from its efficacy iqbinding the bones together. Ligaments arestrong inelastic membranes, connectingthe extremities of moveable bones, so asnot to interfere with motion, except whereit has a tendency to be carried beyond thenatural extent, which the ligaments dQnot adroit without rupture. In this waythe fabric of the body is rendered capableof being moved ; and 1 shall now proceedto consider the mauner in which themotions of the body are effected.

Here we have to observe the muscles,which are the moving powers of the body.Muscle is derived from the Greek word,µvew, to contract, from a property peculiarto this substance. Muscles are soft elas-tic fasciculi, connected by cellular mem-braue, and in the human subject they aregenerally of a red colour. When we tracea muscle, we find it originating from aconsiderable extent of surface, graduallyconverging into a small space, to be unitedto a small chord, called a tendon. Thistendinous structure consists of fibres ofa white colour, firmly connected together,and extending in a uniform direction to themuscle to which it is attached. By thecontraction of muscles, motion is pro-duced ; thus the brachialis internus is oncof the muscles intended to raise the fore-arm ; and by the contraction of this, mus-cle, the coronoid process of the ulna,which is the bone into which it is inserted,is brought nearer to the as humeri, fromwhich it arises, and in this way the elbow-joint is bent. The joints are providedwith as many muscles as are necessary forthe different motions of the body; eachmuscle moving in a proper direction onthe bone to which it is attached. Theextent of power in a muscle is proportionedto its size, or the number of fasciculicomposing it; hence the different degrees!of power which we observe in leaping,running, andperforming other motions ofthe body. When you have thus consi-dered bow the fabric of the human bodyis, capable of being moved, and how themuscles produce the various complicatedmotions of the machine, you will have nodiinculty in comprehending the physio-,logy of locomotion. In walking, for in-,stance, the first object is to fix one part ofthe body so that the other may be sub-servient to the action of voluntary mus-eular power. The weight ef the body isthrown to one leg, that the other may becapable of free motion; the muscles twingbrought into action, the limb is raisedand extended; the body brought forward

: by the muscles of the fixed side, and its

56

weight tranferred to the advanced limb, which in its turn becomes fixed, and set ithe other at liberty to repeat the stfp, Ihave supposed that the great purposes oflocomotion are to enable the animal to

approach its food, and to remove fromsuch objects as may give it more or lessdisturbance. Here we recognise a greatdistinction between the animal and thevegetable, for while the former is capableof changing its situation, whenever it is

necessary to procure food, the latter is

compelled to remain stationary.By the aid of loco-motion, man is ena-

bled to procure all the substances capableof being converted into nourishment bythe action of the digestive organs. Thereis a great variety of such substances, forman is said to be an omnivorous feeder.The food is conveyed by his hand to hismouth, which is opened for its reception ;it is next masticated by the action of thelower and upper jaw, formed into a bolusby the tongue, lubricated by a fluid of themouth, and thus rendered fit to be swal-lowed, and also to undergo certain changesin the stomach. The food thus masticatedis passed by the action of the tongue onthe soft palate into the cavity of the fauces,towards the pharynx. The pharynx isstimulated by the presence of the food tocontract, and the food passes into the

œsophagus, by the action of whose muscu-lar fibres it is conveyed into the stomach.

,

Having thus noticed the organs neces-sary to the process of deglutition, I shallproceed to those of digestion; and, first, Ishall advert to the stomach, which is amembranous bag situated in the cavityof the abdomen, and which establishes an-other important distinction between the ani-mal and vegetable kingdoms; for vegeta-bles imbibe their nourishment from thesur-face, while animals partly receive it into astomach. This receptacle is found in everyanimal, and may be considered as consti.tuting the organic difference between the-animal and vegetable world. The pro-cess by which the food is converted intonourishment, which constitutes tne pecu-liar office of this organ, is termed diges-tion. The food is first converted into a

pulpy substance, called chyme, by theaction of the gastric juice; it then passesthroug’h the pylorus into the duodenum,where it is mixed with other fluids, thebile, the pancreatic and the enteric juices,and converted from chyme into chyle.The whole of the food, however, is not con-verted into chyle ; a considerable portionof it passes away as useless and feculentmatter. That portion of it which is to beconverted into nutriment is taken up by theabsorbent vessels from the small mtes-tines, which are furnished with a numberof folds of a valvular structure, called

valvulæ conniventes.which produce a diffi-culty in the passage of the feculent mat-ter, and enlarge the surface for the lactealsto take up that portion which still may benutritious. ’

