Multicultural Education: Historical and Theoretical Perspectives

Chapter Two

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Historical Perspectives on Pluralism

We have been different from the beginning European immigrants met highly developed

civilizations already here English culture became dominant because of

a slightly more tolerant attitude

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Industrialization: Immigration and Religious Pluralism

The first type of difference to influence schooling was economic (social class) The common school was largely a response to

differences between rich and poor

As the industrial revolution grew and spread, new immigrants from Europe brought Catholicism—and thus, religious difference into a largely Protestant country

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The Civil War: Freedmen’s Schools and the Issue of Race

Race became important to schooling after the Civil War

The Freedmen’s Bureau established schools for blacks in the South, a process that was characterized by the same kind of violence as had characterized the development of Catholic schools in the North

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Segregation and the Law

Black children remained in segregated schools that were both underfunded and often open only part of the year

In 1896, the Supreme Court ruled in Plessy v. Ferguson, that “separate but equal” schools for blacks and whites was constitutional

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The Civil Rights Movement and the Schools

Beginning with Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, the Civil Rights Movement gained momentum during the 1960s and 1970s, resulting in antidiscrimination laws involving not only race, but also differences in language, gender, and disability.

In education, the chief concerns were access and equity to public education.

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Historical Perspectives on Multicultural Education

In the history of public schooling, two approaches to difference, based on two different ideologies, have been utilized: Anglo-conformity, or the assimilationist model Multiculturalism, or the pluralist model

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Anglo-Conformity, or the Assimilationist Model

From 1860–1920, 37 million immigrants became naturalized citizens

An important task of schooling was thought to be turning these new citizens into “Americans” as quickly as possible

Assimilationists believed that one’s identification with one’s ethnic group should be short-lived and temporary

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The “Model” of American Culture

“Real” Americans are: Mostly white, mostly middle class (or trying to be) Protestant Heterosexual Work hard, eat well, stand on their own two feet,

expect their children to behave themselves Patriotic, charitable (as long as those receiving

the charity try to “shape up”) Believe in “good, old fashioned, common sense”

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The Importance of Schooling in Producing “Real” Americans

Those who do not “fit” the dominant model of “American” must be encouraged, or forced, to reflect these characteristics, because such differences make them dangerous to the maintenance of America as it is “supposed” to be.

The schools are the chosen institution to take on this task.

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Multiculturalism, or the Pluralist Ideology

In contrast to the assimilationist ideology, a small group of philosophers and writers came forward with the notions of cultural pluralism and cultural democracy.

Pluralists assert that immigrant groups (and, by extension, all identity groups) are entitled to maintain their distinctions within the larger American society.

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Pluralist Assumptions

One’s social groups are essential to one’s sense of belonging and psychological support

It is through one’s primary groups that one learns language, as well as attitudes and values

These groups are so important that their interests should be promoted

The schools are the chosen institution to take on this task

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Legislative and Judicial Landmarks

A number of legislative and judicial landmarks have addressed issues of access and equity in terms of: Issues of race Issues of religion Issues of language Issues of gender Issues of disability Issues of social class

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Issues of Race

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)–“separate but equal schooling” is constitutional

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)– “separate schooling is inherently unequal, and therefore, unconstitutional”

Brown v. Board of Education II (1955)– schools must desegregate with “all deliberate speed”

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Implementing Brown v. Board

Green v. Country School Board of New Kent County (1968)—“freedom of choice” plans could not be used to avoid desegregation

Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971)—authorized mandatory bussing

Milliken v. Bradley I and II (1973, 1977)—Detroit schools not allowed to mandate cross-district bussing (usually thought to be the beginning of the end of bussing as a strategy for desegregation)

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Issues of Religion

Pierce v. Society of Sisters (1925)— legitimized parochial and other private schools

Engle v. Vitale (1962)—mandatory prayer violates separation of church and state

Abington School District v. Schempp (1963)—public schools cannot begin the day with required prayer or Bible reading

con’t.

