Letter from the Secretary-General

Dear Participants,

I would like to welcome you all to EuroAsia Model United Nations Training and Development Conference 2013. My name is Fatma Betl Bodur and I am a junior at Ankara University Faculty of Law.

Organized under the auspices of Model United Nations Association of Turkey, as a method to fulfil its mission to familiarize MUN-related activities country-wide; EuroAsia MUN 2013 continues the tradition of eight years to host a wide range of delegates from beginners to be introduced to MUN for the first time; to those who are experienced in MUN, seeking a unique opportunity to develop in the field. This year, nine committees will be simulated in EuroAsia MUN; each chosen delicately to appeal to its participants from different levels and areas of academic studies and interest.

United Nations General Assembly First Committee, Disarmament and International Security, will discuss the agenda item United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy. This study guide and the academic structure of the Committee have been prepared by the respected Under-Secretary-General Mr. Tunca Bozkurt. Prepared by his talent, hard-work and wisdom; the study guide serves as a perfect first step to comprehend this particular agenda of utmost importance in global scale.

I advise the participants to read the study guide thoroughly. You may also check further readings and key documents which are found on our website. As a whole, the documents presented by the Academic Team will provide you the awareness which is required so as to follow the discussions within the Committee and fully enjoy Model United Nations.

Should you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact me via bodur@muntr.org.

Regards,

Fatma Betl Bodur

Secretary-General of EuroAsia MUN 2013

Letter from the Responsible Under-Secretary-General

Respective delegates,

It is an extreme honour to welcome you to EuroAsia Model United Nations Training and Development Conference 2013 as the Under Secretary-General responsible for the United Nations General Assembly First Committee and the United Nations Security Council. My name is Tunca Bozkurt and I am a freshman in the Economics department of Boazii University. I have been involved in the Model United Nations since mid-2010 and have occupied different positions in many conferences, mostly as a part of the academic team.

As the previous sessions of EuroAsia MUN, this years committees have been designed exclusively for newcomers of the Model UN and for the ones who would like to further develop their skills. In this light, this year, the General Assembly First Committee, or with its popular name the Disarmament and International Security Committee, has a topic which necessitates good academic background and preparation and which will be a good start for lesser experienced delegates at the same time.

This years DISEC will discuss the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, with a special focus on development of local and regional counter-terrorism capacities. Notwithstanding the necessity for a good academic background and preparation, it is an advantage of the delegates of DISEC that most of the delegates are probably familiar with terrorism and previous terrorist incidents in general. Hopefully, with the help of this guide and further research, the topic will be a good opportunity for the delegates to develop their Model UN skills.

Should you have any questions, please feel free to contact me.

Sincerely,

Tunca BOZKURT

Under-Secretary-General responsible for DISEC and UNSC

United Nations General Assembly First Committee

United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy: Strengthening Local and Regional Capacities

EuroAsia MUN 2013Page 1

GENERAL ASSEMBLY FIRST COMMITTEE: DISARMAMENT AND INTERNATIONAL SECURTY

Photograph 1: UN Headquarters in New York City[endnoteRef:1] [1: 2013. [image online] Available at: http://assets.inhabitat.com/files/un1.jpg [Accessed: 18 October 2013].]

After the great destruction the humanity has encountered during World War II, global community recognised the requirement to establish a system that would prevent a new world war. In this light, an international political forum was convened to eliminate the possibility of a new war in the future by serving as a mediator among the states, which is the United Nations (UN). Since its establishment in 1945, the UN has moved further from the maintenance of the international security towards being the biggest international organisation that acts as a bridge in many areas from telecommunications to tourism and diseases among member states.[endnoteRef:2] [2: UNSCEB.org. 2013. The UN System | United Nations System Chief Executives Board for Coordination. [online] Available at: http://www.unsceb.org/content/un-system [Accessed: 2 Nov 2013].]

The General Assembly (UNGA), one of the six principle organs of the United Nations, has a special role within the Organisation: It is the only body that each member state is represented equally; each member has a vote of the same weight in the General Assembly.[endnoteRef:3] Except for important questions such as the admission of new member states or budgetary matters which require the affirmative vote of two-thirds of the members[endnoteRef:4], the Assembly makes its decisions with simple majority.[endnoteRef:5] [3: United Nations. Charter of the United Nations. 1945. 1 UNTS XVI. Article 18; available at: http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter4.shtml [accessed 18 October 2013]] [4: United Nations. Rules of Procedure of the General Assembly. 2008. A/520/Rev.17; Rule 83; http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/520/rev.17&Lang=E [accessed 18 October 2013]] [5: Ibid.; Rule 85]

The General Assembly, as the consensus-building body[endnoteRef:6], is entitled to discuss any matters related to the functions of other bodies of the United Nations. Its resolutions are not legally binding unlike those of the Security Council (UNSC), but can be normative; in the sense that the General Assembly can establish standards or customs.[endnoteRef:7] Furthermore, its resolutions are not completely ineffective, considering the fact that they reflect the stances of the states worldwide and the global cooperation.[endnoteRef:8] [6: Reachingcriticalwill.org. 2013. General Assembly First Committee. [online] Available at: http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/disarmament-fora/unga [Accessed: 31 Oct 2013].] [7: Reachingcriticalwill.org. n.d. General Assembly First Committee. [online] Available at: http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/disarmament-fora/unga [Accessed: 2 Nov 2013].] [8: Schwebel, S. 2013. The Effect of Resolutions of the U.N. General Assembly on Customary International Law. American Society of International Law.]

