WORLD civil-izATions The Glohnl ExPer'ience t.r ll AP* EorrroN T /Li noL ErU+o"rt- PETEI1 N. STEARNS G e orge M ason (Ju.it' ersitt, MICHAEL ADAS Rtttgers (htipcrsit), STUART B SCHWARTZ Tnlt LJniyrrsitt, MARC J GILBERT I{orth Gclr qitt College 0' Stntc LIttiyersi4, iii rf Ncil, \itrk San Frar-Lcrscrr Er)st()n Lr)ti{,lr)n Torrrr-rto St'th-Lcr Trrkt-tr 5tnq.illtrrc N{aclrid \lcxrctr (,ttv ltiuntch Pr.u-is Capr Tcrr.l'nHt,n.q ]t,,rng \'ltrntreal
Transcript
WORLDcivil-izATions
The Glohnl ExPer'iencet.rl l
AP* EorrroN
T /Li noL ErU+o"rt-
PETEI1 N. STEARNSG e org e M ason (Ju.it' ersitt,
MICHAEL ADASRtttgers (htipcrsit),
STUART B SCHWARTZTnlt LJniyrrsitt,
MARC J GILBERTI{orth Gclr qitt College 0' Stntc LIttiyersi4,
\ lcxrctr (, t tv l t iuntch Pr.u-is Capr Tcrr. l 'n Ht,n.q ]t , ,rng \ ' l t rntreal
#tu*pf*r KFro rn Hurnan Pr,e histo ryto the Ea rly Civitrfzatf ons
Cove poinfings discovered in Loscoux, Fronce in I940-on exomple of whichis shoin h"r6-probobly served o rifuolistic purpose for the Poleolith;c arfistswho created fhem.
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o The NeolithicRevolution
t Civilizationo DocumnNr:
F{ammurabi'sLaw Code
r Ix Dnmn: Tll'eIdea of Civiliza-tion in WorldHistoricalPerspective
o Vtsu,EttztxcTIIE PAST:Mesopotarniain Maps
r The Heritage ofthe River VallertCivilization
r hu Dnyra: TheLegacy of Asia'sFirst Civilizations
o Coxcrusrox; TheFirst Civilizations
*tr**fflrc hunratr sp'rccics h;lS rlcCCrmplishecl a great dcrrl in rr rclrrtivclv shc>rt
W periocl of time . Therc irrc signiflcant clisagreenrents ove r lrou lorrqff
W i1n essL'ltt iallt ' hur-n;rn species, irs distinct ftom other prim:rtcs, hirs
eriste.1. Hon-ever, a fiuure of 2 or 2.5 mill ion \rears seelrrs rtcceptable. This
is rrpprroxinrirtelv I/4000 of the time the earth hrrs cxistccl. Thirt is, if onc
tl-rinks of the u'l 'rolc histor\,of the c-arth to rlatc as a 24-hour clA\,, the hunl;.rr-r
species Lrcgan at about 5 minutes unti l miclnigl-rt. Flumar-r beir-rgs hirvc
existcd for less thau 5 p'rcrccnt of tl-re tirne mamrnals of rrnv sort have lir,ed.
Yet in this brief spillt of tinte-L'r1' .r,trn-historr. stanclarcls-httmirnkincl has
spread to e\rerv lancJrnrrss (u'ith the erception of t l-re ;rolar regions) ar-rcl, for
Lrettcr or \\ 'orsc, has takcn control of the c1estinies of countless other species.
To be srlre, humrrn beings havc sonre drau'Lrircks ;ls i1 spccies, conlp;lrec1
to othcr cxisting nrcldcls. Thcr, i lre unLlstrall i 'rrqgrcssivc rrq.l i lrst their o\\ ' l l
kincl: While sonte c-rf the gre.It rpeS, notrrl-rlr, chinrprrrnzccsl cr]g.lgc in prcl ' i-
;tre clepe lrcle ut fitr a lonq Freriocl, u'hich rcquircs sonte s;recirrl flln'rilv or c[rilc1-
carc arrangcnrcnts.urcl clften h.rs l imitcd thc activit ies of nranv acl,rlt \\ 'ornen.
C,ertrin l i lnrcnts, sr,rch .rs L-rack proL'rlcms rcsr-rlt ing fiom an trpright stirture ,llso burclcn thc s;rccies. Anrl. insofirr ils \\re kr-rou,, the hunran sprecics is alonc
in its r1\\'ilrelless oithe 1t-t.t'11;rbilitv clf clerrth-rr larou.lcclcc that imnarts soltte
runicpre fbars lncl tcnsions.
Dist inct i r .e fb i r tures of the hunr i rn sprccics i rccount fbr consic lerable
achievcnrcllt i1s u'cll. Likc other primates' but unli l<e nrost othcr n'rrrnrnrrrls,
1-rcciplc crrn nrirnipul;rte objects f-rrirli,reaclilv becrrusc of the grip prrovirJed bv
en oppos:rlr]e thtrmb <>n each I 'r irnd. C)omprrrreci tc'r other primttes, humlrr
bcings have ir relirtivelv high ar-rcl regrilirr seruirl drivc, u.hich iricls reprocluc-
tion; being r>nrnivores, the\.are not dcpcnclent exclusir,el), on plants or ani-
mals for fooc1, u'hich helps explain u'hv thev crln lir,e in so lniln\r diflbrcut
clinrrrtcs and scttings; thc utrusual r.arietv of their fhcial exprressions ;rids coln-
munication irnd cnhances soci;rl lifb. Thc clistinctive hurnan Lrririn and a fhcil-
in' fbr elaborate speech are e\/en l.lr()rc irrrp-rs1'1;'111t: Nftrch of humirn histort.
cleprends ()n the krtou'lccJgc., ittventions., ;rncl sociir l contracts that resulted
fiom these ilssets. Fciltttrcs of t l-ris sort expLrin n'ht,manv human cultnres,
inclucling the Western culture th;rt milnv Anrcricilns shirre , promote a frrrr-r
sepirrirtion L'rcrw'ccrt hrLrtt.tn ancl animirl, seeing in onr o\\rn spccies a po\\rer
ancl rationalitr'., rr.ncl possiblt'l spirrk of thc clivine ., that "lou,er" creAtures lacli.
Nthough the risc of hutnrrnkincl has beer-r irnprressivelv rapricl., hou'ever'
its earlv strrges cln l ls<l lrc vieu'ccl irs prrinfir l lv long ancl siou'. Most of t l-re
2 r-nil l ion plr.rs vcilrs rlurins u'l-rich orlr species has cxistc'cl arc clcscribccl bi.
the terrn Paltolit l t i t:. ot' Old Stortt A17t:. Througl-rout t l-ris lorrg tinre spi1n,
7
| 6,000 Possoge of 10000-4000 Devel.people from Siberio to tip opment of forming in theof Soulh Americo Middle Eo$
| 4,000 End of Greot lce 9000 Domes1cctionAge of pigs, sheep, goots,
| 2,000 Foshioning of col-l'lestone lools 8000 Tronsifion of ogri.
culture, inlroduction ofsilk weoving in Ihino
6000 Flrst poller s wheel 4000 Yongshoo cuhure rn5500 totol HUyUk of [hinoits peok 4000-3000 Age of
5000 Domeslcation innovotion in the Middleof moize (corn) in Eosl introduclion of writ'Mesoomerico ing, bronze, metalwork,
wheel, plow3500' | 800 [ivilizolionof Sumer, cuneiformolpho bet
PART I The Rise of Agricuhure ond Agriculturol (ivilizotions
2.5 Million s.c.t. 30,000 s.c.t. 10,040 a.c.t. 6000 s.c.r.2.5 million Emergenceof more humonlikespecies, initiolly in Africo
750,000 Further devel-opmenf of specres intollono erecfus
600,000 Wide spreod of. ^ ^ , t ^ . ^ . , ^ . ^ ^ . ; ^)pu l rEJ uu u ) ) lD ru i
Europe, Africc, deveiopment of fire use
120,000 [ompletion todole of bosic humon evo-lul'on', Hono sopienssopiens disploces oiherhumon species
4000 a.c.t. 3000 s.c.r. 2000 s.c.r.2000 Kolosh cuhurern Peru
2000 [onvenion toogrrculture in northernEurope, soulhern Africo
| 500 [mergence ofShong kingdom in [hino;wriling develops
* ln Chr is t i ln soc ie t i cs . h is to r ic . t l t l . r t ing d iv i r - l cs benveen ver rs "be f i r re thc b i r th o f ' ( ih r i s t " ( IJ . ( r . ) n ( j
t t t tr to L)outi t t i , or "r 'clr ci f or.Lr Lort l" )- Tlt is st,stenr clme ir-rto r i i r lc rrcce; ' , t ,rncc: in l l rol
tL r r \ ' , , l s l i rnn . i i h is t , r r i c ; r l cor . rsc io r rsne ss inc rcase. l l ; r l though i lon ic l l l r ' . - l r .D . i s
b i r th ) . ( .h in l , I s l ln r . Iu t l i r i snr . . r t r ' l u r . r rv o t l t c r soc ic t i cs L rsc d j f lb rcn t r i r r t i r l
ton ' . T l t i s tcx t , l i kc l l i .u rv rcccr ' r t r io rk l h is to r t 'n r . r te r i r r l s . uscs the Chr is t i . rn chnrno loqy
sys tcn i ) L r r - r t ch lngcs thc tc rn rs t ( ) u . ( . t ; . r " t rc t i r r -c thc co |nnron c r . r " I .1nd ( .F - . ( "o f ' thc c ( ) r ' r lnor l
tL r re t ( ) | c ' ss ( lh r i s t i . rn -ccn t r i c I ; r [ rc l ing .
r0 PART I The Rise of Agricuhure ond Agriculturol (ivilizotions
catecl tttorc atritttals, such as co\\rs) u'hicli agirin imprroved fbocl supprlr: Po;rul;l-tion grou'th irccclerated, u-hich alsci resultecl in nrorc conflicts irncl u.rrrs. Sl<cle-tons fiont this prerioc-l shou'fiecluent L-rone breahs rrntl sliull fi-actures car-rsc-d bt,wcapons.
Iu tit ' ttc, bette r tocll use, sonrcu'hat tnorc eli iborate socirrl organization, anclsti l l rtrorc populaticln pressure lccl peoprle in rnanr, pilrts of thc u.orlcl to thcf lnal Stcrne Age-the l {col i tb ic. , <- t r l {cn, Stont Att t (see AIap l . I ) .And frornNcol i th ic prcoplc. , in turn, cane ser.cral l -n()re dramat ic devcloprnents thatchangcd the nature of hur-nan cxistence-thc invention of rrsriculture., the crc-atiot-t of cit ies, ancl other foreshadou{rrgs of cir. i l ization, u'hicl-r errdcd the StoncAqe altoge the r througl-rout much of thc u.orlcl.
I-HE NEOLITHICI{EVOLI/TION
l.r,7'b l{colithir Rtt'o/tttiort irn,olyrd tltc dn,t/-lprilent of nllricttlturc. Tltis occut.r.t:d ht diJ.ln.-crtt ttntrs in di-t'fbrtnt ltlnccs. Agriculntrcct'c ttt c d i ut p ot' ttt r tt c lL n ng x -li, o t n h m n m t h i n d'shutttirryl nntl gntltu'ittg pttst, goirtn n,rllb 4, ov1 7 7,,, d n t p p l.t'.