,

I have entered somewhat more at lengthinto this subject than is usual, perhaps,in an introductory lecture, in order toshow how the continual waste or wearand tear of the body is supplied by theassimilation of those substances, col-lectively termed food. Let us now pro-ceed to trace the alimentary part of thefood from the stomach and intestines intothe vital system, or, as it is commonlycalled, the circulation. The food havingbeen taken by the lacteals from the in-testines, passes through a membranecalled the mesentery, and if examinedshortly after an animal has taken food, itis found in this state to consist of a whiteopake fluid resembling milk. It passesfrom the mesentery to a large canal calledthe thoracic duct, which arises from theloins, passes along the spinal column

through the chest, and is terminated at thejunction of the internal jugular, with thesubclavian vein. The direction of thefluid in its passage to the thoracic duct isuniform; and there are certain valvular

apparatus, which present an insuperableresistance to any retrograde motion. Itis thus conveyed into the blood to be cir-culated with it, and to assist in the sup-port, growth, and reproduction of everypart of the body. We find, therefore, thatthough the constituent parts of animalbodies are so different in many particulars,they are all formed, and capable of beingresolved into one common element. Theblood is itself composed, however, of Sfve-ral constituent parts, which is demoiistra-ble from the separation which takes placewhen it is drawn from the living body.With respect to the circulation of the

; blood, we cannot consider it without beingreminded of the great and immortal name

of HARVEY, who first comprehended andexplained that phenomenon, and whosefame will survive as long as a heart beatsin demonstration of his discovery. As theblood conveys the means of nutrition tothe whole system, it is propelled from theheart to every part of the body, and con-veyed back again to that organ.The heart is a hollow muscle, situated

within the chest, composed of two cavi-ties, separated by a partition. These ca-vities are each divided into au auricle and,a ventricle, which communicate with oneanother: thus the heart is divided into a

right and a left side, the former receiving- the veinous, and the latter the arterialblood. I know not that 1 can better ex-plain the nature of this apparatus than bydescribing the circulation. In the firs*

57

place, then, two large veins, called thevenæ cavæe, convey dark-coloured blood tothe right auricle : a portion of this cavity,being muscular, is capable of being sti-mulated by the presence of blood ; henceit contracts, and propels its contents intothe right ventricle, which, in its turn, con-tracts. The fluid, prevented by a valvefrom returning into the auricle,, passesinto the pulmonary artery, and is con-

veyed to the lungs, which are a spongyparenchymatous organ, occupying a con-siderable part of the thorax, and admittingramifications of the windpipe, so as to befreely permeated by atmospheric air. Bythe minute distribution of the pulmonaryartery, the blood is brought into contactwith the air, and. undergoes a chemicalchange, which, among other results, pro-rluces that of converting the fluid from a

black to a red colour. It is then received! by the four pulmonary veins as bloodj suited for the supply of the body, and con-’ veyed to the left auricle, from whence it

,passes to the left ventricle, and here endsthe proper circulation through the heartand lungs. At this stage, a fresh me-chanism is required to convey the bloodto every part of the frame. This requisite.is supplied by a series of elastic tubes con-stituting the arterial system ; throughthese arteries the blood receives its first

impulse from the contraction of the heart,which is called the vis a tergo, and whichis maintained by the elasticity of the ex-ternal arterial coat. -