The First Committee of the General Assembly (Disarmament and International Security Committee) deals with topics related to disarmament and threats to peace and international security.[endnoteRef:9] In this framework, the committee considers fundamental principles of peace-aimed cooperation, regulating armament and governing actions related to disarmament, as well as measures for a stronger international stability with lower level of armaments.[endnoteRef:10] [9: UN.org. 2013. UN General Assembly - First Committee - Disarmament and International Security. [online] Available at: http://www.un.org/en/ga/first/index.shtml [Accessed: 17 Oct 2013].] [10: Ibid.]

Photograph 2: UN General Assembly[endnoteRef:11] [11: 2013. [image online] Available at: http://www.imemc.org/attachments/dec2011/un_gen_assembly.jpg [Accessed: 18 October 2013].]

AGENDA ITEM: UNITED NATIONS GLOBAL COUNTER-TERRORISM STRATEGY: STRENGTHENING LOCAL AND REGIONAL CAPACITIES

B.

C.

A. INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY

The history of terrorism goes back as old as humans use of violence to affect politics; namely to the first century Jewish group Sicarii Zealots[endnoteRef:12], to the eleventh century Islamic sect Al-Hashshashin[endnoteRef:13] and to other eras. [12: Horsley, R. 2013. The Sicarii: Ancient Jewish "Terrorists". The Journal of Religion, 59 (4), pp. 435-458. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1202887 [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].] [13: Chaliand, G. and Blin, A. 2007.The History of Terrorism. University of California Press.]

Terrorist incidents actively continued in a reduced scale through the end of the Middle Ages into the Modern Times,[endnoteRef:14] which was the age of great wars such as the Thirty Years War from 1618 to 1648 and the Napoleonic Wars from 1799 to 1815.[endnoteRef:15] [14: Laqueur, W. 2007. Terrorism: A Brief History. [online] Available at: http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/publication/2008/05/20080522172730srenod0.6634027.html#axzz2jhqiOV8U [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].] [15: Ibid.]

Walter Laqueur[footnoteRef:1] argues that traditional terrorism was discriminate in the sense that individual attacks were preferred rather than mass violence.[endnoteRef:16] The main reason for this was the lack of developed weaponry.[endnoteRef:17] On the contrary, todays terrorism is indiscriminate; great number of civilians is killed in the attacks, while very few leading politicians or military officers are assassinated unlike the past.[endnoteRef:18] [1: Walter Zeev Laqueur is an American historian and political commentator.] [16: Ibid.] [17: Ibid.] [18: Ibid.]

The high tide of terrorism allegedly rose by the end of 19th century. At that time, many liberation groups, especially the Irish rebels,[endnoteRef:19] the Russian Socialist Revolutionaries[endnoteRef:20] are alleged to be main terrorism actors. Also, groups in Egypt, India and China aiming national liberation are claimed to have committed terrorist acts.[endnoteRef:21] [19: MI5.gov.uk. n.d.MI5 | Northern Ireland. [online] Available at: https://www.mi5.gov.uk/home/the-threats/terrorism/northern-ireland.html [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].] [20: Trotsky, L. 1909. The Bankruptcy of Terrorism. Przeglad Socyaldemokratylczny, Available at: http://www.marxist.net/trotsky/t2frame.htm?againstterror2.htm [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].] [21: Laqueur, W. 2007. Terrorism: A Brief History. [online] Available at: http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/publication/2008/05/20080522172730srenod0.6634027.html#axzz2jhqiOV8U [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013]. ]

The terrorism in the 19th century allegedly included assassination of a Russian tsar, ministers, archdukes, generals and even American presidents.[endnoteRef:22] The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife by a pan-Slavist group in Bosnia in 1914 expedited the start of World War I.[endnoteRef:23] [endnoteRef:24] King Umberto of Italy[endnoteRef:25], Sadi Carnot former president of France[endnoteRef:26], Antonio Canovas[endnoteRef:27] -former prime minister of Spain- can be mentioned as some of the most prominent victims of the violence in the abovementioned era. [22: Ibid.] [23: Marshall, S. 2001. World War I. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.] [24: Johnson, L. 1989. Introducing Austria. Riverside, Calif.: Ariadne Press.] [25: Libcom.org. 2008.1900: The assassination of King Umberto I of Italy | libcom.org. [online] Available at: http://libcom.org/history/1900-assassination-king-umberto-i-italy [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].] [26: Assassination of President Sadi Carnot. 1894.Otago Witness, 28th June, p. 13.] [27: Canovas Murdered. 1897.The New York Times, 9th August.]

Unlike the past, when it was not considered by the terrorists as a problem to be called a terrorist,[endnoteRef:28] and when even the head of the Russian Socialist Revolutionaries published his autobiography with the title Memoirs of a Terrorist,[endnoteRef:29] modern terrorists prefer to be known as freedom fighters, militants, insurgents, rebels, guerrillas, revolutionaries; but not as terrorists and killers of innocent people; which is generated by a different interpretation of the objective of the activity.[endnoteRef:30] [28: Laqueur, W. 2007. Terrorism: A Brief History. Available at: http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/publication/2008/05/20080522172730srenod0.6634027.html#axzz2jjaLzZ00 [Accessed: 5 Nov 2013].] [29: Savinkov, B. 1931.Memoirs of a terrorist.] [30: Oldemeinen, M. 2009. One Persons Terrorist Another Persons Freedom Fighter?. Available at: http://www.e-ir.info/2010/01/13/one-person%E2%80%99s-terrorist-another-person%E2%80%99s-freedom-fighter/#_ftnref2 [Accessed: 5 Nov 2013].]