F{uman achier.entc-nts cluring the r'.rrious aqcs r>f stonearc both fhscinrrting rutd hrnclirr)cl)ttl, ;111c'l sc)llc 1'roil-rtsarc hotlv delratcr-l. Our larou'lcclgc of Stonc Aqc soci-
ctv is of-cr-trrse linritecl, altl-ror-rgh rrrcheokrgists hrtr.cbecn crcatir-e in their interprctrrt ions of tool rcr-nrinsInd other cviclcnce, such as c..1\re paint ings rrncl burialsi tes, thrrt Stolte Agc prec>ple procluccrl in r.Ariotrs partsof the uorkl. \\/hrrt people ..rccontplishecl rlLrring thisIone 1-reriocl of 'prchistort. rcmair-rs essential to hurnarrl i fe tociru' . ()r lr lbi l i t l to nrir l<e ancl nri ' rnipr-r latc toolsthus rlePenrls tlircctlv on n'h;"rt our Stortc Age rtnccs-tors leanrcti ;rtrout phr sicll nlatter.
Hou'er-cr, i t n' ;rs thc inr crrt ion of agriculture thatnrost clearlv nror-cr1 thc human species tou,rrrcl m()reelal-roratc socirr l ancl culturr l l frattcnrs of the sort thltpcople torlev u'oulcl f jnr l rccosnizrrblc. \Vith ; ' rgricul-
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. l:ltf-'lt' EUFoPE /\NORTHAMERICA
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Greenland
[ - . l C t a c a t e d a r e a s i n t h e O l d S t o n e A g e f o ] S i t e s o f m o d e r n h u m a n b e i n g s ( H o m o s a p t e n s s a p e n s )
! S t l e s o f h u m a n i f . e E S l t e s o f e a r V h u m a n b e i n q sances tors (Aus t ra lop thecus) ( H o m o h a b i l i s H o r f o e r e c t u s , H o m o s a p i e n s )
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\\Enrcn *"I'f (Humancradreand)
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- { - )at terrs cf furr ;ar ' expar s ion p.esel t -oay shorei i res t
il
Mop l. l The Spreod of Humon Populotions, c, 10,000 a.c.r.
ture, hunrrrn L-reings \\ ,ere able to sett lc in onc sprt-rt
.rr-rcl fbcus <lt ' t plrt icr.r lar economic, pol i t ic l l , :rncl rcl i-giolrs -gotr ls ;r t tcl i rct ivi t ics. Agriculturc ir lso spls'ncd lgrcx t incrc i rse in thc sheer nunrbcr < l f pcoplc in thcn'orkl-f i -onr about 6 to 8 rni l l ion acr()ss thc cirrth's
s t r r f ; rcc c lur ing ear lv Ncol i th ic t in rcs , to r r t - rout I00
nri l l ion s()nre 3000 )rcars l i r tcr.
Thc init i i r l cler.eloprrnent of agriculturc-thirt is,
thc cle l iL 'reri l te planting of srair.rs for l ;r te r hrlrvest-
u'as probalrh'tr iggcrc'cl bv nvo rcsults of the ice age 's
end. F i rs t , popula t ion incrcascs, s tenrn inq f ion- r
ir t tprrovetl cl i rnatc, pronlpted people to se:.rrch f irr
ncu' ;rnd l 'norc rel iable s()urces of fbocl. Seconcl. thc
encl of the icc rlge sa\\' the retreirt of ce rtain Lrig 9i1r11c. rn i rn l ls , s t tch ls r l1 i ls toc- lons. Hur l ln hunters h ; rc l
t ( ) tL l r l t to snr . r l lc r g i ,ur te . snch l rs t lccr i tnd n i l r l
bo. r l , in nr lnv f i r re s tcc l arc i ls . Ht r r - r t i r - rq 's ( ) \ 'e r i r l l
v ic ld t lcc l ined. Herc \ \ 'as thc bas is f i r r ncu ' in tcrcs t in
othcr sources of fooc1. Thcre is cv idcncc thr i t b t '
9000 t ] . ( . .H. , in cer t i r in p i r r ts o f thc u 'or l t1 , ; rcop lc\ \ 'c re L- recor l ing increas ing lv deprendent o l1 rcgu l i r r
han,ests o f u ' i l c l gra ins, ber r ies , and nuts . Th is
Lrncloubtecl lr ,set thc st lge f irr the clcl i l rcratc plenting
of seer ls (prot rab l r .acc ic lcnta l to begin u . i th) r rnd the
irnpror,enre rrt of hev grir ins thror.rgh t l-re se lect ion of
seecls fior-n thc Lrcst prlants.
NORTHAMERICA
WESTAFRICAYams (- \
,"i:ii": I
CHAPTER I From Humon Prehistory to lhe Eorly 0vilizotions
As firrmirrq evolvctl, rteu'rtnirttals n'erc also dor-r-rcs-
t icl tecl. Pirrt icularlv in thc Nliclcl le East enc-l prrts of
Asia, br.9000 I l .c.E. pies, sheepl goi.rtsl lncl cett le \ \-erc
Lrcing rlisecl. Fru'mers Lrscd thcsc iurimirls for n-rcat ;'urrl
skins anti soon t i iscr>r 'ered dl irving as u'cl l . l 'hesc
results not onh' contr i t ' ruterl to the clevelopment of
agriculture, thc\, also sen'ec-l as the basis for nomaclic
l ierding societ ie's.
Famring u'rrs initial|\,cleveloprccl in thc lv{icldlc East,in an rrrc of tcrritorv rnnning from prcscnt-clav Turkcv
to Iracl ancl Isracl. This \\'is'.1r'crr. f.:rtilc arca; more fbr-
tile in thosc drrrrs thrn rlt prgsg111. Grlins such as birrlcr.
ancl u'ilcl u'hcrt \\'ere abrrntlrrnt. At the same timc, tl-ris
area \\,i1s r-rot helvilt, ftrrcstcrl, iurti lrnimirls ri'ere in short
supplt', prrescntin-g ir chrrllertqe to hunters. ln thc Nlid-
cl lc F.ast, the r lci-cloprrcnt of irericulturc nrirv hirve
begrur as c-arlv irs 10,000 R.(..I-1., '.rnc1 it gainecl snxurc1r;rpicllv aftcr 8000 B.(t.tr. Gr;rc1u;rlh.durirrg the Neolithic
centurics, knou"lcrlgc of lgricnltr-rre sprerrcl to othcr
ccnters, inclrrding pirrts of L-rcl i l , North Afi icrr, ancl
Er,rropc. Agriculture , inch-rcl ing r ice cult ivrt ion, so()n
cleveloped inclcpcnc-lendv in (ll-rin;r. Thns, u'ithin l feu'
thotisand vears irgricultrrre h,-rcl sprcacl to tl-re parts of
the u'orlcl that uculcl prorluce the first human ci'u'ilizrt-
tior-rs (Mirp 1.2 ). We u-ill scc that asriculttrrc sprrctrcl
latcr to r.r.ruch of .fti ' ica solrth of thc N,Ieclitcrranciln
W h e a t ,p a I t e y
AFRICA
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AUSTRALIA
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Mop 1.2 The Spreod of Agriculture
CHAPTER I From Humon Prehistory to the Eorly (ivilizotions I3
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thus fir c()nsiderecl., inclucling thc Neolitl-ric rer.olution
itself. is all tcchniclllr' "prehistorigfl"- involr.ec'l u'ith
hlrnrrrn patterns befclre the irrvention clf u,ritinEi
allou'ec1 thc kincls of rccortls-kecping historians prefbr.
In trrct, sincc \r'c r1()\\'tror<lu'h(-rn' to use sLlrviving tools
rrntl buriirl sites ls recorcls, the prchistoric-historic clis-
tinctior-r lDc;1ns lcss thtrn it once c1id. Tlie prcagricul-
turir l-agricr-r l tural dist inct ion is nrore centr i l . Fair i t ,
soon ;rfter the dcvelopnrent of agriculturc-althor-rgh
not' rcl mitte rllr', ri ght;uvar'-si gnifi c ;u1t hu n r irn cl'r an gc
bcgan to ()ccur in rlcc;lcles arrtl centuries, rather th.rn
in the sizal-rlc blocks of-timc, scvcral thousrncl ve 'Jrs ()r
r))()rc, that clescri ['re prc ;rgricul turirl peoplc s.
lncleecl, one basic change took place f ir i r lv so(l l l
rfter thc introcluctiou of lqricultlrrc, ilrlcl., rg;lin, s()ci-
eties in the N,{idcilc Eirst servecl rrs its birthLrhc:c. The
c-l iscovcrr. of metal tools clatcs Lrack to about .1000
rhc cnrcrqcnce of cuncif irrrn ( l ' r i t ins basecl on u'cdgc-
lrke chirrrrctcrs; scc p. 171 in thc Nliclcllc F,i'rst arouncl
.1500 B.C,E. Socict ics th;1t cmpkx'u'r i t ing carl org; lnize
nt()rc cl.rLrorirte pol i t icel strLlctr lres bcc,-rtrse of thcir
.r tr i l in ' to sentl nre ssascs rnt l keep rccorcls. Thev c:rtr
t . l \ r 'nore ef l icientlv lr tcl nuke contr i lcts rrnd trcrrt ies.\ t rc ie t ics u . i th u . r i t ing a lso qencrate e n lore cr i r l i c i t
rntcl lectulr l cl inute becruse of thcir rrtr i l i f l , to recorri
t i . r ta lnr l bui ld or1 fr l5t. u r i t ten n' isdom. (One of t l ' re
elrh'u'ritten recorcls frour thc Xliclc'lle East is a rc-cipe
tor nrlking beer-;r scicncc of a sort. ) Some experts
Jrqlre th;rt thc ven' trrct of Ltccoming litcrrrtc chaugcs
rhc ri'.'rr' 1-'rcoplc tl-rinli, er')coLlriging thcnr to cousirlcr
thc uorkl i rs;r plrrce that crrn bc unclcrstoocl Lrt 'orgr-
nrzcrl hlrman incl.rin', or "rationillll '." anrl less bt'r host
o t' sFriritu;rl Lrcl iefb. I n all rlsricultlrrll civilizations-thrrt
r ' . in l l l hnman historv r,urt i l less than 200 \ 'ears ago-
onh'r nrirrori t \ ,of pcople u'erc l i tcnte, ancl Llsui l lh,that\ \ JS J snr ; r l l minor in , . Nonethe lcss, thc ex is tencc ofs riting r1itl nrakc .r cliffcrcnce in such s<lcietics.
Since civi l iz l t ions cmplov u'r i t ins rrnt l erc Lrv t lef l
:n i t ion r rnusrur l lv s 'e l l o rqauizcc l , i t i s not surpr is inu
:h;it .rlnrost rrll rccorcletl histon' is about u'hrrt hls hap-
;.cncrl to ci i ' i l izecl societ ies. Wc sirnprlr, knou'thc rrrost
.r l ' 'orrt such societ ies, ancl u'e of icn xre part icul;rr l i .
: i r [ ' r t ' (ss1j i bv u.hat thet 'prorlucc in thc u,ay of great
.rrt ()r pori 'crf ir l rulcrs. I t is also truc thrt civi l izat ions
:cntl to bc fhr more populous th.rn noncivi l izccl soci-
c t ics . Therc fbre, the h is torv o f c iv i l i za t ion qcncrr r l lv
- ( ) \c rs the h is t r>r ' t 'o f nrost pcoplc .
lJut, thc historr, of civi l izat ion ctrcs not include
ir crr.L-roc1r'. No hunting clr nontrrtlic prcoplcs cotrlcl gen-
erate a civi l izat ion-thcv l ;rcl icd thc st;rLri l in ' r trr l
rcsolrrccs. iurcl, u'itlr thc exccp-rtion of rr linritccl nuttrL-rcr
shrines to 1'rlelsc ;rnri honrlr this ancl othcr clcitics. Nlirs-
sivc tou'crs, callc'cl ziguurirts, fbrr-necJ thc Jit,t!-mcrlli-nrentir l architccture in this civi l izat ion. Profbssional
priests opcratecl tl-rcse ternprles and conducted the ritti-
rrls "r'ithin.
