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MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist
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Page 1: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of

Consciousness

Dr Alex Hunt

Clinical Psychologist

Page 2: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Motivation

• What makes people tick– Motivation refers in a general sense, to processes

involved in the initiation, direction and energization of human behaviour

• Each major theoretical approach has a different emphasis on what motivates us:– Psychodynamic– Behaviourist – Humanistic– Evolutionary / biopsychology

Page 3: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Theories of Motivation

• Extrinsic (pull) theories - external motivation for action– Rewards, competition, coercion, threat of

punishment

• Intrinsic (push) theories – motivation driven by interest / enjoyment in the task itself, exists within the individual. – pleasure, hobbies, achievement, interest

Page 4: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Homeostatic Drive theory

• Motivation based upon the need to satisfy drives which maintain homeostasis in the body

– Hunger– Thirst

• Drive - Voluntary and discontinuous. Tends to increase over time and operates on a feedback control system

• Focus on physiological needs• Homeostasis controlled by hypothalamus

Page 5: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.
Page 6: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Drive Reduction Theory • Hull – motivation based upon principles of

positive and negative reinforcement, with respect to primary drives (innate, physiological drives)– An action which reduces the tension associated with

a biological/physiological drive is reinforced

• All behaviour ultimately concerned with satisfaction of these drives

• Secondary drives, are developed through conditioning: – Money = food drink, etc

Page 7: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.
Page 8: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Optimum Levels of Arousal

• Motivation for behaviour explained by a need to find an optimum level of arousal

• Yerkes-Dodson Law; performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point. When levels of arousal become too high, performance decreases. – Too little stimulation – bored, seek more stimulation– Too much stimulation – anxious tense, seek less

Page 10: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Intrinsic Theories

• Competence

• Curiosity and stimulation– Mammals often engage in behaviour, not

designed to satisfy any primary drive or physiological need

• Play, conducted for intrinsic purpose, learning incidental

Page 11: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Cognitive Motives• Need cognitive consistency• Cognitive dissonance (Festinger); tension/

uncomfortable feeling caused by holding conflicting ideas simultaneously.

• Obtain cognitive coherence – rationalise / justify behaviour, change behaviour / attitudes / beliefs, blame, denial etc.

• Need for Achievement (nAch) – Murray (1938)– Desire for accomplishment, mastering of skills, control or

high standards– Assessed by thematic apperception test (TAT)

Page 12: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Emotions as motivators

• What moves us?

• Usually say some sort of feeling

• Feelings good – rewards – positive reinforcement

• Avoiding threat and unwanted emotions – negative reinforcement

Page 13: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Social Motives

• Social anxiety a motivator

• Need for acceptance, positive view in eyes of others.

• Regarded as a basic need – humans need other humans for survival

• Social motives develop as a need to belong in groups

Page 14: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Humanistic theory with ranked needs with lower ones met before higher ones– physiological needs (lowest)– safety needs– love needs– esteem needs– cognitive needs– aesthetic needs– self actualisation (highest)

Page 15: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.
Page 16: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Stress

• Stress as stimulus– What causes stress – engineering model

• Stress as response or reaction – What are the effects of stress – physiological

model

• Stress as interaction between organism and environment – How do we manage and cope with stress –

transactional model

Page 17: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Causes of Stress• Disruption of circadian rhythm

– Shift work, jet lag

• Life events – 43 life events; social readjustment rating scale

(SRRS)

• Hassles and uplifts of everyday life

• Trauma

Page 18: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Causes of Stress

• Stress from an event depends on• predictability• controllability,

• Locus of control (Rotter); the extent to which individuals believe they can control events that effect them.

• Learned helplessness (Seligman)

Page 19: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Effects of stress

• General Adaptation Syndrome – Bodies reaction to any stressor, whether internal

or external– Mediated by the ANS and endocrine system

• Three stages– Alarm; “fight or flight” response– Resistance/Adaptation; body adapts to stressor– Exhaustion; body’s resistance to stress exhausted

Page 20: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

General Adaptation Syndrome

Page 21: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Effects of Stress

• The sympathetic autonomic nervous system (sANS) responds to stress with general arousal - fight or flight

• Physical vs psychological threat• Physical effects

– Heart rate and BP

• Increased blood cholesterol• Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)

– Stress = reduced immunity higher likelhood of illness

Page 22: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Stress & Personality

• Type A behaviour pattern (TABP)– Was considered a trait, now a set of behavioural

responses

• Greater risk of HBP & CHD– Greater likelihood rather than fixed

• Type C greater risk of Cancer • Protective factors - hardiness 3C’s

– Commitment– Control– challenge

Page 23: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Stress Response

• Problem focused coping; active strategies to change stressful situations

• Emotion focused coping; attempt to reduce negative emotions associated with experience of stress

• Transactional Model of Stress and Coping (Lazarus and Folkman)– Stress occurs when there is a discrepancy between

perceived demands and perceived resources – Cognitive defence and behavioural response

Page 24: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Responses to Stress

• Primary appraisal – is it a threat?