Amy Zalman[footnoteRef:2] generally groups acts of terrorism occurred in 20th century into three; based on their causes.[endnoteRef:31] From 1920s to 1930s, anarchism, socialism and communism were the causes of terrorism.[endnoteRef:32] From 1950s to 1980s, nationalism was the main motive of terrorism, as in the cases of Basque Homeland and Freedom (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna, ETA in Basque) in Spain and Kurdish Workers Party (Partiya Karkern Kurdistan, PKK in Turkish) in Turkey.[endnoteRef:33] Since 1980s, religion replaced these causes.[endnoteRef:34] As an example to terrorism taking religion as a cause, 9/11 attacks in the United States were a catastrophe for the global community to tackle with the issue more.[endnoteRef:35] Since then, terrorism is a more widely discussed issue. [2: Amy Zalman, Ph.D is a writer and consultant on political violence, language, and the role of both in global public affairs.] [31: Amy Zalman, P. n.d.Causes of Terrorism-Why are the Causes of Terrorism So Hard to Identify?. [online] Available at: http://terrorism.about.com/od/causes/a/terrorismcauses.htm [Accessed: 5 Nov 2013].] [32: Ibid.] [33: Ibid.] [34: Ibid.] [35: Ibid.]

Photograph 3: 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center[endnoteRef:36] [36: 2013. Untitled. [image online] Available at: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/WTC_smoking_on_9-11.jpeg [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].]

In the interpretation of the agenda item, local capacity shall be taken as the individual capacity of states while regional capacity is taken as the collective capacity of states, mostly united within regional intergovernmental organisations. In developing counter-terrorism policies, the role of local and regional capacity has mostly been ignored.[endnoteRef:37] It is unfortunate that there is no specified definition for local and regional counter-terrorism capacity, but interpretations. The United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, as a comprehensive paper, relatively fulfils this ignorance, not by making a clear definition, but including policies on local and regional level. [37: The Brookings Institution. 2008.Combating International Terrorism: A Managing Global Insecurity Brief. [report].]

B. DEFINITION OF TERRORISM

The word terrorism derives from Latin word terre, which means to frighten and came to English from French. In the English language, it has its roots in the French Revolution Era, used in meaning of the systematic use of terror as a policy;[endnoteRef:38] Edmund Burke, a British statesman, used the word as a term to describe the rule of the French government during the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), a period when thousands of enemies of the state were put on trial and as a result deported, starved in prison or guillotined.[endnoteRef:39] [38: Harper, D. n.d. terrorism. [online] Available at: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/terrorism [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].] [39: Mtholyoke.edu. n.d. Template without comments. [online] Available at: https://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/hist255/kat_anna/terror.html [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].]

As a term widely used in international relations, terrorism does not have an internationally-recognised definition.[endnoteRef:40] This chapter will make reference to the definitions made by the organs of the United Nations. Also, the doctrine of state terrorism will be studied in this chapter. [40: Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2013. What is terrorism? - The problem of definition. [online] Available at: http://www.mfa.gov.tr/what-is-terrorism_---the-problem-of-definition_.en.mfa [Accessed: 31 Oct 2013].]

I. Definitions made by the organs of the United Nations

As for the UN, the widest intergovernmental forum, three different definitions regarding terrorism have been made by its three different.

The General Assembly, in the United Nations Declaration to Supplement the 1994 Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, annexed to the Resolution 51/210 on Measures to eliminate international terrorism, solemnly condemned terrorist acts in the following terms[endnoteRef:41]: [41: United Nations General Assembly. 1996. A/RES/51/210. Measures to eliminate international terrorism. [online] Available at: http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/51/a51r210.htm [Accessed: 12 Oct 2013].]

1. The States Members of the United Nations solemnly reaffirm their unequivocal condemnation of all acts, methods and practices of terrorism as criminal and unjustifiable, wherever and by whomsoever committed, including those which jeopardize friendly relations among States and peoples and threaten the territorial integrity and security of States;

2. The States Members of the United Nations reaffirm that acts, methods and practices of terrorism are contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations; they declare that knowingly financing, planning and inciting terrorist acts are also contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations;

In the abovementioned resolution, it was further mentioned that criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or other nature that may be invoked to justify them.[endnoteRef:42] [42: Ibid.]

The Security Council (UNSC), in Resolution 1566 on October 8, 2004, mentioned terrorist actions while calling upon states to take action on the elimination of such actions: [endnoteRef:43] [43: United Nations Security Council. 2004. S/RES/1566. Threats to international peace and security caused by terrorist acts. [online] Available at: http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1566(2004) [Accessed: 12 Oct 2013].]

criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act, which constitute offences within the scope of and as defined in the international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism, are under no circumstances justifiable by considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or other similar nature

In the same year as the UNSC Resolution 1566 was produced, the High Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change a panel composed of independent experts and summoned by the Secretary-General of the United Nations- convened and included the problem of definition of terrorism in their report.[endnoteRef:44] They emphasised that the failure of the member-states to agree on a single definition affects the fight against terrorism in a negative way. In this light, they proposed that such a definition shall include any action, in addition to actions already specified by the existing conventions on aspects of terrorism, the Geneva Conventions and Security Council resolution 1566 (2004), that is intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants, when the purpose of such an act, by its nature or context, is to intimidate a population, or to compel a Government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act.[endnoteRef:45] [44: United Nations General Assembly. A more secure world: our shared responsibility, Report of the High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change. 2004. Available through: http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/report.pdf] [45: United Nations General Assembly. A more secure world: our shared responsibility, Report of the High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change. 2004. Available through: http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/report.pdf [Accessed: 12 Oct 2013].]