By some physiologists, however, theflow of the blood through an artery is sup-posed to depend on a muscular power re-sident in those vessels. The trunks ofarteries.diverge into innumerable ramifi-

cations in extending toward their termi-nation, and expend themselves by inoscu-lating with veins. These may be con-sidered as the second division of blood-vessels, and they are sufficiently distin-gnished by the different colours of the fluid’which they circulate. The change ofcolour arises not from the abstraction ofany thing from the blood, but from the

absorption into it, during its course fromthe heart, of new matter, effecting this al-teration by its chemical agency. The veinstake their origin, in minute branches,from the capillary extremities of the ar-’teries, aud, by their progressive union, ul-timately form the two great veins alreadydesignated the venæ cavæ, which emptythemselves into the right ventricle of theheart. In the interior of the veins wefind a valvular structure adapted for pre-venting the regurgitation of the blood.The respective offices of the three kinds

of blood-vessels, namely, the vein, the Iventricle, and the artery, must now besufficiently apparent. The veins convey

I

the chyle and blood towards the heart ;the artery carries the blood from it, andthe ventricle gives the necessary impulseon one side to the lungs, and on the otherto the arterial system distributed through-out the body. The necessity of the pul-monary circulation, and of the ejection ofsomething that is incapable-of sustainingthe vital functions, is rendered abundantlymanifest by the fact, that exhaled air isnot calculated to support life. To provethis fact, let an animal be confined underan inverted glass, so adapted for the ex-periment, as to prevent the admission offresh air, and the animal inhaling onlythat which it has breathed, will soon die.The purpose of the auricles appears to bethat of serving as a receptacle for the ven-ous blood, while the ventricles are actingupon that in the arteries, for they are

rendered sufficiently distinct from one

another by means of valves, during theaction of the ventricle, to be preventedfrom acting upon the auricle during theircontractions. Hence, it is clear, that thetwo auricles and the two ventricles mustoperate in unison, they must act syncliro-nously. By the active force of the ven-tricles such an impetus is given to theblood as to produce distension and mo-

mentary change of place in the arteries,a phenomenou, which is commonly term-ed pulsation; but in the veius the bloodflows in an even and uniform current, themomentum originating in the heart beingexpended ere that flu-id has reachedthem.Having thus described the circulation

of the blood under its two systems, thevenous and the arterial, one serving tobuild the body while the other suppliesthe materials, we will now direct our at-tention to the means by which the variousand very different parts which constitutethe human frame, are all produced fromone homogeneous fluid. We shall findthat this wonderful result is ascribable tothe extremities of the arteries, and is ef-fected by what are called the functions ofexhalation and of secretion. The differ-ence between them I shall now attempt toexplain.

- ,-

The fluids, we find, are produced by ex-halation where arteries terminate upouany surface by open mouths, under so pe-culiar an arrangement as to allow the se-paration of certain of the constituent partswithout the intervention of any organ, theseparation taking place from the vesselsthemselves. On the other hand, the me-chanism which produces the secretedfluids is much more complicated, andeffects in them an infinitely greater differ-ence than the blood itself. For instance,if we examine the bile or the saliva, wediscover in it properties widely van grd

58

from those possessed by the blood; while the exhalant fluids bear a great resem-blance to what the blood would become if

deprived of its red particles. For elabor-’ating the change in the one case, there isprovided a substance called a gland, intowhich arteries ramify, and in which arise anew let of vessels termed excretory ducts,for the conveyance of the fluid to someorgan in subservience to a peculiar func- tion ; in the other case the exhaled fluid is

Busually returned into the circulation by the process of absorption. Thus it wouldappear that the great difference between ithese two processes is, that the one is very simple, and the other extremely compli- Icated.By means, then, of secretion and exha-

lation, we can conceive the abundant sup-ply furnished to every part of the body tobe produced from the ramifications of thearteries. We find that exhalant vesselsare constantly pouring out fluids,as for in-stance, within the cavity of the peritoneumand the synovia, for the purpose of lubri-cating the joints. This fluid would beconstantly accumulating within the cavi-ties of the articulations, were it not foranother operation, which is in constant