SLrnrerians LrelievccL iu rtt.rrrv prou'erful qods.
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I
CHAPTER I From Humon Prehistory lo fhe Eorly (ivilizolions
tigure | .2 One of the early uses of writing involved morking property boundories.This picture shows cuneiform wrifing on a Mesopotomian mop from obout | 300 s.c.r.The mop focuses on defining the king's estofe, with sections for priests ond for keygods such os Morduk. ln whot ways did wrifing improve properly mops?
ftrr thc natlrre <ln u'hich their rrgricnltr,tre clcper-rrlecl
notablr. their icle;rs about drc gocls' creation of the eardr
ti'orn \\,atcr ancl abotlt the clii ' inc p-rr-rnishrnent of
hunrirns thrcngh floocts, lrter influencccl tlre u'riters of
tlie Old Testrtmcnt urd thns continue to plq,;1 role injeu'ish. Christian. ancl NIuslim cultures. Sumerian reli-
sious iclcas, u.hich hacl a clecitlecllr, gloomv cast, alscr
includecl a be lief in iur trfterlifb of pr-rnishment-an ()lig-
inal versiorr of thc concept of hell.
Snmcr ian po l i t ica l s t ruct r l rcs s t rcssec l t ight lv
orglnizerl cin,-st l tes, rule-d bv ;r king n-ho claimcd
c-l ivine ar- l thori t \ ' . Tl-re Sumcrian statc hari carefl l lv
tlefined bounclirries. unlike the less firrn-ral territories
of prccir. i l izccl vi l lages in the reqiclr-r. Herc is :r kcv
earlr. cx;lrnple of hou' civilization ancl a nlc)re firmral
L7
poli t ical str l l r- t l l re c;1mc togcthcr. The gor.cnrnlcnt
helpe d resulate religion ar-rcJ cr-rfirrcc its clLrtie s; it also
prrovicled a col lr t svstenl in the interL-sts of just ice.
Kin-qs \\,ere originallr, militrrrt, leaclers clurrinq tirles of
n':rr:', rlnd the function of clefense iurd \\'rr, incltrciinc
leactersl-rip of ;r trainecl anrl\., rct'tr'eined r,itirl itt Sttmcr-
i ;rrr pol i t ics. Kings iruc-l thc noblc class, alons rr i th the L--p'rrie sthor ld, control I e cl considerirbl e L1ncl, u'hi c h l';rs
u'orke c-l bv slavcs. Tl'rus L-egan l traclition of slaverv
thlt u'oulcl long nrark Mirldle Eirstern socicties. Wirr-
firre remirinecl r'ital t() cnslrrc supplics of sli,rves tlket-t
ls prisone rs c-lr-rritrg comlrlt. At the' s'.-Lnre tiure, slar.erv
\\'irs a r'i '-rri;rblc state of cristcnce, ;rrd m;rnt, slaves \\'cre
irblc to e;1rn nroncv ancl er.en buv their fi 'eeclorn.
Tl-re Sunrerians aclcJecl to t l-reir reqiott 's agricui-
turir l prosperitr . n()t onh' br, using s'heelecl carts btt t
also l-r1. lca.rning about fbrtilizers 'rntl bv lcloprtir-rg sil-
vcr rs;r l r leans of exchrrngc fbr lruf ing ancl sel l ing-
iln ci.lrhr fbrn'r of nrone\'. Flou'cvcr, tltc region \\'as also
l-r;rrd to cleltncl ;rnr1 proved a constant ternptJtion tc-l
or-rtsiclc invirders fror-n Sunrerian times to tl-re prcsent.
Tl-re Sumerians themselves fbll to a pcoPle called the
Akkaclians, \\.ho contirrued nruch of Surnerian culture.
HOU5€ O f i 1ARDUK
TIELD OF I " lARDUK
STREAH KU-U I1 ' [ ] i r"r rt*ron,,iFGo^,*-...-
T I E L D O FTHE TAEL€Of THE SARU.
PRI E ST
n A T N U S F ] € L D
I8 PARI I lhe Rise of Agricuhure ond Agrirulturol [ivilizotions
amnrurirbi, as kirrg of Babt, lon, unitecl tr Iesop-ro-t ir .r-nia unclcr l-r is rulc fror-n about 1800 to 1750
B.c.L. His lan. cocle , the earl iest slrch conrpi l i r t ion st i l l inexistence. u'as r i iscovereci on a stone slab in lrarr in l90lc.n. Not i1 sYstenratic prgsg111,t ir ln, i t \ \ 'AS ir col lcrct ion ofcxcr-nplan' cascs cicsigncd to sct gencral stanclarcls of jus-
tice . The code provicles vitrrl insiehts into the nature ofsocial rc'lations ancl familr. stnlctrlrc in this ancient cir,i-lization. Exrrmples of thc Hammurabic cocie ftrllr-rs':
\\rhcn trhrcluk corrmrrnc'lccl nrc to givc jr-rsticc ro the preo-plc of thc lant-l irncl to lct f thcml have Igood] {r,r 'crn.rlrec,I set f t r r th tnr th ancl just ice throrrghout the lancl Ianr l ]I ) r ( ) \ |crc( l t l rc Pgt v l . lc '
At thaf tir-ne :If 'a r-nrrn has r-Lccusecl a l-ni-ln rrncl hrrs ch.rrqed hin-)
r', ' i th nranslanshtcr and tlrcn hrrs r-rot provccl Iit lgirinst]him, his i lccllser shall be put to clcirth.
I f a nran has charuecl a nrrr r u ' i th sc l rcerv r lnd thcnhrs llot pror-ecl [it ;rg;rinsr] him, he u'ho is charqetl u'iththe sorcerv shall Lro to the holr rivcr. hc sh;rl l lelp into thcholv r iver ani l , i f rhc hol t r i rer overrvhelms hirn, h is; lccuser shel l take ancl kcep his house ; i f thc l ' ro l t ' r i r -erprovcs th.rt nrrur cle;rr Iof tlre offense] iurd he conres b,rcksafb, he u-hc> h.rs charqccl hinr uith sorccrv sh.rl l be put t()clelth; he u'ho Lc.rprl i1111v thc holl river shall t lke lnd keepthe hclusc clt 'his rce uscr.
If .t nr.rrt ltirs conre ttlru'.rrr1 in ir crrsc to be irr n'itne sstO l fclorrv i lurl thcn h;-rs not proved thc stl 'rtclncrrt th.rt hchas nraclc, if ther clrsc Irs] a c:rpit.i l one. rhlt nr.rn shall treDLrt to death.
If he has con'rc firrn'ar(l to lreiir ri ' i tncss to Ia cl.riurfbrl com or nronc\', he shell rcnrrin l i.rtrle tbr tl.re 1.rerr.rl$'for tl'ri1t sr.lit.
If a juclgc has triecl a srrit, giverr .r clccisiorr, c.rLrseLl ascr lce ' l tat r let to Lre executecl , Iand] the reat te r v l r ie s h isjudgment, ther, shal l convict that jut lgc ot ' r . rLr inq f h i : ljudgnrcrrt and he shall prav nleh'etblcl the cll inr in thatsuit; then thcr, shall rLmo\:c him f}our his p[;1gc ()n thcbcnch of judgcs in thc assemblr'. :rnc1 hc sh.rl l not f.rgrinlsit ir-r juclgmcnt i l ' i th the luclges.
If a free person helps a sla\,e to escitprc, rhc ticc pcrson u ' i l l be put to death.
If a man ]rrrs conrnritte cl robberr. ar-rcl is c.rr-rght. th.rtr-nzur shrrll bc put to deeth.
If tl're robber is not caught, thc r-nrrn s,Lro hrls L-recnrobbecl shrll formallr,clecl'.rrc \\ 'hirtcvcr l-re has lost l 'rcfi lrca gclcl, and the citr- and the mrrr,or in rvhosc tcrritorv orc l is t r ic t thc rcbbcn. has been comnri t tec- l shal l repl lcewiratevcr he has lost fbr hirl.
I f I i t is ] the l i f -e lof the o\ \ 'ner th.r t is lost ] , the c in 'or the mavor shal l par, onc uranch of s i lvcr to l r isk insf i r l l<.
If rr person o\\'es monev ancl Adad lthe river gocllhas flooclecl thc pcrson's fielc1, the person u'ill not give lnvgrain Itar] or pa\/ anv intcrest in that \.c'.u.
If a pcrson is too lazv to make thc tl ikc of his flclclstrong rncl there is a break in the clike and $-ate r c-lestrol'shis ou'n farrrlencl. that prerson u-il l make good tlre grairr
f tarl that is dcstror,ecl.lf a ncrchant incrcrrscs i-ntcrcst bcvonc-l tht-rt sct by drc
kir-rg and collccts it, that mcrchant u'ill lose \\'hi1t \\'rls ient.lf a traclcr borrou's nroncv fl"our a nrt:rch'.rnt rrnd
tlre n dcnics tl-rc fiact, that nrcrchant in thc prcscnce of god;rnt1 u'itnesses u'i l l prove the tracler borrou'erl the mclnevrrnt l thc t radcr u. i l l pat , thc nrcrchant threc t inrcs thcaDlount borro$'ec1.
If the husbancl of a marriecl ladv has accused her butshc is not caught lvir-rg u'ith ;uother man, she shall takerir.r r>;.rth bv the lifb of a gorl ancl return tcl her house.
If '.r nrirn tirkcs hinrself off ancl there is not thc f nLrc-cssan'l mair-rtcntrncc in l-ris housc, his u'if-c Iso long asl her
lrusbanc-i is cle laved], shall ke e;r Iherself chastel shc shallnot ] enter fanother mar l 's house] .
If thlt \\'or-nilu has not keot hcrsclf chtrstc but entcrslurothcr nr.in's horrse , ther.shrll convict that n'clmrrn andc;rst her into thc \\ 'rrtcr.
If ir son strikcs hrs tirthcr. thg' shall cut off his fbrc-I r.r r r.1.
If ; i rrrrn hirs prLt (lLlt t lre cve of a ti 'ee mirrr, thet'shallput r)r,rt his clc.
lf l-rc brcrks thc l: 'ol.rc of a Ificc] n'ran. thc\r shallbrc i rk h is bone.
If he l 'rLrts or.rt t l 're er-e oiir r.i l l .rin or bre;lks the boner-rt '. ' t t ' i l l .r in. hc shall pil\, ol-rc lntrnclt of sih cr.
I f he puts out the er-c of . r f f ieel n] iur 's s l i l \ 'e orbrcaks thc bouc of a I f rcc] l .nr .n 's s lavc, hc shal l pev hal fh i s p r i cc .
I f a l r . rn knocks out the tooth of ' . r I f iec] man et lual
I in rank] to h inr Ise l t l , thev shal l knocl i or . r t h is tooth.If hc lurocks oLrt thc tooth of l r, i l lain, he shirl l piu'
onc-third utrrnch of silve r.l f t r rnrrn str ikes the cheek of a f f iee] n.r l rn $ 'ho is
sr-rperior Iirr rank] to hirnlseJfl, he shrrll be beaten u.ith 60stripes u'ith e u'hip of'ox-hicie in the assemblr,.
If the nrln strikes the cl-reek of a fl 'ee mrtn erlrral tc-rh imIsel f in rurk] , hc shal l p2r\ 'onc nr i lnch of s ih 'cr .
lf r vil lain strikcs the cheek of a r-i l lain, he shall pirvtcn shekels of s i l r ,er .