II. Doctrine of state terrorism

State terrorism is defined as acts of terrorism directly conducted, encouraged or funded by governments.[endnoteRef:46] Just as the term terrorism, state terrorism is also a controversial one; there are definitions of various extents. [46: Aust, A. 2010. Handbook of international law. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.]

C. Augustus Martin, an American scholar who specialises in terrorism and juvenile justice, described state terrorism as; terrorism committed by governments and quasi-governmental agencies[footnoteRef:3] and personnel against perceived threats directed to wither domestic or foreign targets.[endnoteRef:47] Noam Chomsky[footnoteRef:4] defined state terrorism as "terrorism practised by states (or governments) and their agents and allies".[endnoteRef:48] [3: Quasi-governmental organisation/agency is a controversial term. However, in general, it can be defined as entities treated under national legislation to be guided by the government, yet seperate and autonomous. The concept emerged from the incapability of the dual concept of sectors, classifying entities as public or private. (Reference: http://www.kevinrkosar.com/Kosar_The_Quasi_Government_01-2013.pdf) An example for the concept quasi-governmental organisation can be Ankara Chamber of Commerce (Reference: http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-report/browse-all-issues/2008/summer/state-of-denial), as an organisation founded by law but is autonomous.] [47: Martin, G. 2003. Understanding terrorism. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.] [4: Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, logician, political commentator and activist.] [48: Chomsky, N. 2002. What Anthropologists Should Know about the Concept of Terrorism. Anthropology Today.]

The three abovementioned definitions[footnoteRef:5] considered targeting of civilians as an integral part of terrorism. This is in some cases problematic when distinguishing state terrorism from the other forms of state violence.[endnoteRef:49] Some incidents of violence conducted by state, such as declaring war, sending the military to fight other militaries and use of violence to punish criminals who committed violent crimes is not considered as terrorism.[endnoteRef:50] [5: See Part B.I. Definitions made by the organs of the United Nations] [49: Zalman, A. n.d. State Terrorism -- A Definition of State Terrorism. Available at: http://terrorism.about.com/od/whatisterroris1/a/StateTerrorism.htm [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].] [50: Ibid.]

Cases of Israel and the United States are considered by some as examples of democracies engaging in state terrorism.[endnoteRef:51] As for the Israeli case, the State of Israel has been criticised, especially in the Arab world, in the UN resolutions and in the reports of organisations working in the field of human rights, to have been perpetrating terrorism towards the residents of the lands Israel occupied since 1967.[endnoteRef:52] As for the second case, the United States of America is criticised for backing repressive regimes,[endnoteRef:53] including the Israeli occupation in Palestinian territories. [51: Zalman, A. n.d. State Terrorism -- A Definition of State Terrorism. Available at: http://terrorism.about.com/od/whatisterroris1/a/StateTerrorism.htm [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].] [52: Ibid.] [53: Carpenter, T. 1985. The United States and Third World Dictatorships: A Case for Benign Detachment. Cato Policy Analysis, (58), Available at: http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa058.html [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].]

Israel, Turkey and Indonesia, for instance, are accused of conducting state terrorism by Palestinian, Kurdish and Tamil militants, while these three states, which share the same quality of being nation-states[footnoteRef:6], call the militias terrorists.[endnoteRef:54] This is why, just as the term terrorism, the term state terrorism cannot be defined clearly. [6: Nation-state is a form of political organization in which a group of people who share the same history, traditions, or language live in a particular area under one government. (Reference: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nation-state)] [54: Zalman, A. n.d. State Terrorism -- A Definition of State Terrorism. Available at: http://terrorism.about.com/od/whatisterroris1/a/StateTerrorism.htm [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].]

C. COUNTER-TERRORISM CAPACITY AND STRATEGY BUILDING

Counter-terrorism capacity can be explained as the capacity of intergovernmental/regional organisations, individual governments, militaries, police departments and corporations to successfully fight against terrorism. It incorporates the practice and the strategies. Under the doctrine of counter-terrorism, legal systems, human rights, designing of anti-terrorism systems and pre-emptive neutralisation policies and other policies shall be researched and developed.

I. United Nations

a. General Assembly

The United Nations, so as to fulfil its mediating role among states, hosted several conventions that concentrated entirely or partially on terrorism-related issues and counter-terrorism measures.[endnoteRef:55] These conventions aimed to have a global stance against actions related to terrorism, such as misuse of nuclear materials, safety of civil aviation, plastic explosives and financing of terrorism.[endnoteRef:56] [55: UN.org. n.d. General Assembly Actions to Counter Terrorism - United Nations Action to Counter Terrorism. [online] Available at: http://www.un.org/en/terrorism/ga.shtml [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].] [56: Ibid.]

The first two conventions did not intend to take action against terrorism namely as a whole; the first one -adopted in 1973- concentrated on crimes against internationally protected persons including diplomatic agents, while the second one adopted in 1979- concentrated on taking of hostages. Instead, these conventions were the first ones that gathered global cooperation against some acts of terror without mentioning the term terrorism.

The three conventions on terrorist bombings, financing of terrorism and nuclear terrorism- adopted right before the 21st century directly mentioned terrorism and covered some crucial counter-terrorism policies for the benefit of the global community. Each of them recalled the Declaration on the Occasion of the Fiftieth Anniversary, which called for a cooperative action against all forms and manifestations of terrorism,[endnoteRef:57] and the Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, which was the very first attempt of the United Nations to define terrorism and which included member states reaffirming their unequivocal condemnation of all acts, methods and practices of terrorism as criminal and unjustifiable.[endnoteRef:58] [57: UN.org. n.d. 50th Anniversary - Declaration. [online] Available at: http://www.un.org/UN50/dec.htm [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].] [58: United Nations General Assembly. 1996. A/RES/51/210. Measures to eliminate international terrorism. [online] Available at: http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/51/a51r210.htm [Accessed: 12 Oct 2013].]