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Epperson v. State of Arkansas (1968)— schools cannot ban the teaching of evolution

Edwards v. Aguillard (1987)—no state can require that the Biblical version of creation be taught

Board of Education of Westside Community Schools v. Mergens (1990)—students may organize and participate in Christian clubs that meet before or after school hours

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Issues of Language

Bilingual Education Act (1968)—provided funding for bilingual education programs

Diana v. State Board of Education (1968)— tests for eligibility for special education services must be given in the dominant language of the student

Lau v. Nichols (1974)—affirmative steps must be taken by a school district to rectify language deficiencies

con’t.

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Keyes v. School District No. 1 (1977)—bilingual education is compatible with desegregation

Martin Luther King, Jr. Elementary School Children v. Ann Arbor School District Board of Education (1979)—legitimated Black English as a dialect

Proposition 227 (1998, California)—required schools to teach Limited English Proficient (LEP) students in special classes, mostly in English, for not more than one year

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Issues of Gender

Title IX, Education Amendments (1972)—prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex in schools receiving federal aid

Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools (1992)— schools receiving federal funds can be sued for sex discrimination and harassment

Alida Star Gebser and Alida Jean Mccullough v. Lago Vista Independent School District (1998)— made it difficult to recover damages from a school district for sexual harassment

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Issues of Disability

Education of All Handicapped Children Act (1976)— made schools responsible for education “in the least restrictive environment”

Honig v. Doe (1988)—special education students who are disruptive may not be suspended or expelled without due process

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1990)—extended services to age 21

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA, 1992)— extended rights of people with disabilities to the private sector

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Issues of Social Class and School Funding

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965)— provides funding for Title I and for Head Start

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1981)—Title I is renamed Chapter 1

Rose v. Council for a Better Education (1989)—Kentucky Supreme Court declares property tax basis for school funding unconstitutional

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1991)—Title I renamed Title 1

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (2001)—No Child Left Behind Act vastly increases federal role in public education

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Public Responses to Multicultural and Bilingual Education Reforms

One group consists of those who advocate programs such as multicultural and bilingual education

Another group consists of those who oppose any special programs, either because They believe “traditional” schooling provides

sufficient upward mobility, or They believe pluralistic approaches will destroy

the countrycon’t.

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A third group asserts that pluralism in education should not be viewed as either a remedial form of education or an effort at reparation, but rather as the long-overdue affirmation of a social reality.

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Theoretical Perspectives on Multicultural Education

Sleeter and Grant propose five types of multicultural education: Teaching the culturally different Human relations approach Single-group studies Inclusive multicultural education Education that is multicultural and social

reconstructionist

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Teaching the Culturally Different

These approaches attempt to counter a perceived cultural deficiency

Develop competence in the dominant culture Maintain self-identity and retain own cultural

identity May mask an assimilationist ideology

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Human Relations Approach

Assumes multicultural education is a means by which students of different backgrounds learn to communicate more effectively with one another

This is a fairly limited approach, and does not include attention to curriculum expansion and empowerment

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Single-group Studies

Instruction that focuses on the experiences and cultures of one specific group

African-American History, Chicano Literature, and Native American Culture are some examples

While important, such efforts may tend to reinforce a single perspective, while paying less attention to multiple perspectives

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Inclusive Multicultural Education

Places multicultural education in the larger context of overall curriculum and school reform

Focuses on the strength and value of diversity in a pluralistic nation

Expanded attention to the differences in gender, religion, geographical region, and disability

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Education That Is Multicultural and Social Reconstructionist

This approach goes beyond multicultural education by helping students critically analyze the larger social forces involved in discrimination and oppression

Seeks to prepare students not only to think in multiple ways, but to be willing and able to help bring about social justice in the society

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Something to Think About

The history of multicultural education has its roots in a debate between those who think that American schooling should provide a common education to all children based on the history and culture of European Americans and Western civilization, and those who think that American schooling must recognize and affirm the rich historical and cultural backgrounds and perspectives of a population that has always been diverse and is becoming ever more so. And the debate continues.

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