If 'the sleve of a lf i 'ccl mirn strikes the cheek of a ficcrl.rn. thev shall cr,rt off his ear.
0uesfions: lVhirt c'.1n \,()Lr tell f iorn the F{anrnrurabic
cocie about tl-rc social ancl fhnii l l, structlrre of
i\'{esoprotarli;ri \Mrat is the relationship benr.een l;rn'
ilncl tradef \Ml did agricultr-rral cir,ilizations slrch as
Babr, lon insist on harsh punishments f i r r cr imesf
lVl-rat rc-ligious and rnagical belieft does the docu-
rrcnt sllggesti Using specitic exanrples, slros' ho$'
interpreting this document fbr significant historical
meanirlg diflbrs fi'om sirnplr. reacling it.
*ffitre*ffisrcTHammurabi's Law Code
I
I
II
I.l
I
I
II!+-
\ :r .r1hc1 pcri()ci of t lecl inc u'r is f i r lk>ri 'ed [rr. col)qucst*. thc B.rtx'lonirrrls, rvh<l c-xte nded their clu'n cnrpire
r-rrt thus help-rcci L-rring cir.ilizrrtion to other fr;rrts of'-:x \trddlc Errst. lt u,as under Babvkrniarr rulc that the
r.nS. Hanrrlurabi introciucerl the lrost frrmous earlv
..^,lc of lau', boirstir-rg of his prurprose:
r., p1111111;1c the $'elf i rrc Of the pe()plc, nre Harl-:rLrr l tr i , rhc t lcvout. qorl-f t ;rr inu P1'11-1gc. t() cJLl\e'.rrtire to prer-rll ir-r thc l.rnc1, to clcstrov tl-re u icke cl- r i r r l the cv i l , thr r t the s t rong nr ight l ro t opprcss: irc u'c.rk.
: ' l . : : rnr i r ra [ - r i ' s code est r rb l ishec l nr les o f procec l r t rc f i r r
. - . : t \ of lrrs ' ar-rd regul i l ted frropcrf l ' r igirts rrnt l the
--:,c\ of frrnri lv nrcnrtrers, sctt inc harsh l- tunishnrents: . n l l l c s .
For rn;1r'n' ccnrltries clLrring ;urcl after drc hevrlar-of
,'*i:r k)n. pc;lcc ;rncl ciriliziltiolt in thc i\IirLllc L,ast ri'cre U,z/' : .r i . lct1 L. 'r ' t l ' rc invasions of hunting irncl hercl inc
:-, r irp\. Inclo-European peoplcs prcssecl ir-r f iorr the- ' : :h . s ter t ins ; rbout 2100 l l . ( t .E. In thc X. l ic lc l le L ,ast
:-'.:. irrvasions lrv Semitic peoples fionr thc south u crc
:c ir trport; 'u1t, r l l lc l Scmit ic ptcoplcs lncl l ;rngLrirgcs'-:c.rt inslr, clominated thc region.
' I 'hc ncu' lrr ir . l ls
.r l , i ' r1c. l the culture of thc conqucrcrl pcoples as thcir.,":r \o tlrc licr.fbaturcs of dre cir-ilization plersistecl. Bnt,
---.e [-'olitic;rl trnits dcclineci in firvor of smtrl]cr cit\'-states. -cgron.rl liineclotns, prrrticullrlv cluring the centurics' l rc r tcs t t l rmrr> i l , benvccr- r 1200 ant l 900 B.c .E.
.lcrc.rfrer, rlc\\' invaders, first the Assvrirrns aurd then d-re
- cnrJ,ns, cre;.rtecl liuge nc\\ enrprires in thc l,Iidclle L,ast.
F- svptiirn Civilizationi. \'.( )nd celttcr <lf civiliz;rtiorr sprang Llp in northcnrr.-:r .r . .r lonq thc Nilc Rivcr. Egt 'prt ian ci i ' i l iz;rt ion,' : :rrc,. l br ' 3000 B.c.E., beneti tecl f iorn the trarle and'- '- :rnokrqical inf lucnce of tr Iesoprot;tmiir , but i t pro-
:.--e (l l cluitc diflbrcnt sociefi' and culrurc. Less operl' :nr lsion, E,g1'1-rt retilinecl ;r unified statc throughollt- ' , ' \ [ oi i ts histc-lrr ' . The king, or pharaoh, prctssessecl-::rcnsc po\\'er. The Egl,ptian cconom\r \\'as rnore fr,rlh'
- ' \ c rn l rcr r t t l i rcc tce l th iur i ts NIesop() t : l t l t i ;u ' r cor i l l tc l ' -
: - . : r . uh ich l iac l a n lore inc lcpendent bus iness c lass.
r: r \ CrnntCtl t control nraY har.e been neccss.lrv trccause
: : i rc corlplexitr ' of coorcl ir-r i l t ins irr igl t ion along' : c \ i le . I t nonethc less rest r l ted in goc l l ike s ta t l rs' : thc phrrrrrohs, u'ho built sirlenclicl torlbs fbr them-
- . r'5-1hc pt'rarnirls-fi'r-rtn 2700 R.(t.E. onn'irrd. [)ur-r. l -ct ' i<tr ls t>f u-cak rt t le rruc' l occi lsionl l l inr ' .rsiot ' ts.
: -.l.rilr-r societv suf fe recj .r rlccline, but rcvivr'rls ke prt drc'-r: :)e \ \ ()rk of Egr'p-rt i ;rn cir. i l iz;rt ion intact unti l rr f tcr
, ( )0 l r . ( . .F . ( r \ {ep 1 .3) . At kcr , 1- ro in ts . Egr .p t ian in f lLL-
CHAPTER I From Humon Prehistory to lhe [orly (ivilizotions f 9
Mop | .3 Egypt, Kush, ond Axum, Successive Dynosties.As Egypt *eakened, kingdoms forther up the Ni/e onddeeper into Africo rose in importonce.
encc sl)rcilcl up thc Nile to thc arel non'knorvn as theSurlirn. u'ith .rn inrpact ()n the lrrtcr clcvelopnrent ofAfiic.rn cr.rltlrrc. The ldngclonr of l(ush intcr;rcteci u'ithEg1,1-rt nnd invlc'lcrl it at some p'roint.
0 2} l l \ ILESr- ,-2OO K ILOI IETERS
LOVVEB EGYPT
Giza.s Cairo -S/N,A/Memphis t pE,\/N.tt / iA
t/tsyA,\'DESERT
UPPER EGYPT
a - ,I neDes
. Aswan
"''N#g '{-,ralS.
.j.
NUBIA .:..:.
KUS}I
Napatao
. Merod
Massawa
f___] Floodplain o{ the Nile
20 PART I The Rise of Agricuhure ond Agriculturul [ivilizotions
Neither Egvptirrn scicncc nor the L,p1'ptian alprh;r-
bct n'as irs el irbor. l tc r-rs i ts NIcs<.lpc'rtamian eclual,
rr l thouqh nrrrthcr.n.rr ics r i ls nr()re rrt l r ' rrnccd in this cir ' -
i l i z . r t io r r . Egvpr i . ln . l r t \ \ r rs c \ccpt ion. r lh ' l i vch ' ; c l rccr -
tul rrnt l colorf ir l pictnrcs dccoratecl not onlv thc
tonrbs-nhcrc thc bcl icf l in rrn af ie r l i fb nri l r lc people
\\'arlt to lre surrounclccl br'<lbjects of bclufl,-Lrut alscr
p alace s ancl fir rnishings. L, gr,ptir'ur architectu ral fbrms
\\ 'ere ir lso cluite inf luential. , not onlr. in Eg1,pt L-lr ' t in
other pi lr ts of thc N4crl i tcrr i tnci l l t i rs u'cl l . Egvpti irn
n'rlthe nr'.rtics produced the ide;r of ir. clav clividecl intcr
24 hours, ancl hcrc too Euvpt inf lucncccl thc clevel-
opnrent of l ;r ter N,Iediterrar)ei lr l cultures.
Incli;rn ancl Chinese RiverVirll ey' CivilizationsRivcr vallev civilizirtions rlcvelopecl in tu'o other ccn-tc-rs. A prosperous url'rur cir.ilization emergc-cl along tl-reInclus Rir,er bv 2500 B.ct.E., sllpportirlg ser,eral liirge
cities, including FI;rr;rprpr;'r an c-l M r >h c n j o - t);rro, u'hosc
hol rses cven hac l r t inn inq \ \ 'a ter (F iqure I . .3) . Inc lus
Rivcr pcoplcs had tradinq contacts ri'ith Xlesopotamil,
but thev devclopcd thcir ou'rr cl ist irrct ivc alphalret anrl
rcsultecl in such complete tlestrr-rction of this culture
thlt u,'e lurou' little abont its niltrlre or its subsequent
infh-rc'nce on Inclia. F{arrrppatr s'ritinr, for exrnrple , hls
vet to Lre clecipherecl. It remrrins tnle tl-urt civilizrrtior-r
ncver hrrd to Lre fullv reinvented in Inclia. Thc Inclo-
Eurol-rcan inr':rtlers combinecl their religious ancl prolit-
icrrl ic-lcas s.ith thosc that hacl tirli.crl root in the crrrlv
cit ics. In rcccnt t imcs, Indi iurs' priclc irr thcir carlv cir ' -
i l izccl hist<lrv has bcconre an inrpr>rt irrrt prrrt of thcir
n rrtion:rl irlc ntitr'.
Civi l izat iorr rr lonq the F{u'rrng Hc (\-cl lou' River)
in Clin;r clo'elopccl in consiclerrrble isoletior-r, rilthougl'r
sorrlc ovcrlirncl tracling cont;lct u'ittr Inclie mc1 the N',Iicl-
rlle East clicl clevelop. F{\\'i1ng FIe civilizrrtion \\'as the
subject of much iater Chinese legcncl, u'hich praised
the gocllike kings of earlv civilization, st;rrting u-ith the
Figure | .3 The ruins of Mohenio-Dero ore still impressive more fhon four millennia ofter thecity wos estoblished.
.1
in DEPTHThe Idea of Civilinationin World HistoricalPerspectiveThe belief t l 'r l t there are fundamental differ-
e nces L'retll'een cii'ilizecl and "barbrric" or "savaqe"pcoples is verv ancient ancl u,idespreacl. For thou-sancls of r,ears the Chinese set themselr-es off fionicatde- and sheep^herding peoples of the r,ast plaitrsto the north and u'est ilf China proper, n'hom thevsa\\r as barbarians. To tl-re Chincse, being civilizcdu'as cultural, not biological or racial. If brrrbarianslcarned the Chinese language ilnd adoptecl Chi-nese \\ra\/s-fiom the cl<lthes thef'\\'ore to the tboclthev ate-thev u'cre re garde cl as t:ivilized.
A simil:rr patte rn of de rnarcati()n rrncl ctrlturrrlabsorption \\ras firurrd among the American Indianpeoplcs of present-clav l\{exico. Tl-r<lse u'ho settledin the virllevs of the mountainous interior, n.herether. built creat civil izations, l ir,ed in fbar of inva-sions bv peoples thc\, regardecl as Lrarl-rirrous anclcallctl chicbimecs, meanirlg "sons of the clog." Thelattc-r \\'ere nomadic huntcrs anci gathe-rers u'hopcriodicallv movecl clon'n fiom thc clesert regionsof north Mexico into the fertile ce ntral r,allevs insearch of sarne and sett lenlents to pi l lage,
' fhe
Aztecs \\/ere simplv the last, irnci perhaps the mostfie rce, of ;r long l ine of clt ichirue c peoplcs rvh<rentered the valleys and conquerecl the urbirn-bascclcmprires th:rt hac-l clcveloped therc. But after thcconquerors setdecl clovr,'n, tl-rey n.{et-rted mant' ofthe reiigior,rs belicfs ;rrrc1 institr.rtional patterlls irnrlrnuch of the material culture of defbated peoples.