progress, tending to maintain an exactproportion between the fluid secreted andthe fluid absorbed, and thus preventingdistension in the secreting cavities of thebody. It may be proper, therefore, to takea general view of the manner in whichthis absorbent system originates, and ofthe purposes it is destined to serve ; for weshall find that while the absorbents act asthe constructors of the bftdy, they removewhat is superfluous or injurious, and takeup what is adapted for its nutriment andadvantage. These vessels are found di-

verging into ramifications like the arteries,arising from all the mucous and serous

membranes, and also from the cellularmembrane. They anastomose like arte-ries, and form large trunks, which do notpass at once into the thoracic duct, butsubdivide and enter into an interjacentapparatus called absorbent glands.The vessels into which they thus sub-divide are called vasa inferentia, and thosewhich pass out from the same gland are called vasa efferentia; the former have the superiority in number, the latter incapacity. On examining the structure ofthese vessels, we find their parietes thinand semitransparent, composed of twocoats, the inner coat forming folds whichare termed valves, and which resist anyretrograde motion, to a degree exceedingthe apparent firmness of the vessels. Thesevessels have the power of taking up thefluids that come in contact with their

orifices, and of conveying them to the cir-culating blood; the exercise of this power i

is termed absorption or inlialation, and itmust exist wherever such vessels occur.It is also to be remarked, that the absorh-ents are adapted for the removal of solids,which, however, must have previouslyundergone solution. It is an ordinance ofnature that animals should have the powerof propagating their own species, attdthey are consequently provided with gene.rative organs, m the respective formationof which consists the distinction of thesexes. These organs in either sex aredivided into external and internal; theexternal may be considered as destined forthe purpose of coition ; the internal, in the

male subject, includesthe apparatus iiieces-sary for producing impregnation, whilethose of the female are adapted for con.ception and gestation.The subject to which I shall next ad-

vert, is the cellular membrane, the greatmedium of union between all the divi-sions of the body, serving to connectnot only the more distinct parts, but eventhe minutest fibres into which those partsare divisible. It may be regarded as con-sisting of two species, the true cellularmembrane, and the adipose; the extensionof the former being universal, while thelatter is excluded from the eyelids, thescrotum, and every other part, wherethe presence of fat would interrupt or im-pede an essential function.The whole exterior surface of the body

we find to be covered with a strong elasticintegument called the skin ; it is dividedinto two layers, of which the internal iscalled the true skin, while the external isdenominated the scarf-skin or epidermis.Anatomists have distinguished a thirdlayer, which, from the characteristic co-lour, is quite manifest in negroes, and thisthey denominate the rete mucosum. It isthe property of the skin not only to affordsupport and protection to the organs be-neath it, but to exercise functions peculiarto itself, namely, the exhalation of a gas,and the exudation of the perspirable mat-ter, and of sebaceous secretions, while itpermits the excrescence of the hair.

Having thus far investigated the struc-ture of the human frame, and developedits capability of movement by means ofmuscles adapted for that purpose ; havingalso shown how the food taken into thesystem becomes susceptible of assimilationwith that fluid which supplies and reDo.vates its constituent parts, and havingexamined the processes introductory tothat assimilation, we are now to observe,that this wonderful organization wouldremain inert and immoveable were therenot a medium of communication betweenthe intellectual faculties, comprehen,.sively termed miud, and those organs

59

which are subjecetd to the influence ofthe will.Man is therefore furnished with a ner-

vous system-consisting of brain, spiualmarrow, and nerves, which being actedupon by various sensations, produce im-pressions on the mind in its supposed re-sidence, or sensorium, the brain. I sayits supposed residence, because in tracingthe connexion of matter with mind, welose the clue of demonstration, and haveonly strong inference and conjecture to

guide us;—it is a subject beyond thescope of mortal comprehension. the bram is situated in. the head, the