Currently, members of the United Nations are negotiating a comprehensive convention, which will have a complementary role for the existing framework of international counter-terrorism instruments.[endnoteRef:59] [59: UN.org. n.d. General Assembly Actions to Counter Terrorism - United Nations Action to Counter Terrorism. [online] Available at: http://www.un.org/en/terrorism/ga.shtml [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].]

United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy

United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy was a milestone for the United Nations and its General Assembly. The Strategy summarised all the efforts the agencies of the United Nations have produced until its preparation.

The Strategy was adopted with consensus on September 8, 2006 in the 99th plenary meeting of the United Nations General Assembly; no voting was held. It covered recommendations to the member states in four key areas:

Addressing the conditions conductive to the spread of terrorism

Prevention from and combating of terrorism

Building States capacity to prevent and combat terrorism and to strengthen the role of the United Nations system in this regard

Ensuring respect for human rights for all and the rule of law as the fundamental basis of the fight against terrorism

The Strategy also included a decision to add the review of the implementation of the Strategy to the agenda of the General Assembly biennially.[endnoteRef:60] In the first review in 2008 and the second review in 2010, the General Assembly stressed the need to enhance the role of the United Nations and the specialized agencies, within their mandates, in the implementation of the Strategy.[endnoteRef:61] [endnoteRef:62] The Assembly further stressed the need and encouraged the member-states to cooperate with international, regional and sub-regional organisations and civil society in the implementation process.[endnoteRef:63] [endnoteRef:64] When the reviews of 2008 and 2010 are examined, it is visible that the General Assembly only reviewed the current situation and further suggestions were not covered widely. The latest review in 2012 is the most comprehensive among all reviews, adding new dimensions to the debate. More specifically, the General Assembly reaffirmed that terrorism cannot and should not be associated with any religion, nationality, civilization or ethnic group,[endnoteRef:65] which had not been included in the previous reviews. The 2012 review further mentioned the importance of the integrated and balanced implementation of all pillars of the Strategy, recognizing the importance of redoubling efforts for even attention to and implementation of all the pillars of the Strategy[endnoteRef:66] as well as the need to take action against financing of terrorism.[endnoteRef:67] [60: "A/RES/60/288: The United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy". 2006. paper presented atSixtieth Session of the United Nations General Assembly, New York, 20th September.] [61: "The United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy". 2008. resolution adopted at120th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, New York, 5th September.] [62: "The United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy". 2010. resolution adopted at117th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, New York, 8th September.] [63: "The United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy". 2008. resolution adopted at120th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, New York, 5th September.] [64: "The United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy". 2010. resolution adopted at117th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, New York, 8th September.] [65: "The United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy Review". 2012. resolution adopted at120th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly, New York, 29th June.] [66: Ibid.] [67: Ibid.]

According to the official records of the plenary meetings of the General Assembly, there is no general opposition among member-states to the Strategy.[endnoteRef:68] [endnoteRef:69] [endnoteRef:70] However, Iran and Venezuela put reservations to some parts of the Strategy.[endnoteRef:71] [68: General Assembly Renews Commitment to Strengthening 2006 Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, Calls For Stepped Up, Integrated Implementation By Member States. 2012. Available at: http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2012/ga11261.doc.htm [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].] [69: With Consensus Resolution, General Assembly Reiterates Unequivocal Condemnation of Terrorism, Reaffirms Support For 2006 Un Global Counterterrorism Strategy. 2010. Available at: http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2010/ga10977.doc.htm [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].] [70: General Assembly Adopts Resolution on Strategy To Counter International Terrorism. 2006. Available at: http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/ga10488.doc.htm [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].] [71: Ibid.]

The 42nd Conference on the United Nations of the Next Decade, held in Maryland, US in 2007 hosted a review of the Strategy by a group of politicians, UN officials and specialists. According to the review, these are some of the most critical issues:[endnoteRef:72] [72: "Implementation of the UN Global Counterterrorism Strategy". 2007. paper presented at42nd Conference on the United Nations of the Next Decade, Maryland, US, 8th-13th June.]

An atmosphere of tension and distrust between the SC and the GA.

The lack of dedicated resources in the Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force, coupled with the ineffectiveness of the Counter-Terrorism Executive Directorate (CTED). Several participants also expressed some confusion over the actual purpose and role of the CTED within the SC.

Jurisdictional disagreements within and between the GA and SC regarding which body should have the authority and responsibility for implementing the strategy.

The perception of counterterrorism as a Northern (Northern Hemisphere) concern while the need for counterterrorism capacity-building and development assistance is perceived as a Southern (Southern Hemisphere) concernobscuring the fact that counterterrorism and the development agenda are interrelated.

The division of labour between the United Nations, regional organizations, and member-statesincluding the overlap and/or competition and/or contradictions among bilateral donor-recipient relationships; partially multilateral efforts at the regional levels; and universal efforts under UN auspices, agencies, and programs.

The participants furthermore agreed that the challenges below are limiting individual states responses:[endnoteRef:73] [73: Ibid.]

Developing countries lack of capacity to respond to the many elements of the strategy.

States already engaging with the strategy are burdened with ongoing reporting requests that overtax their limited resources.