The u'orcl ciyilizatiozr is derived fiom the Latinivcrrd cit ilis, meaning "of the citizens." The tcrm u'ascoined bt'the Rotnans. Tho'usecl it to clistirrguishbetn.een themselves as citizens of a cosmofiolit:rn,urban-basecl civilization and the "infbrior" peoplcsufio lived in the fbrests urd deserts on drc finges oftheir Mediterraneirn empire. Cennrrics earlicr, theGreeks. rvho had contributecl mur-h to thc rise cifRomm cir-iliz atior-r, m ade a sirdlar- distinction benl.eendremselrcs urd outsiders. Because dre lanp5uagcs ofd'renon-Greek peoplcs to the nordr of thc Greck heart-lirnds sorurdecl like senseless babble to thc Greek, ther.lurrrpecl all dre outsiders together as barbariazs, u4rich
CHAPTER I From Humon Prehisfory lo lhe Eorly (ivilizotions 2L
mearlt "those r.lrho cannot speak Greek." fu in thc..t.]of the Chinese and Aztccs, the trounclaries benveen Icirrilized irncl barbirrirrn fbr thc Greeks and Romurs
tu,ere cultural., not bicllclglcal. Regarc{less clf the color-of one's skin or the shape of one's nosel it u'as possi-ble tbr fiee peoplc to becotne mc-mlrers of a Grcekpolis<itt1-state-or to become Roman citizens lrvadopnng Greek or Roman custonls ancl su,earing alle-giurce to the p-rolis or dre emperor.
Until t l 're lZth ancl lBth centuries t..E., the pri-orif i ' givcn to culturai attributes (e.g.., Iangnage,dress, manncrs) as the mcans [-r1, 1o'Li.n cir-i l izcdpeoples set thcrnselves ofJ fronr l-rarbirric oltr:s \\'i1srareh, challengecl. But in thosc centurics, t\\ 'omajrlr changes occurrecl among thinkers iu u,est-em Europc. First, eflbrts \\'ere madt-r not onlv toclefine the clif lbrences benveen civil izecl ancl birr-barian but to identih, a series of stages in humrrnclevclopment thrrt ranged frorn the lou.est srl\'aqer\rto the hi.gl-rest civiliz;rtion. Depenclins on ther,r 'r iter in clucstion', canclidlrtes for civil iz'.rt ionranged trom Greece and Rorne to (not surpris-inglv) Europre of thc LTth anr l l8th ccntur ies.Most of the other pei>ples of thc globe, u'hose"cliscoverv" since thc I5th centurv hettl promptedtlre effbrts to classii'thern in the first place :) \\rereranked in increirsinglr, compler hierarchics. Peoplcssuch as tl-re Chinese ancl dre Arabs, rvho had cre-atcd grcat cit ics, monlrnrental architecturc, u'rit-irg, advancecl tcchnologt,, ancl largc' cmpilgs'usuirllt'\\'on a place irlong *'idr the L,uropeirus ne ilrthe top of these laclciers of human achievcment.Nomarlic) cattle- and sheep-hercling pcoples, suchas the Mongols of Central Asia. usuallr, rvere clas-sificd as barbarians. Civilized and b;irbarian peoprles\\'ere pitted against various sorts of snvagel Theseranged tlom the hunters iDd glthcre rs ri.'ho inhab-ited much of North Americ;r ancl Australia to mal1\rpeoples in Aliica aucl Asia, u'horn the Euro;reatrsbelieved hacl not advanccd bevond the most prirn-itir-e stages of social iurcl politicrrl clevclopment.
The seconcl major shitt in Wcstern ideas aboutcir,fization began at the encl ofthe lSth cennrr\.butdid not rcallv take holcl Llnti l a centurv l: l ter. Inkeeping u.ith ir grou,ing enrphasis in Europeirnthinking ancl social interactiott on raciir.l or biologi-cal cliflerences'modes of human sociirl organizatiou
IttIia
IIl?il
22 PART I lhe Rise of Agrirulture ond Agriculturol [ivilizolions
ancl cultural exprression llrre increasinglr, linked tou'hat \\'ere alleged to be the innate caprrcitics of eachhuman race. Although n() one could agree on u.hata rrlce \\'as or irclw' man\r rrlces therc \\/erc) mostEuropean n,ritcrs'arguecl that some races werL- trloreinventive, rnoral, courtlgeous, ancl artistic-thusffIore c;rpable of btrilding civilizations-than others.Of course, w.hitc (or Car-rcasian) Europeans wereconside recl br. n'hite European authors to be themost cirpablc of all. Thc hierarchr, from sil\/age tocii'ilizcd took on a color dirnension, u,ith rvhite atthe top, u'here the civil izcd peoplcs clusteretl, tovellor4', red' brolrn, '.urd black in descencling orcler.
Some audrors sougdrt to reserv'c all thc irtt:rilrmentsof civilization fbr u'hites, or peoples of Europeanstock. fu the evoluticnarv dreorics of drinlqers such asChules Daru.in carnc into voqtre in dre late lB00s,race and ler,cl of culnrr'al clevelopmelrt \\'cre seen inthe pcrspective of thous,.rnds of vears of hurnanchange and adaptation rather than as being fixed intinre. Nevertheless, this ne\\' perspectivc haci litdeefL:ct on the rankinqs of cliftbrcnt human srorrps.Ci'n.ilizecl lr.hites u,ere simpl), r.eu as hilr,ing evolr.cdmnch firrdrcr thur bircl<'nr..lrcl a.nt1 barbirric peoples.
The perccived c()rrespondence benl,een raceand level of-developlnent anci the hardening of theboundaries bern'een civilized and "inferior" peo-ples affected much more than intellectual dis-corlrse about the nirture antj historl, of hr,rrnansociew. These t-reliefs were usecl to justif i ' Euro-pcan impcrialist expansion, u,hich was seen as a"civilizing rnission" irirned at r-rprlitting barbaric anclsavage peoprles across the globe. In the last hirlf oftire 19th centurv rrirtuall i 'al l non-Wcstern peoplescame to be dcirninirtcd bi. the Eurclpeaus, who\\'cre confident that thev, as re presentatives of thehighcst civil izirt ion c\/er created, \\rere bestequippecl to go\.ern lesser bre-ec1s of humans.
In the 2Oth centurv much of the irrtellectr-ralbaegir.ee th'.lt once gavc credibilitv to the raciallvernbc-ddec1 hierarchies of civil ized and savagcpeoples hrs been discardcd. Racist thinking hasbeen cliscreclited bv 20th-centurv dcvelopmer-rts,
including the revolt of the colonized peoples anclthe crimes conrmittecl bl ' the Nirzis befbre anclduring World War II in the nilme of r,rcial purifi-cation. In aclciition, these ideas have fhilccl l'recauseracial su,premacists cannot provide convincingproof of innate differences in mental irnd phvsicalaptitude befu,een varicns human groLlps. Thesetrends, irs 'uvcll as rcsearch that has resulted in anuch morc sophisticaterl nnclerstanding of er,o-lutiotr, have lecl to the abandonrnent <if rigid anclself:serving l9th-centurf ideas about civil ization.\-et cven though non-European peoples such asthe Indians ancl Chinese are increasinglv givcncredit ftrr their civil izec-l attainments, much eth-nocentrism remains in the \\rays social theoristsdeterrnine u4ro is cir.ilized ancl u'ho is not.
Perhaps the best $'a)' to ar,oid the tcnclencv toc1cfine the ternlivith reference to one's os'n soci-e[, is to vierv c-ivilization i1s one of several humanapproaches to social organization rirther thanattemptilrg to iclentifi. sprecific kinc{s of culturalachicr ,ement (e.g. , u.r i t ing, c i t ies, monumcntalarchitecture). All peoples, f iom small bar"rds ofhunters ancl gathe rers to fhrrners ;lncl fhctor), u'ork-ers., live in societies. A1l societies produce cultures:combinirt ions of thc icleas, objects, irncl patterns oft'rehar,ior tlrat rcsult fiorl human social interirction.But not all societies ancl cultures generate the sur-plus production that perrnits the ler.els of s1-recial-ization, scale., and compiexitl. that clistinguishcivilizations fiom other modes of social orglniza-tion. All peo;rles arc intrinsicallv crprablc of builcl-ing civiliz:rtions., but rnanv have lacked the resolrrcebase , historicirl circumstances) or dcsirc to do so.
Oueslions: Iclentih, a societv vou consider to be civ-ilizecl. lVhat criteria did vou Lrse to cletcrmine thatit rvas cir, i l izedf Can vou aptr-rl1' those critcria toother societiesl Can vou think of societies thatrnight not fit )/()ur criteria aucl \'et be ciyilizati'1slDo the standards that vou and others Lrse reflect\rour orvn socieq.'s norrns and achie'n,emerlts ratherthan neutral, more unir,ersal criteriaf
-h
CHAPTER f From Humon Prehistory to the Eorly (ivilizotions 23
o
Tt*{ t#"tr'ffe6prAST#
Mesopotamia in Maps
/.</
U/fh, r\le soF'rotamian civilizati o n s steaclilr. ex -
a--/ panded fiom their roots in the fbrtilc vallevbet',vc.,i the Tigris ancl Euphrates rivcrs throughor-ittheir cerrtr-rries of existence. Reading the nraps can helpexplain the nature of the civilizations in tlre region.
What do these maps slrggest about the relation-ship betu,ecn Mesopotenl ian civi l izat ions and thetopography of the ,lvliddle Eastl l)ocs geographvsuggcst reasons for invasion ancl political instirl':ilitr.
in this civi l izat ion centerf Dit l later empires in thercgion har,e thc sarue relationship to rir.'er valleys asdid the earlier statesf What mighr have caused thechangef \4&t.c1id even the larger empires not spreadthn>ugh the Arabian peninsulal Wlut wcrc rhepotc-ntial contacts bctq,een Mesopotanria and othcrriver vallq, civilization centersl lVhy has the fuIiddleEast bcen s<-r significant in liuropcru, Africen. anclAsian historr.?
THRACE
fu,IACEDONIA
d
v
o"
A N A T O L I A
Memph is o S i ra iPennsJi i)
f l - l Assvrian Emp rel--. l Persian Empirec . 6 7 0 e e
B AC T R tA .,,,, t.r.h
r\n'-
GANDI- lARA
ARACHOS A
4ain .'-a>
Or<
- 5 r r i . r nD e s r ' r l
N ineveh 4t^ 'o ' , .<O/4
ASSYR IA
t1,,
Ob a D V l o n
Akhad {? |a '
Nippura
a I r d r e h
U r .
PAFTH A
i R .'1 r\' /..i ,\P I . , \ T E , - \ L I
P E F S I A
,S l HA R 1
Mesopolomio ond fte Middle Eosl
5(r0 1000 KlLo[ , IETEBS
{ R , { B / , {aot .
l OOO MILES
Nrneveh'rlliearrvlori'T.\' ' \ J - .