spinal marrow is placed in the vertebralcolumn, and the nerves are distributedthroughout every part of the body. Allthese parts of the nervous system are moreop less connected with each other, and arereciprocally subservient. The impressionswhich the brain is capable of receivingare said to be of five kinds, correspondingwith the five senses, of which we havealready spoken in the commencement ofthis Lecture ; but it would be more correctto say, that each of those senses commu-nicates its peculiar class of impressions.That of touch, for instance, conveys to itsthe’notions of roughness, of smoothness,of hardness, with many others ; and thesame remark may more or less apply tothe rest of the senses. Without goinginto detail, we may observe, with respectto these sensations, that they are convey-ed from without, through the respectivenerves, to the sensorium, the brain. Butthis organ is endowed with another faculty,denominated volition, which proceeds fromit, and extends instantaneously throughthe intermediate rrerves, to such organs orparts of the body as are subject to its do-minion and control.The grand distinction between sensa-

tion and volition is this-sensation com-mences at the extremity of the nerves audpasses to the brain, while volition origi-nates in the brain and passes through thenerves to the limbs,and other parts of thebody, that are susceptible of voluntaryaction. Having noticed the two greatqualifications of sensation and of will, aspeculiar to the mass of the nerves, I maynow observe, that the latter are constantlysubjected to another kind of action, whichis in no degree under the control of thewill, and which innuences the involuntaryfunctions of life. This influence is exer-cised through the agency of the sympathe-tic nerve, that supplies those organs ofwhich the constant action is essential toexistence. This nerve is connected withthe brain as well as with the spinal mar-Tow, and from their union may be solvedthe problem—why mental impressions arecapable of affecting the involuntary and

merely mechanical action of certain or-gans. Thus we may account fot the ac-celeration in the beating of the heart, andin the peristaltic motion of the intestines,when the mind is actuated by fear or anyother strong emotion.Not only does the brain serve as the

principal abode of those qualities whichare capable of sustaining the indispensablefunctions of orgauic life, but it is the con-sistory, the council chamber, where the i ii -

tellectual functions are exercised, aud allmental operations performed. _

In the brain reside conception, the off-spring of impression-memory, includingnot only the power of remembering, but ofrecollecting, at will, events or facts whichhave once been known—imagination, orpower of forming new combinations-andjudgment, or the faculty of deciding be-tween right and wrong, between truth andfalsehood. AM these, when cultivated a-xidimproved by proper exercise, serve to qua-lify and accomplish man as a social being,and elevate him to that station which his; Creator intended him to obtain, as the -

i lord of the lower world.It now remains for me, Gentlemen, to

address to you a few words on the subjectof those duties which you owe to your-selves, to your parents, and, indeed 1 mayadd, to the community at large for uponthe faithful and zealous fulfilment of theseduties depends the question, whether youare to be the most useful or the most dan-gerous members of society. 1 feel, there-fore, as Surgeon to this Hospital, and yourteacher of anatomy, that it is not one ofthe least of my duties towards you to

point out to you the necessity of a judi-cious application of your time duringyour stay at this school. The interest Itake in your welfare, the anxiety I feelfor your eminence, the satisfaction I shallever derive from having contributed to it,and the (I trust not misplaced) hope I en-tertain of my wishes being realized, call

loudly on me to entreat your assistance inthe undertaking. It were superfluous inme to remind you that it is not on me, buton yourselves principally that your futuresuccess depends.

The science of anatomy is easily at-tained when the determination of attain-ing it is sincere ; no difficulties will pre-

sent themselves which attentive assiduitycannot surmount, and no barrier will beopposed to your ultimate success, whichidleness has not erected. In this science,as in others, there are many who professto show a shorter road to excellence thanindustry ; and many expedients have beeninvented, by which the toil of study may

be saved. But let no man be seduced to

idleness by specious promises. Excel-. lence is never granted to man but as the

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reward of labour. It evinces, indeed, nosmall strength of mind to persevere inhabits of industry, without the pleasureof perceiving the advances ; but which,like the hand of a clock, while it markshourly progress to the point, yet proceedsso slowly as to escape observation.Remember that anatomy is the basis

of surgery, and if the basis be not solid,the superstructure cannot be secure ;there scarcely exists a case in surgerywherein the knowledge of anatomy is notrequired ; and I have little hesitation in