• Secondary appraisal – what can be done?

• Lazarus - coping responses– Direct action– Information seeking– Inhibition of action– Intrapsychic or palliative coping– Turn to others

Page 25: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Transaction Model of Stress and Coping – Lazarus & Folkman, 1984

Page 26: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Measuring Stress

• Social Readjustment Rating Scale (Holmes & Rahe Stress Scale)– 43 life events that can contribute to illness– No. of ‘Life Changing Units’ that apply to

events in the past year of an individual’s life are added to give a score roughly estimating how stress affects health.

• Negative Event (Hassle) scales- every day events. Better predictors of ill health.

Page 27: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

States of Consciousness

• Not dichotomous - ‘on/off’ - levels of consciousness

• Lack of consciousness - hyperconsciousness• Conscious vs unconscious processing • Purpose of consciousness

– Monitor information – Control behaviour

Page 28: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Arousal & Alertness

• Tonic alertness– Consciousness follow body rhythms– RAS, thalamus and hypothalamus

• Phasic alertness– Momentary fluctuations dependent on stimuli– Heart rate, pupil dilation – Habituation occurs rapidly

Page 29: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Consciousness and Attention

• Consciousness = what we are attending to– Focal attention - what is in our awareness– Peripheral attention - what is just outside, but

could become focal

• Skill acquisition– Initially requires full attention– Quickly becomes automatic

Page 30: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Sleep

• Stages / Levels of sleep– Stage 1 early sleep - slow theta waves– Stage 2 deeper sleep - sleep spindles– Stage 3 sleep becomes deeper - spindles

dissapear - delta waves– Stage 4 - delta sleep - unresponsive, difficult

to wake– REM - rapid eye movement, dreams are

common

Page 31: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.
Page 32: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Sleep

• Evolutionarily disadvantageous - must be important

• Sleep - remain motionless

• Restoration– Body repair– Brain replenishment - proteins

• Hypnagogic (in to sleep) / hypnopompic (out of sleep) states

Page 33: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Dreaming

• Freudian theory – Dreams represent manifestations of

repressed desires and wishes– Reorganisation of mental structures - schema

reconstructions

• Activation Synthesis Model; brain activity– Brain is active from internal signals, cognitive

system interprets them as if they have come from external sources

Page 34: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Parasomnias

• Sleep terrors - psychological stress and biological factors

• NREM sleep stage 1-2, where brain active is relative high, but there is no paralysis

• REM Sleep Behaviour Disorder (RBD) – REM sleep parasomnia - muscle atonia is

absent.

• Narcolepsy – excessive daytime sleepiness– Related to poor nocturnal sleep / insomnia

Page 35: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Biorhythms

• Circadian– 25 hour day - cave experiment– Lark vs Owl 5-10% at extremes

• Diurnal rhythm– Variation in alertness during wakefulness

• Ultradian rhythm (<24 hours)– Sleep cycles

Page 36: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Circadian Rhythm

Page 37: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Sleep Deprivation

• Disruption of cognitive and motor performance after 12 -14 hours of sleep deprivation– Rats -weight plummets, while food consumption soars

temperature decreases & becomes more unstable - death

• Abrupt reduction, irritability, intellectual inefficiency, intense fatigue

• Gradual reduction - no marked effects• Core amount of sleep – 4/5 hours can be

tolerated

Page 38: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Hypnosis and Suggestibility

• Suggestibility – extent to which an individual is responsive to suggestion of others– Hypnosis– An apparent sleep like state– Highly selective attention– Increased suggestibility– Potential for post-hypnotic suggestibility– Increased passivity

• Can you be led to do something out of your normal values/morals?

Page 39: MRCPsych Psychology Module: Motivation, Stress and States of Consciousness Dr Alex Hunt Clinical Psychologist.

Meditation and Trances

• Trance state = General state of reduced awareness to the world – reduction in consciousness– Hypnagogic (in to sleep) / hypnopompic (out of sleep) state

• Mediation = intense internal focus to the exclusion of external (and internal) stimuli– EEG alpha wave activity– lowered blood pressure and pulse– Lowered oxygen consumption

• Mediation and therapy = mindfulness• Decreased arousal• Increased mental control


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