U r -
i l Srr,"
[-- l Babylonian Empirel T C C e r i
24 PART I The Rise of Agricuhure ond Agrirulturol Civilizotions
nn.thic ;lrlccstor of the Chiuese, P'ln Itu. The Chinesc
hacl rrn lrnusr,r,rlh' elrrtror.rtc concept of tlrcir rcrltotc
origins, rrncl thcv begrrn e.1riv to record r [ ' r ; ' t1 ' t- f ;1g1,plrt f ict ion historv of thcir cr ir lv kings. \ \hat is clear is
thc fblkru'ing: First, the eristencc of an orqanized st,rte
thrrt c;rrcf ir l lv rcgul l tccl i rr igl t i<tn in the fcrt i le but
t 'kror1-prone r iver val ler,. Sccond, bv l t-ror-rt 2000 R.c.E.
the (,hincsc ir ,rcl prroclucecl an rrdr ' ;rr tccd technologr'
lv lan\ , lcconrp l ishnrents o f the r iver v l l lev c i r i l i ze-
t ions hrrr l l Lrst ing impac-t. A{clnurnents such :.rs the
Egr-pt i ln p1'r irmicls l-ravc lr>ng been rcglrclcd rs r)ue
of the u'onrlcrs of t l -rc u-orlcl . Othcr lchicr.emcll ts.
rr l thcluqh nlorc [rros; 'r ic. are ftrndl.rnrcntr l to u'<lr lc1
historv cve n tocla),: thc inr.e nt ion of the u,he el, the
truring of thc horsc, thc creirt ion of r-rsatr lc alphrrbcts
and r i ' r i t ing implcrncnts , the prot luc t ion o f l i c ' r '
mrr thenrat ic l l concepts suc i r i l s s r lL l i l rc roots , thc
clcvelo;rnrent cl f r i 'c l l -orqrrnizecl monrrrchies ; lncl
tigure I .4 This eloborotely decorofed bronze incense vesse/from the Shong ero, with its whimsicol horse ond cotlikefigure, shows the high level of orfisfic expression ochievedvery eorly in Chinese history. lt also demonsfrotes o highlevel of melolworking ability, which corried over infoShong weopons ond fools. Although fhe design of theserituol vessels often wos obsfrocf, mythicol creofures suchos drogons and socred birds were dehly cosl in bronzesthot remain so/ne of the oreol treosures of Chinese ort.
bu rcauc rac ies , and t hc i n r , en t i on o f f unc t i on ; r l
ca lcnc lars and other c l iv is ior - rs o f t in rc . Thcsc [ r ls ic
achicve nre nts, ir lonq u' i th the .ru'c th;.rt t l ' re carlv cir -
i l iz ir t ions continLre to inslr irc, ;rre r i tal legi lcies to the
u-holc of hunrrrn histon'. Almost ir l l the major alpl-r ir-
bets in the u'ork'l toclay lrc clerir,crl fionr the u'ritine
firrnrs pioneercc' l in the r iver vl l le\.s, r lp;1rt f ior-n thc
evcn rr()re t lr-rr irblc conccpt of n'r i t ing i tsclf . Nnrost
rrll late r cir.iliz;rtiol1s, thell) br,rilt on the niassir,c firr-rn-
clat ions f irst constructed in thc r iver val levs.
I)espitc thcsc rrccompiishnlcnts, lllLlst of the river
vl l lq 'civi l izrrt ions \\ 'crc in dccl ine bi ' 1000 e.(t .F.. fhc
ciyilizirtiotrs harl flor-rrishcd fbr rrs miln\. as 2500 \'errrs.
E a l y A r - L . l
CHAPTER I From Humon Prehistory to lhe Eorly 0vilizations 25
.r l though of course r i- i th pcrioc-l ic disruprt ions anclrcvivir ls. Bnt, p.rrt ictr lar lv in Incl ia, thc nel u- ' .rves r>f
irrvirsion cl id prcducc sonrethins of 11 brerrk in the l-r is-
torv of civi l izat ion, ;r cl ividing l ine bctu'cen thc r ivcr
r al lcv p-r ioneers a.ncl l ;r tcr cultures.
Ancl, this bre;rk raises or-rc f inal question: Bcsicles
thc r- i tal i rchicvcrlents-thc fascinlt inq lr .r()numcuts
l r r t l the ind isprcns l [ ' r lc ac l r ' ' lnces in tcchnolog) ' , sc i -
cncc. i1n(l rrr-u' trat lcgacies dicl the r iver r. l l lcv civi-
l i z : r t ions impar t t i r r l l tc r rge s l Thc qL lest ion is
s'oultl lf-fect later civilizr'rtions in thc Nlidcilc Erst anrl
throughout the N,{ec-l i terrrrnei. ln. Thev l lso crcrrtccl a
divcrse rrrav of rceion;r l identi t ie s that n'oulcl cor-t-
tinr-rc to rnark thc N{ic1c1le East cvcrl AS other firrces,
likc tlre Ror.r.ritn Enrp'rirc or the l;.rtcr religion of Islen-t,
took ccnteI s t r rgc. Sevcr : . r l o f t l rese snrr r l l cu l tures
pr<lver1 inrme nsel i ' r- lur;r l-r le, r lnr l in thcir conr;r ler in'
lncl crrpacif i ' to survive, thc\, n'ould inf ' luence <lthcr
pi lr ts of the u'orlcJ as n'el l .
A preople ca l lcd the Phocnic ians. fbr exunrp le ,
clcr, isecl a gre;rt lv sinrpl i l iecl alprhabct u' i th 22 lettcrs
; l f ounc1 1 .300 B . ( t .E . ; t i t i s a l phabc t , i n t u rn , becan re
the prec-lccessor of Grcek ;rr id L;rt in ir lphabcts. Thc
Phoenic i lns r lso i r lp roved thc Egvpt i ;1n nnnr t lc r -
inq s t .s tcm and, i ls great t r r rders . set up co lont 'c i t ies
i n No r t t r A t r i ca i r nc i on t hc coas t s o f Eu rope .
Another re giclnir l grolrp) thcl*udrens-f- irst intro-
cluce cl c<l ine cl nrone\,.
Thc rttost ii-rflucirti;rl oi the Smirller Nlic1.1lc E.rst-
crn gr()ups, hou'ever) \ \ 'ere thc Jeu's, u'ho g;rve the 1/u'orlcl thc first clerrrlv cler-clopecl nlonothcistic religion.
Wc l-rar,c scen that carl \ . rel igions. both trctbrc ;-rnc-l
rrftcr the l-reginnings of civiIizAtior.r. \\'e rc polvtheistic',
clainrins that trr; lnr.gods rrnd gotLlcsscs w'orkecl to
control 11;. l ture an,-J hunrln r lcst inr ' . The )eu's, a
Scnrit ic peoplc inf lucnccrl bv Pr.rbvkrnian civi l izrt t ion,
sctt lecl ne irr thc N{er- l i tcrrrrne i ln arouncl 1200 B.c.F..
The Jen'ish strrte \\';1s smilll ltrcl rclrrtir-ch,rveali, rctain-
ir-re inclepenclcnce orrlv ri'hcn othcr parts of the N,lid-
cllc East u,ere in political tururoil. \,\4rat n'irs clistinctive
;rbout tl-ris culturc \\'ils its firni trclicf thrt l single Clod,
]chor- 'rrh., euiderl thc t lcst inies of ' thc Jeu' ish peoplc.
Pricsts lrn. l prophets clcf inccl lncl en'rphasizccl thisbc-lief, i-urcl their historr'<lf'Ciocl's sr-riclance of thc ieu'sf irrmed the basis fbr thc He-bren'Bit-r le . The Ieu.ishreligion ancl nror;rl coclc persistcci e\,c11 AS thc fcu'ishst;rte sLlf-fbrecl clorninrtion bv a se rics of firrcign rlrlers,
I
II
IaI
II
26 PART I The Rise of Agriruhure und Agrirulturol [ivilizotions
in DEPTHThe kg q of Asia's FirstQivilnzationsIn thcir sizc'., cclrnplcxitt ' ' ancl longer.it\ ' , t l te
flrst civil iz;rt ions to cievelop in south Asia anclChinl match, ancl iu sonre respects surpassl thclc;rrl iest civil izations that ar()se in N4esop-rotatnia;rncl l igl 'pt. lJut the long-tcrrr imprrct of theF{arappran cir, i l ization iu the Indus basin u'lsstrikingh, diffcrent frorn thirt of t l-re Shang ;rndTltott cir. i l izirt ion in north Chin,.r.. The loess zoneancl north China pr la in u,here the Shang andZhou empires t<lok hoid lrecatne the cellter of acontinuous civil ization that \\I i ls to last into the20th ccnturv C..u. and, sol l re histor iaus u 'otr lc largiue) to the present dirt,. Although regions far-ther sonth, such as the Yanqtze Lrasiu, s.ould insome tirne periocls cnjor, polit ical, ecotromic, atrdculturirl preclonrinance u,ithin China, the capital;. lncl ccrltcr of Clhincse cir, i l ization repeatedlvrcturnccl to the Yellou' River arerr rrnd the trorthChinl plain. B), cotrtr,rst, the Incltrs vallet'proveclcapable of nurtur inq i r c i i ' i l izat ion that enduredtirr more than rr t lrousancl \rcilrs. But u'hcnHarappra collapsed, the prlains of the Inclus we rebvpassecl in frrr.or of the frrr morc lush ancl exten-sir,e lands in the basin of the Ganges River net-rvork to the east. Although the Indus u'ould laterscrve) firr much shclrter t ime spans., as the seat ofcmpire s, the corc are as of successive Inclian cir. i-l izations wcre fhr to the elst ancl solrth.
The contrast bet\\reen the fates of the originalgeogreprhic cente rs of Incli ln and Chincse civil iza-tions is par'alleled bv thc legacies of the cir,ilizationsthernselvcs. Harapp'ra \\,'as clcstror,ecl, ancl it disap-peared fiom histrlrv for thotrsands of vears.Although the peoplcs lr,ho built the Ir-rdus corlr-pler left their mark on subsequent Indian culture ,thet. did not pass on the fundamental patterns ofciv'ilizec1 lift that thev hacl evolvec{. Thcir mother-goclcless, \'()ga positions, rrncl the dancing god oftbrti l i tv encilrretl. Somc of their svnrbols, such asthe su,astika ancl the lirylnne (a phallic irnage , usr.r-l l lv macle of stone ), \\ 'ere plromine nt in l irter artis-tic anci religious traclitinns. Thc F{arappirns' tanks,or public bathing ponds, remain e central fbatureof Inclian cit ies, Lrarticl l l i lr l f in thc south. Their
techniques of grort.ing ricc and cottolr \r'erc pre-se rr,ecl b\r cnltir':rting ;rcoplcs flee ing nonraclic cur-sions rrnd r,r,cre late r ti.lken upr b1' the ncn'lt. arriveclLrdo-Art,an triLrcs.
Nearlt. everything else u'as lost. In contrast tothe civilizations of Me so1'rotAtnia,
"r'hich fbll but
\\'erc replacecl b)' r't".*' civilizations that prcsen'edrrrrd built on the achier.e ments of tl'reir predeces-sors, mllch of u,hat the F{arapp'an pcoples l-radrrccornplishecl hacl to be redone br, latcr cir"ilizeclpeoples. The cities of thc Indr,rs civiiiz;rtion \\,'eredestroved, ;1r1d comparable urban centers clid notreappear in soutl'r Asia fbr morc th'.ru a thousendvcrrs. fhe Hirrappaltrs' rcurarkablv aclvancccl stan-clarcls firr mcasuring clistance ancl u,eight ce-ased tobe usec1. Their systenl of u.rit ing u'as firrgotten.,:rnd u'hen recliscoverecl it n'as celebr;rted as 'alt
intriguirtg Lrut rrcfll deacl lalgr"rage fioll the prast.Flarappiln skil ls in comnrunitv planning, se\\ 'aqccontrol, and er-rgineering \\rere meanir-rgless to thenomadic peoples u'ho took coutrol clf their homc-lands. The Htrrir.ppan petrchant fbr standarcliza-tion, clisciplinc, and state control u'as profixrncllvchallcr r ge c1 L-rv thc brarvlin g, inclependcnt- mind edu'arriors u'ho supplante d thcm rs lnasters of theIndian subcontinenr.