asserting, that where professional disgracehas fallen on any of our profession, thereare comparatively but very few instancesin which the causes of that disgrace maynot be traced to ignorance of this de-

partment of it. Should you, as it will

probably happen to most of you in thecourse of your practice, be summoned togive evidt-nce in a court of justice, whenthe Bench look to you for the illustrationof the case before them, and the life or

death of the culprit rest solely on the evi-dence you may adduce, consider what anawful responsibility is attached to you-the Cuunsel engaged take care to furnishthemselves with all the necessary anato.mical knowledge that the case may re-

quire, and your professional reputationmay be materially affected by your replies.Medical men are, perhaps, more depre-ciated in public estimation by forensicevidence than by anything. Questionsare put by Counsel, which require a mostminute knowledge of anatomy and patho-logy to answer satisfactorily; and the he-sitation which must inevitably attend onan imperfect knowledge of the profession,will produce a most unfavourable and de-trimental impression on all who are pre-sent.

Agitation can scarcely be. admitted indefence in a profession, where presence ofmind is an essential requisite, and eventhe diffidence which attends so commonlyon real talent and acquirement, will beconsidered but too frequently with an illi-beral misrepresentation. That the pathto eminence is rugged, and the ascentsteep, I freely admit; were it not so,there were but little merit in reaching thesummit; nevertheless, the way is open,and the path before you; and as far asconfidence may be placed in the guide,who will conduct you ? 1 pledge myselfthat you shall not be deceived. Though Istand here as your teacher, it would be

my prouder boast to be regarded as yourfellow-labourer. I would wish you to lookupon me only as one who has toiledthrough the journey, and is about to re-commence it with you, only that I may faci-litate your progress. Whenever, therefore,you may do me the honour, gentlemen, of

soliciting my assistance, rest assured thatI will afford it to the utmost of rny ahility;and if I can contribute by any exertion ofmine to your instruction and advance-

ment, I shall feel a happiness comnteosu-rate with the benefit you may derive. I

hope that I am addressing those who areas anxious and as determined to becomeuseful members of society, as I am, as faras in me lies, of rendering them so. Youhave selected and embarked in a noble,an honourable and useful profession ; andI doubt not but you feel determined touphold its respectability. Remember,you are about to be surrounded by a mul-titude of temptations, which it is difficultto resist, and will require no ordinaryshare of fortitude and self-denial to with-stand.There are amongst you those who are

gifted with education, address, property,and personal appearance ; these qualitieswill, however, prove either your bestfriends or your bitterest enemies. If the

money which your relations have sparedyou for the purpose of your educa-ion, orgenerously bestowed on you for your per.sonal comfort, be wasted in folly and la-vished in extravagance, and your time sa-crificed in idleness, you will return homewith the remorse of conscience which is

inseparable from such conduct, and youwill meet their frowns instead of being re-ceived with affection-their liberalityabused, and all their hopes defeated.There may be some amongst you who,having nothing but their own industry todepend on, who look alone to their laboursfor their livelihood, and who must ulti-mately beg or starve if they neglect theirduty. 11 Slow rises worth by poverty fle-pressed," I reluctantly acknowledge; butit may be no small consolation to them tobe reminded, that some of the brightestornaments of whom our profession is proudto boast, have worked their way from po-verty to affluence, from obscurity to im-mortality.