The lack of authority and mechanisms to address states who are not reporting and/or are not in compliance with the strategy measures.

Redundancy in and a lack of coordination of the training efforts for officials in developing countries.

Ambiguity as to the status of each member countrys progress in regard to capacity-building, largely as a result of a lack of follow-up on training activities.

A consistent lack of monitoring and evaluation of the activities undertaken according to the UN Strategy and Plan of Action.

b. Security Council

Since terrorism is an issue that directly threatens peace and security, it is of high importance in the agenda of the Security Council of the United Nations among other items.[endnoteRef:74] Since 2001, when terrorism interested the global community after the September 11 attacks, the interest of the Council to the topic has increased and the Council has consequently produced resolutions and other documents such as presidential statements on terrorism.[endnoteRef:75] Nine of the resolutions were to condemn terrorist actions,[endnoteRef:76] but the Council is often unable to decide on sanctioning due to veto power, mostly on allegations of state terrorism.[endnoteRef:77] [74: United Nations. Charter of the United Nations. 1945. 1 UNTS XVI. Article 23 available at: http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter5.shtml [accessed 17 October 2013]] [75: Securitycouncilreport.org. n.d.UN Documents for Terrorism. [online] Available at: http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/un-documents/terrorism/ [Accessed: 5 Nov 2013].] [76: UN.org. n.d. Security Council Resolutions pertaining to terrorism | UN Counter-Terrorism Committee. [online] Available at: http://www.un.org/en/sc/ctc/resources/res-sc.html [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].] [77: U.N. Security Council debates Syria as violence rages. 2013. CNN,[online] 26th September. Available at: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/01/31/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html [Accessed: 18 Oct 2013].]

In addition, the Counter-Terrorism Committee, founded in 2001 in the aftermath of September 11 attacks under the Security Council, provides support for the enhancement of legal and institutional infrastructure of the member states to combat terrorism at home, in their regions and around the world.[endnoteRef:78] [78: Gilmore, G. 2005. Staying on Offense Key to Defeating Terrorism, Bush Says. American Forces Press Service, Available at: http://www.defense.gov/News/NewsArticle.aspx?ID=18504 [Accessed: 20 Oct 2013].]

c. Other UN agencies

Other than the Security Council and the General Assembly, there are some bodies and agencies of the United Nations that also contribute to the counter-terrorism policies by providing expertise. These are the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC),[endnoteRef:79] the Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)[endnoteRef:80] and the Human Rights Council (UNHRC)[endnoteRef:81], preceded by the Commission on Human Rights, a former subsidiary body of ECOSOC. [79: UN.org. n.d. Economic and Social Council - ECOSOC - United Nations Action to Counter Terrorism. [online] Available at: http://www.un.org/en/terrorism/ecosoc.shtml [Accessed: 1 Nov 2013]] [80: UNODC.org. n.d. UNODC and terrorism prevention. [online] Available at: http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/terrorism/ [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].] [81: OHCHR.org. n.d. Special Rapporteur on counter-terrorism and human rights. [online] Available at: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Terrorism/Pages/SRTerrorismIndex.aspx [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].]

ECOSOC provided expertise on technical assistance for implementing the international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism by proposing comprehensive resolution texts and for strengthening international cooperation.[endnoteRef:82] It further functioned to include the frameworks of UNODC and the Centre for International Crime Prevention to the expertise provided.[endnoteRef:83] [82: Ibid.] [83: Ibid.]

UNODC provided expertise in the areas of crime prevention and criminal justice, rule of law, drug control, transnational organized crime, money-laundering, corruption and related international cooperation in criminal matters with operational field-level capacity.[endnoteRef:84] The Office further supported legislative incorporation and implementation of the universal legal regime against terrorism via its Terrorism Prevention Branch.[endnoteRef:85] [84: UNODC.org. The Role of UNODC in Terrorism Prevention. [online] Available at: http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/terrorism/UNODC_Role.html [Accessed: 20 Oct 2013].] [85: Ibid.]

In 2005, the Commission on Human Rights and UNHRC -as its successor- appointed a Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism.[endnoteRef:86] This contribution plays an important role, considering the coverage of the specialisation area of the UNHRC Rapporteur in the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy.[endnoteRef:87] The Special Rapporteur is mandated to make recommendations; provide advisory service and technical assistance; identify and promote good practices; gather information from concerned people and organisations via country visits; integrate a gender perspective during their term of mandate; develop a regular dialogue and encourage cooperation with governments and all relevant actors; including relevant UN bodies, agencies and programmes; and report regularly to the Human Rights Council and the General Assembly.[endnoteRef:88] [86: OHCHR.org. Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism. [online] Available at: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Terrorism/Pages/SRTerrorismIndex.aspx [Accessed: 20 Oct 2013].] [87: United Nations General Assembly. 1996. A/RES/51/210. Measures to eliminate international terrorism. [online] Available at: http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/51/a51r210.htm [Accessed: 12 Oct 2013].] [88: OHCHR.org. n.d. Special Rapporteur on counter-terrorism and human rights. [online] Available at: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Terrorism/Pages/SRTerrorismIndex.aspx [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].]