In contrast to the civil ization of t l-rc Indus val-lev, the original civilization of China has survivednomadic incursions and natural catastrophes andhas protbuncllv intluencecl the coursc of'Chincsehistor;,. Shang irrigrrtion and dike svstenrs anc'l mil-let irncl u.heat cultivaticltr proviclccl the basis fbrthe inr-rovations and cxpansion of stibseclLlentclvnastics. Sh;rng irnci Zhou ftirtifiecl t()\\.ns and vil-lages surrclunclccl u.ith stamped earth n'alls havep-rersistcd as t l re prcclominant pi i t terns of set t le-rnent throughout Chincse historv. Thc fbundcrsof the Shang and Zhou dvr-rasties have beenrer,ered bv scholars and peasiurts alikc ls philoso-pher-kings rr'ho or-rght to be emulated b), le,rclersat al l levels. The Shang and Zhou u.orship ofhe'a.r'en ancl their verlcration of ancestors havereinained central to Chine se religious belief andpr;rctice for thor,rs:rnds of vears. The conccpt ofthc Mandirte of He'ar,cn has been pivotal in Chi-nese polit ical thinking and organization.
Abor.,e t'rll, thc svste m of u-riting that u,as orig-inalll.forrnulatcd fbr Shang oracles devclopecl into
5
i:II
the kev nrcans of comururnictrt icln Lret$'ecn the
cl i tes of thc man\. pcoples u'ho l ivcd in thc core
reg ions of Chinese c iv i l i za t ion. l -he scholar -
L-rureatrcr;rts., n'lro clci,clope tl this u'rirten language
irnd also profited thc rnost frclrn it, socln emergecl
as thc dcimina.nt tbrce in Chinese culture and soci-
cti'. Chincse charircters prrovided thc basis fbr the
cclucirticlnal st,stem :rnc-l bure;rLlcr;1cv thrt \\'ere to
l iolc1 Chinese cir. i l izrrt ion together through thotr-
sands of vei lrs of inr ' ;rsions and pol i t ical cr ises.
l \{ irnv of the ker, ingrecl ients cif Chinl 's earlv cir ' -
i l izat ions have rcrntr inecl central thror-rghol l t Chi-
nesc' historr, . This persistencc hirs macle fbr a
c()r l t i l lui tv of identin' that is uniqtrc to thc Cli i -
r-rese people.
It has .llso melnt th;rt Chiru. likc the errrlr, cir'-
ilizirtions of N,Icsol'rotamiil) \\/r1s orfc of tlie gre at
sources of civi l iz ing int luences in human histon';rs
l uhole. The aree af lbcted Lrv idc.rs deve lopctl in
China \\ ' i rs less extensivc than th;rt to u' l-r ich the
peoples of A,Iesopcltamia gavc w'r i t ing, lau', ancl
their other great achievements. Bnt contircts $' i t l -r
Chinri pr<x' iclecl cr i t ical i rnpctns fbr the clevclol ' ' -
ment of cir.ilization in ]irpan, Itorea, ancl Victnarn.Writing ancl political clrgrnization \\'cre t\\ro areils
in u'hic-h the earl icst fbrmulrrt ions of Chirrcse ci i ' i -
liz;rti<-ur i'itallv irffectcci ()ther peoplcs. In later peri-
orls, Chinese thought i-urd other modcs of cultural
exprrcssion such as art, architecture, irnc-l et iqr,rette
llso stronglv intlucncccl the gr()\\'th of civilizcd lifb
tlr ronqhollt eest Asiir.
Chinir 's tcchnological innovation lvas to hi1r,c
ln impact on globirl civiliz;rtion c()rnpr-rrablc to that
of earlv Meso;rotamiir. Be ginning n,ith incrcirsinglr,
sophist icated irr igation svstems, the ( lhinese have
cler, isecl a rernarkable share of humankind's basic
r-uachines rnd cnqineerins principles. In t lre Shang
and Zhou cras thc\, also pioneerecl ket pr()cesses
such as silk rnanr,rfhcturing.
Thc rcasons for the c l i f te r ing legac ics o f
Harappr ln anc l ear lv Chincse c iv i l i za t ic lns arc
nunrerous and complex. But cr i t ica l to t i re d is-
appe arance of the f irst ancl the rc-si l ience of the
seconc l \ \ 'e rc d i f ' fe rcnt pat tc rns o f in teract io t r
betu 'een the sec lentar \ . peoples u 'ho bu i l t earh '
civi l iz;rt ions and the nomaclic herders n.ho chal-
lengccl thcnr. In Incl ia., the nonracl ic threat u'as
remote-perhaps noncr is tent - fbr cent l l r ies .
CHAPTER f From Humon Prehistory lo the Eorly (ivilizolions 27
The Harappan pcr>ples \\ 'cre clef lcie nt in rni l i tarr '
technologv anc l organizat ion. lVhen c( )nrb incd
u ' i th natur ; r l ca lar l i t ies . the \ \ 'aves of n 'ar l ike
notnacis r l igrr 'r t ing into the Indus region pnl 'ecl
too mirch tbr the Hlrapp' lr-r peoples to rcsist or
at 'rsorb. Thc girp betu'een the nomircls' hcrding
culture and thc- urban., i rgriculturc-basccl Harap-
p i rn c iv i l i za t ion \ \ 'as too grcat to bc br idgcd.
Conf l ic t betu cen thcm rna l , u .e l l have pro i 'cd
fat ir l to a civi l izat ion long in decl inc.
Bv cont rast , the loess rcg ior - rs o f nor thcn-r
Chinir \ \ 'ere open to invasions or miqr ' .r t ior ls ol l
the par t o f the nomld ic he r "d ing peoples u 'ho
livcc-l tr-r tl-re north ancl g.est. Peoplcs fiorr-r these
rlrcas nror.ecl l lmost continuor-rsh' into the corc
zones of Chi r - rese c i i ' i l i z l t ion. T l - rc c( ) r ' rs t i ln t
threat poscd [rt ' the nomircls fbrcecl thc peoplcs
of the north Chin;r plain to c1cr'e lop the detbnses
antl nri l i t :rr t , tcchnologv necclc. l to c-lef 'enc1
ag; r ins t nonr i r r i i c ra ids or b ids f i r r l l s t inq con-
qL lcs t . Cont rast ing cu l tures Anc l n 'a \ ,s o f l i f -e
s t rengthencc l the sense of ide n t i t \ , o f thc cr , r l t i -
vat inq pe<lp les. The obv ious nonrac l ic presence
pr<;clclcci these sr 'r .n1e peoples to unite unc-ler
strong mlers rgainst the outsiders r l 'ho dicl r-rcl t
share Chincse culture. Constant interaction u' i th
the uomads led the Shang peoplcs to der-clopr i i
culture that u' irs rccep-rt ivc to outsiclc inf l l rences,
social str lrctures' ' and pol i t ical s\.stems. Nomaclic
cncrg ics re in l igc l re tcr l ' . rnr1 enr ichet l the k ing-
doms of the- Sliang irnd the Zhott. in contrirst to
Inc-l ia, u,here thev proved catastroprhic fbr the
isolatccl ancl f 'ar less aclap-rtablc peoples of thc
Indus ve l ler . c iv i l i z ; r t ion.
Ouestions: Comparc the ei lr lv cir, i l izat ions of India
aurl Chir-rrr r i ' i th thosc of Slrnrer antl Eg1'p-rt .
Which arc more s inr i la r in te rms of longev i f i
Which f irctors \ \ 'e re cri t icl l in t l -re fhi lure of the
Inclus civi l iz; ' r t ion to persist? Which bcst cxplain
Chincse longcv in ' i Are thesc the same as those
tht l t accoLrnt for the long l i fe o f Egvpt ian c iv i -
l i za t ionf Whi ' d ic ' l thc Inc lus c iv i l i z i r t io r hr l \ 'e
such a l i r l i tc-cl impact on subsequent civi l izat:
in India, in corttrast to Surner and ttre c' ' '
i l i za t i< ;ns o f Mcsopot i rmia l lVhat '
lcgact ' of etrch of the sc earh' ci"" / .
, . i1 , r " , r t i rumln h is tor r , l ^ .%7,1., a'
'2,
I
I
I
28 PART I The Rise of Agriruhure ond Agriculturol Civilizotions
f ionr 772 r , .c t .E. LLr r t i l thc Ront i lns sc izc t l the s ta tcor - r t r ish t in 63 n, ( - .E. lcu ' ish r lonorhc ism has sus-tainccl a clistinctive |ovish crrlturc to olrr ori'n clar,; itu'oulc1 irlso scrvc i.rs I kcv basis firr the devclopnrent ofboth Christ irrnif i ,ancl Isl i rnt as rn;r jor u'orld rcl igions.
lJccar-rsc fuclaisnr stressccl God's speci l l con)pi1ctn ' i th the choscn |cn ' ish pcople , therc \ \ ' i l s no pre -
u iunr p l t rcec l ( )n convcr t ing n( )u- fer i ' s . Th is bc l ie fl ic lps explain t l ic t lurabi l i tv of thc Jovish frr i th i tself ;i t l lso kept thc Jeu.isl-r pcoprle in ;r nri l rorin' posit ionin the N'I icldle East as rr s,hole . Honever. thc elalro-ratjon of nronothcisnr l-racl a u.itlc', if not irlurecliate,
s ign i f icance. In Jeu, ish hr rnc ls , thc concept o f GodLlecanre less h lur i rn l ikc , nrore- abst ract . Th is reprc-scntec l a bas ic ch i rnge in not on l r . re l i { r ion but a lsohunranl i ind's or.erir l l outlook. Jchor,:rh hacl not onlva p()\\ 'cr but also I r l t ional in' f i rr dif fercnt f l -ortr nhatthc tr.rc-lition;rl gocls <lf the Midcllc- Ir.rst or lrgt.1-rt p-ros-scssecl. Tlrese gotls \ \ 'crc n.hin'rsical rrnd capricious;
f ehovrth n.rrs orclel'h, ,rnd just, :rnc-l inclivitlrrlls ri,or-rlcllqron'u'h;rt to expcct i f ther. obcvec-l ( ioc1's rules. Gotln' ;rs r lso l inketl to cthici t l concluct, to prepcr nrorl lbchavior. Rcligion for tlrc Jeu.s u'irs 11 \\.av of life, r'rotme relv a sr:t of riturrrls lntl ccrenrc;nics. T'hc firll imprctof t l i is rcl igious tr irn,sfbnnatir-rn on tr{ iddlc- Liasrerncivi l iz ir t ion u'onld bc rel l izccl onh'Lltcr, u'hen |eu' ishbeliefs u'ere embracetl L-rv othcr, p-rroselvt izinq f ir i ths.Hr)rver,er, the basic cotlcept of nronotheist ic rcl igi(xl\ \ ' r1s olte of the legacies of the encl of the frrst qreat
c iv i l i z r i t ion per ioc l to the ncu ' cu l tnres that r i 'ou ldSO()l l r l r iscl.