It is not your daily attendance in thelecture-room, or your appearance in thedissectiug-rootn, in mere compliance witbthe cnstomary routine of study will avail,unless your attention be exclusively de-voted to the subject before you. Let not

your time be occupied in takinx notes ofmy lectures. 1 shall advance little thatbooks on anatomy will not supply, andthat which is committed to paper is toooften lost to memory. When you go homefrom lecture, then recal to mind what hasbeen told you ; it is the notes taken afterlecture that will most avail ; what is thenwritten is easily recollected, whilst dis-section will rivet it in your memory, andcomplete you as anatomists.A few word, gentlemen, on your conduct

when you have embarked in the practice olyour profession, and I will trespass on yourtime alhl patience no longer. It is not yourbeing well acquainted with anatomy, andnaving qualified yourse1vese fully to becomeeven celebrated as surgeons, that will command your professional advancement ; themoral character, the general line of con-duct, the kindness and attention to patients,the pains taken, in short, to render your-selves beloved as men, as well alooked up to as surgeons, will materiallyinfluence your success. You will be sum-moned by numberless and various diffi-culties ; but he who cannot stem againstthe adverse tide should not embark in thetroubled sea of life. Remember that in

proportion as you become an- object of

envy to your competitors, you will alsobecome an obiect of detraction.When you meet with scientific men,

treat them with the respect they merit ;when with ignorant ,practitioners, bearwith them. Do your duty towards yourpatient, but neve" for a moment imaginethat the ruin of another professional cha-racter can be the stepping-stone to your ex-altation. A tittle reneetion will always pointout to you what is the most amiable, as wellas the most honourable part to be acted ; and Ias 1 feel no doubt but that you are determin- Ied to become good surgeons, let me say it isaiii) less worthy consideration toendeav rto become as good men. With these fewhints I now dismiss you, and return youmy best thanks for the patient attention nMith which you have listened to me. Letme once more beg of you to employ yourtime to the best advantage, and give theLecturers of Guy’s Hospital reason- to beproud of your extensive scientific attain-ments.

M r HEADINGTON.

Theatre, London Hospital.

GENTLEMEN,From the situation which I have the

honour of holding at this Hospital of ana-tomical teacher, it devolves upon me to

address you upon a subject not certainlyeither uninteresting in itself nor Ul1im-j

portant in its consequences.Education, or the attempt of implanting

itt the minds of ’others that knowledgewhich we ourselves have acquired has (ever been regarded of the first impor-tance to the general good of society, andto whose care so important a trust shouldbe delegated has in some countries beenregulated and restricted even by the in- I

terference of the legislature. Experiencehas, I believe, however proved that it ismuch better to let it be flee and un-shackled, and that the approbation of thepubtic is the most powerful incentive toemulation. This observation, however,more particularly applies to those whohave the superintendance of youth, andwho have the direction of the mind at thatearly period when first impressions are

hardly ever effaced, and when thereforethe inculcation of good produces so per-manent an effect. Such reasoning cer-tainly does not apply with o much forceto those whom I am now addressing, butit is certainly of sufficient consequence toobtain our attention.

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’

the present state of Europe from its

ruins, medicine underwent considerablealteration, and a distinct class of men wasformed, whose office was confined solelyto the operative part of surgery, and thatwas performed under the guidance of aphysician. Such being the state of things,no improvement could be expected in theart of surgery, and it must at that timehave been a very imperfect practice.On the revival of literature, considera-

ble attention was paid to anatomy, andthe office of’ the surgeon was graduallyseparated from that of the physician.At present anatomy is studied either with

In compliance with general custom, weare under the necessity of deliveringwhat is termed an introductory lecture ;I think therefore that our attention can-not be more beneficially employed thanby reviewing the mode of educationwhich is at present adopted, and by ap-plying it to that particular science weare proceeding to pursue.The profession of medicine is at pre-

sent studied under three distinct branches,at least in this country. These distinc.tions are but of modern date, nor are thelines that separate them but imperfectlydrawn. Amongst the polished nations ofantiquity, the records of whose historywe search for information relative to thisscience, we find that every part of it wasstudied and practised by a single indivi-dual, and in the times of the heroic agesgreat importance was naturally at-

tached to surgery. Among the Egyptians,indeed the case was different, for we areinformed by Herodotus, that among thosecelebrated people medicine was dividedinto many branches, and that an indivi-dual confined its attention to the study ota particular organ, and that medicine, likeother parts of the profession, was here-

ditary. I believe something of a similarkind prevails over the vast extent of theChinese empire. In the decline of theRoman power, and in the foundation ot

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