II. Inter-governmental organisations and regional cooperation

a. Europe

i. European Union

European Union (the Union, EU) is a supra-national organisation consisting of 28 member-states. It has been initiated with the purpose of creating political, economic, social and legal cohesion in the European continent.[endnoteRef:89] According to the related framework decision of the Council of the European Union, the Union is founded on the universal values of human dignity, liberty, equality and solidarity, respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms and is based on the principle of democracy and the principle of the rule of law, principles which are common to the Member States[endnoteRef:90] and therefore terrorism constitutes one of the most serious violations of those principles.[endnoteRef:91] [89: Europa.eu. 2013.EUROPA - How the EU works. [online] Available at: http://europa.eu/about-eu/index_en.htm [Accessed: 6 Nov 2013].] [90: Council of the European Union, Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on combating terrorism, Official Journal L 164 , 22/06/2002 P. 0003 0007. http://www.statewatch.org/news/2002/jul/frameterr622en00030007.pdf [Accessed: 17 Oct 2013].] [91: Ibid.]

The quality of terrorism to possibly affect multiple countries has made it necessary for the EU to have a counter-terrorism strategy.[endnoteRef:92] The Union has a counter-terrorism strategy since November 2005. [92: Khandekar, G. 2011. The EU as a Global Actor in Counter Terrorism. [e-book] http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/academy/content/pdf/participant-papers/eu/Gauri-Khandekar-The-EU-as-a-Global-Actor-in-Counter-Terrorism.pdf [Accessed: 17 Oct 2013].]

The European Union Counter-Terrorism Strategy is based on democracy, dialogue and good governance, so as to prevent radicalisation by tackling its roots. [endnoteRef:93] The reason why the Union specially deals with radicalisation is based on the fact that it considers radicalisation leads to acts of terrorism.[endnoteRef:94] [93: Europa.eu. n.d. Counter-terrorism strategy. [online] Available at: http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/justice_freedom_security/fight_against_terrorism/l33275_en.htm [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].] [94: European Commission's Expert Group on Violent Radicalisation. 2008.Radicalisation Processes Leading to Acts of Terrorism. [report].]

The Strategy is organised in four pillars: Prevention, Protection, Pursuit and Response.[endnoteRef:95] The Strategy, to this end; aims to combat radicalisation via further dialogue and promotion of democratic values of the Union; reduce the vulnerability of targets to attack with collective action for border security, transportation and other cross-border infrastructures; and pursue terrorists across borders and suppress the sources of financing of terrorist activities.[endnoteRef:96] [95: Ibid.] [96: Ibid.]

However, the Union still sees that the threat of terrorism remains high, despite the combined efforts of several institutions and states Union-wide and worldwide.[endnoteRef:97] [97: Ue.eu.int. 2013. Consilium - Fight against terrorism. [online] Available at: http://ue.eu.int/policies/fight-against-terrorism?lang=bh [Accessed: 17 Oct 2013].]

ii. Council of Europe

Council of Europe (CoE) is an international organisation consisting of 47 member-states. It has been initiated with the purpose of promoting cooperation among all countries of Europe in the areas of legislation, human rights, democratic development, the rule of law and cultural cooperation.

There are several decisions (such as resolutions, declarations, reports, recommendations, opinions) made by the organs of the Council of Europe. Just as the United Nations, the efforts were stepped up after the September 11 attacks that took place in the United States of America.[endnoteRef:98] Apart from the decisions, a Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism was signed by the members of the Council of Europe and some non-members, namely Canada, the Holy See, Japan, Mexico and the USA.[endnoteRef:99] [endnoteRef:100] The Convention is important in the counter-terrorism efforts of the Council and is aimed to strengthen both cooperative and national capacities.[endnoteRef:101] It aims to strengthen member States counter-terrorism capacities in two different ways: [endnoteRef:102] [98: Council of Europe. 2013. Terrorism. [online] Available at: http://hub.coe.int/what-we-do/rule-of-law/terrorism [Accessed: 17 Oct 2013].] [99: Conventions.coe.int. 2013. Council of Europe - Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism (CETS No. 196). [online] Available at: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/196.htm [Accessed: 17 Oct 2013].] [100: Conventions.coe.int. n.d. Council of Europe - CETS no. 196 - Renewal of Reservations related to the Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism. [online] Available at: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/196-1.htm#ART20 [Accessed: 31 Oct 2013].] [101: Conventions.coe.int. 2013. Council of Europe - Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism (CETS No. 196). [online] Available at: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/196.htm [Accessed: 17 Oct 2013].] [102: Conventions.coe.int. n.d.Council of Europe - Summary of the Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism (CETS No. 196). [online] Available at: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Summaries/Html/196.htm [Accessed: 5 Nov 2013].]

by establishing as criminal offences certain acts that may lead to the commission of terrorist offences, namely: public provocation, recruitment and training

by reinforcing co-operation on prevention both internally (national prevention policies), and internationally (modification of existing extradition and mutual assistance arrangements and additional means).

b. Africa and the Middle East

i. African Union

The attempts of the African Union regarding the counter-terrorism policies so far are: (1) Algiers Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism in 1999 (prepared by the Organisation of African Unity, the predecessor of the African Union), (2) Dakar Declaration against Terrorism in 2001 and (3) High-level intergovernmental meeting on the prevention of and combating terrorism in Africa and the Plan of Action of the meeting.

Algiers Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism in 1999 condemned all acts of terrorism while recognising the self-determination right.[endnoteRef:103] The Convention mostly concentrated on cooperation areas, possible legal provisions and legal assistance. [103: "OAU Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism". 1999. adopted in Algiers.]

Dakar Declaration against Terrorism in 2001 was adopted a month after the 9/11 attack.[endnoteRef:104] With the Declaration, the Union condemned the attack and expressed firm stance for cooperation among states against acts of terrorism, be it perpetrated by individuals, groups, or States.[endnoteRef:105] [104: "Dakar Declaration Against Terrorism". 2001. adopted in Dakar, 17th October.] [105: Ibid.]