The First CivilizationsOreral l , then. the r ir ,cr vrr l lev cir i l izrrt ions, t lourishing f i>rl l iul \ . ccr-rt lrr ies, cre'.r tec1 I brrsic set ctf tools, intel lectualconcepts such irs u-r i t ing anrl m.rthcmatics, irncl pol i t icalfbrrns th; l t \ \ 'orr ld prersist ancl sprc.rcl to other par-ts ofEnrope . Asi.r, and Aliicrr. Inr..lsion in hrclia, anc'l iuvasi<_r-rrrncl Lr<-rlitic.rl tlcclinc in Egvprr, rtrarkerl a tiirlv flrnr bre.rlibenveen nyer vrr l lev irrst i tut ions rrncl those thtt \ \ .oul( ' l l t terdevclopr. Hu'.rnq He cir, i l izr-rt ion, in corl fr . lst. f lou-ed l l lorefur lh ' in to the rnore extcns ive Chincse c i r , i l i z r r t ion t i ta tn'ouki fbllou'. T[-rc AIiclclle L,rrst. u'hcre cir,ilizarion hac] firstbccn born, provicle 11 thc most conrprle x he r i t .rgc of al l .Flcre too thcre \\ . i -rs i .1 brerrk bctn'een thc init ial scries oir ivcri t te etnlr ircs rrnd thc cir i l izat ions of 'Grccce irud Persiathat u oulcl l;rtcr rlorninlttc thc re gior-r. Flou'evcr, the dcvei-oprnerlt of -snral lcl cuitures lrroyicler-1 a briclge bcnr,ecn therivcr r rr l lev periocl rrnd l .r tcr r\ , I idcl lc E.tSte rn socictr ' , pro-
clucing r- i tal ncu' iur-entions .rnt l i t lels. Thc snlrr l lcr culturcsrrlso gettcritte rl .t rlceprlv e ntrenclterl nctn-ttrii of rcgion'll orturinori f i ' \ ' i l lues rutd inst i tut ions that n <tulr '1 continuc tcrmrlke thc Xl idrl le Elst I cor-npler, r ' iLrr irnt, .-rnt1 sonrct iurestroublcc'l p;rrt of the uorlc'l.
One f in.r l rcsult of thc f irst, krnr lreriocl of hum.rn cir ' -i l izat ion is ce rt l inlr clelr: i1 ptt tenr of t l iv ision rtrt l rng thett trr lr l 's Pcopics. Thc dif f i tsiort of Hrtt t to : ' t t pi t t ts.\ ' / r / i r ' l / . i 5ctt l ' re ini t i rr i strrge. Small sroLlps r)f pcopls sprrcitel ro ir l l t )ostevcrv conrcr o f the n 'or ld l - ru t nr l in t r r ine c l l i t t l c contactrr ' i th e ach othe r thercirf te r. Sc1-r11111e languirge s irncl clrI-t t trcs cio'ekrped n' idelr ' . The r ise of agr: icr-r l tnre srirnulrrtecitle.nY litll.s, arltl the sprcati <tf- frrrrning atttl tteg.' tcclruol,-gics beg.ur to cut into local isol ir t ion. Trade soon entercclthe pictrrre: AlthclLLeh ntost col-r l l t rercc ccl l tcrcrl rr- i thir-r r treg ion. l ink ins r r c in ' to i ts h in tcr l rnd, . r fbn ' r ( )u tes t r r l \ ' -clcr l qre.rtcr dist i lnces. Bt ' 1000 Lr.c:.e., Phoeniciruls trtr ledu i th Br i ta in for metr r ls ( thev Lrouqht lc r r r l to nrakebronze). u'hi le Chincse si lk u'as rer 'rching F.g1-1-rt, Here r,r,ehavc one of t l -re [rasic thentes of u.orlcl historr ' : stearl i l r ,prolifbrating contacts ag;rinst ir Llacl<gror-rnd of ofien frercelocal iclcntin,.
Thc r ise ol civi i iz.rt ion f irr thcr reclucerl loc;r l .-mron-orn\'. ils kings .rncl prricsrs tricd to spre;rrl trilrle couttcts .lnclcult trral t i rrms ancl ulrrecl to gir in lre\\ tel ' r i torr ' . Civi l iza-tion itself tvils iut inteqrrrtins fitrce .rt a lirrger rcgionrrl ler-el.rrlthr-iugl'r, r1s \\,c ha\-e sccn ir-r the l,licltlle Errst, snt.r.ller iclen-tities pcrsisted. FIon.er.er. inclir,idr.ral cir.ilizatiorrs irac'l onh.sporaclic corltilcts u'ith cach othcr. Thcr,, lncl tl 'rcir lerrtlingitrstitr-rtions irnrl culturrrl tbrnrs, .ler,eloprccl se ptliltel\'. Thus,f iur dist inct cenrers of cir, i i izr 'r t ion c-lcrelopccl ( l i i .e, i f theetrergins OIn.rcc culturc in .NIerico is incluclerl ) . cach n' i thn' icielv varied prl t terns, front stvlc of u'r i t inq to [re] ief irrbrxrt n; l tr l rc. l 'he earlv civi l iz ir t ions shrrct l inrportrrnt fca-tures. inclucl ing cit ie s. trr lLlc, rrncl u.r i t inq, that he l ;rer- l thenrnleet thc comnron basic tlefinition of cir,ilizrrtion in thc firstplacc. f'hev also fi'eqncntlr, clevelopecl sorne nrutr,rirl rela-t ior-rship-rs, although the Hu.lng He culturc in ( lhinrr is onccranrple of a cir. i l iz;rr ion th.rt f lourisherl in relat ive isola-ti<-rn. l.gvprt lnrl Nlcsc)p()t.uriJ. in pjlgi!-,t1.tr, hilrl t'ecurrenIcont.rcts throLrgh trade ;rnrl u.ar. But. thc r ' .r lues or bel ief 's\,sterrs of each cir- i l izrrt ior). rrnd their rnenitbstat ion inpo l i t ic r r l anc l bus i r - ress s tv les . \ \ -erc not so cr rs i lv c l issenr i -n.rted. Evcn relat ivclv closc r-rciqhbors. sr.rch as L.gr.pt iuclN'le sopot'.rrnia, cl cvel oprct'l raclical lv cl i ffc rc nt proliti ca l atti -
.rnrl consiclcraLrle cl ir ,crsit t , thus co-existcc' l h.rnd in hancl.
Conclusion,
aI
r 1 1 n t .rurtne r KeaqlnqsTu o collcctions of sources *"*r .,r,n. r-rrr.rterials ()n eilrl\Clr irr ir rrrrcl Inc' l ia:\V. T. I)e Barr ' , j r . , et rr1., erls., Sotn'ct-r of-Ohi r t rs t Trnd i t iou (1960) . r r . rd \ \ I . T . De Bar \ , , Tr . , er t r l . .et ls., Sozl 'r ts o.f ' Int l inrt
- f i 'ndit iott (1,958 ). C)n prehistorr, .
IIL
t ' l
' t
c
:'
'1
t t
: I
n
i '
, t
! ,
n
\ 'c R()bert J . \Venke, Pnt tct ' t t . r in Prth isto71,1 1984); L l r i ; rn
1990 t ; Richlrc l Adanrs. Prr l t is tor i r I I t :sontnt : r i t :n (1991);
. i r t i ( . h r i s .Sc r l r r c , ec l . , .S t t t i t hso t t i n t t T imt l i t t t s oJ ' t l t c
. i t t t i r r t t \ l ' o r l d ( 1 9 9 4 ) . O n e a r l v c i r . i l i z a t i o r . r s , s e c ( 1 . L .
i (c t lnrrr r , T l t t Rist o. l - Oir i l t :nt ion: Ft 'ot t t Enr/ t , Fr t t ' r t t t : rs to
l ' r l tnr t Socict t , iu tht At tc i t t t t l {c t t r Enst (1988 ) . H. Cr lu ' -
: i ' r t l , . \ l r r r ' r n t td tb t S t ru t t t ' i l ns ( I9c ) I ) , J . I i l ' i gh t . A H is -
i t ) ' . \ ' 0_ f I s ra t l (1981) ; and A . N ibb i , Anc ic t t t Eq . tp t n t td\ t ) , ) t t E f i s t t ' t ' t t l { r i l l b l t r r s (1981) . On In t l i . r anc l ( l h in . r , sce(; . ( ) . Posschl , ed. , Hnrnpl t t t t t Ci t , i / i :nt iot t : A Oontrutpo-
) t l t ' . \ ' P( i 'spL'ct i t , t ( 1982 ) ; \ r . & R. Al lchin, Tl t r l l i - r r o. f Cir -
t l i : . n t i o r t i t t I t t d in n t td Pnh is tn t t ( 1982 ) ; P ine - t i Ho .( rtdlt u-t' ' t ltt L.n-rt: Att )nquir.t, iutu tht: Ittrl iqcnotrc ()rigins
tt' 'Ttrlniqttts nttd Idtns 0.t' ' l ftolithic nttd Enr/.t, Histur.t ' itt( h i t t t t ( I975 ) ; \ \b l f i lm E,L ' rer i r r r rd, Hist t t r t , 0. t ' ' Chi t tu
I( )77 et | . ) ; ancl I i . C. Wu. Zlc Cl t incst Hrr i tnge (19(32 ) .( )n t l re cruci ; r l issLrc of gent lcr , see r \1. El- r re r - rbelg. I l ;ontr t t
t t t I ' r th i - r ro l '1, (1989) ancl G. l tobins. I ITnrt t t t in '4t tc i l t t
Eg l , l t t (1993) . On o thc r ke t ' t o1 - r i cs , re tc r to lUch l r c l
0p t l t cn t (1991) ; r rn r l Pau l I Ja i rach , ( , ' r . r z r . r n r td E t .o t tou t i t :
I ) t rc / t tpt t t t : t t t : Frot t t t lL t Dnn,n 0. t ' Hisf0t ' i t to t l te Pt ' t :s t ' t t t( 1 9 8 8 ) . F o r a c h a l l e n q i n q s t a t e m c r r t o n t h c l e g a c v t r i
Afiic.ur r-urr1 Nticlcllc Eilste rn s<-rcictics to l.rter C'rcccc. rc.r.tl
r \ Iar t in Bern.r l , ] l /nck ,4tht : t tn: Tht A. t ' i ' i r r t t t is t ic Roots 0. t ' '
CHAPTER f From Humon Prehislory lo the Eorly Civilizotions 29
Olt tss icn l C i t , i l i zn t ion (1987 ) . On t l re cnv i r t )nnrcut , sccL G. S i r r r r - r ' rons, l r l r i r r t r tn t t t t ro l H is tor t , ( 19931. ( )n i r . r ttc rns o i cont i rc t , see Lucc Boulno is . Tht S i l l t Rond(19(16)r I 'hi l ip I) . Ctrrtrn, Cross-Ctt l t t trnl Trnrl t i r t l l i t t ' ldHis tor t , (198- t ) ; X inru L iu , Anc i tn t [nd in n t t t t Ar tc ie t t tCbinn: Trndt n t td Rc/ i ly io t ts E. rL : l tn i lJ t ts 1 I988t ; ; r rdSlrereen Rrrtnntrrlr, Encotttttn': The \,\/csttrlt, Trnr/t o_f'tlttHnrrtpltntT Cit i l i :nt ioH \1981 t. Thc science rrncl tcchnol-ogt 'of the ancient s,orld are cl iscussed in Rich.rrr l Ll tr l l iet.Tltr Cntncl ottd t l tr \ l"hre I \ lc)75 ); Cieorge If iah, Frout(')ttt to Zrro: A Llnit,u'snl Histot'.y oJ'l{untltns ( 1985 ); rrr.rrlEdgiarclcr r\{rrrcorini, cc1., 7'ht: Histot't, o-t' 'Stintct rtnd TtclL-t t Lt I u ;p, : A l{ n rr n ti y t' C ltr ort Lt / 01t1, (.1 9 cB 8 ).
On the Web( )n c.r r l r hunr;rn l i t t fornts, up to Hott to st tp i t ' r ts snPi . t t - i ,
scc
f i r r l r i r t l r a l t o r r r o i Es p t i l n c i t i cs . see
on the L i i l g .u rcsh ep ic . scc
o n t h c e r o l u t i o n < i f H i n t l L r c p i c s . i n r l b c l i e t s . s c c