In September 2002, a high-level meeting was convened in Algiers, Algeria by the African Union, on the prevention and combating of terrorism in Africa.[endnoteRef:106] The high-level meeting ended up with a Union-wise detailed counter-terrorism policy. The meeting summarised all the previous counter-terrorism efforts; the firm stance against terrorism, which constitutes the need for such a high-level meeting, was based on the Algiers Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism and the Dakar Declaration against Terrorism.[endnoteRef:107] The Plan of Action of the meeting covered many aspects that the member states require in both individual and collective counter-terrorism, namely police and border control, legislative and judicial measures possible amendments to the national laws and their implementation-, suppressing the financing of terrorism, exchange of information, establishing further coordination at regional, continental and international levels and the role of the Union and its organs.[endnoteRef:108] [106: "Report of the African Union High-Level Inter-Governmental Meeting on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism in Africa". 2002. report presented in African Union High-Level Inter-Governmental Meeting on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism in Africa, Algiers, 11th-14th September. Algiers.] [107: Ibid.] [108: Ibid.]

ii. League of Arab States

Interior ministers of the Arab states, following the rise of Islamic extremist violence in the aftermath of the Gulf War, began discussing ways to establish an anti-terrorism cooperation.[endnoteRef:109] However, the discussions ended up with a formal action in January 1996, after four years of discussion, despite the numerous meetings and reportedly examined several different recommendations.[endnoteRef:110] The first formal action was adopting a code of ethics wherein Arab states commit themselves to combat terrorism and abstain from participating or engaging in terrorist actions or offering asylum to the perpetrators of such acts.[endnoteRef:111] In August 1996, the ministers agreed on what the definition of terrorism does not include; they excluded armed struggles by peoples under foreign occupation to free their lands and realize their rights of self-determination[endnoteRef:112] from the definition, which they use as the basis of the use of violence against Israel.[endnoteRef:113] [109: Mann, H. 1998. Arab Anti-Terror Efforts:. [online] Available at: http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/arab-anti-terror-efforts-assessing-an-arab-league-initiative [Accessed: 18 Oct 2013].] [110: Ibid.] [111: Ibid.] [112: Ibid.] [113: Ibid.]

After two years of attempts for a solution, an accord to fight Terrorism and Extremism was adopted on April 22, 1998. The accord called for a strong stance against terrorism and cooperation among Arab states.[endnoteRef:114] [114: The Institute for Counter-Terrorism. 1998. Arab League States sign an accord to fight Terrorismand Extremism. [online] Available at: http://212.150.54.123/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid=29 [Accessed: 18 Oct 2013].]

On November 19, 2009, the Council of Justice Ministers decided to strengthen the existing cooperation in counter-terrorism.[endnoteRef:115] On March 28, 2010, the Council of the League gathered at the summit level and adopted a resolution on international terrorism and its suppression, which included a call for continuing dialogue and cooperation with the Security Council Counter Terrorism Committee.[endnoteRef:116] [115: Summary of the most important efforts made by the League of Arab States to prevent terrorists from obtaining weapons of mass destruction. n.d. [e-book] http://www.un.org/disarmament/WMD/SGReport_Terrorism/Docs%202010/1st%20Cttee%20-%20IO%20replies%20-%202010/League%20of%20Arab%20States%20-%20English%20%20-%20post.pdf [Accessed: 5 Nov 2013].] [116: Ibid.]

c. Asia

i. South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

Based on the Dhaka Summit in 1985 where the Heads of State or Government of the Member States of the SAARC recognized the seriousness of the problem of terrorism as it affects the security and stability of the region[endnoteRef:117] and the Bangalore Summit Declaration of 1986 where SAARC member states agreed on cooperating in terrorism-related policies,[endnoteRef:118] a Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism was produced. The Convention generally concentrates on cooperation and mutual assistance in suppression of terrorism. In 2004, SAARC member states adopted an additional protocol to strengthen the convention in the field of combating financing of terrorism, giving reference to the conventions and other related documents of the United Nations.[endnoteRef:119] [117: "SAARC Regional Convention on Suppression on Terrorism". 1987. convention adopted at Eleventh SAARC Summit, Kathmandu, 4th November. Kathmandu.] [118: Ibid.] [119: "Additional Protocol to the SAARC Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism ". 2004. protocol adopted at Twelfth SAARC Summit, Islamabad, 6th January. Islamabad.]

ii. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism (ACCT), signed in 2007 and completed its ratification process in 2013,[endnoteRef:120] serves as the framework for regional cooperation to counter, prevent and suppress terrorism and deepen counter-terrorism cooperation.[endnoteRef:121] [120: ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism Completes Ratification Process. 2013. ASEAN Secretariat News, Available at: http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-news/item/asean-convention-on-counter-terrorism-completes-ratification-process [Accessed: 20 Oct 2013].] [121: Ibid.]

With all ASEAN Member States aboard on the ACCT, ASEAN has taken another step in fulfilling the ASEAN Political and Security Blueprint[footnoteRef:7], and in developing a safer and more secure ASEAN for everyone.[endnoteRef:122] [7: This is the prototype of ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC); envisaging ASEAN to become a rules-based Community of shared values and norms; a cohesive, peaceful, stable and resilient region with shared responsibility for comprehensive security; as well as a dynamic and outward-looking region in an increasingly integrated and interdependent world. The Blueprint provides a timetable and a roadmap to establish APSC by the year 2015. (Reference: http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-political-security-community)] [122: ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism Completes Ratification Process. 2013. ASEAN Secretariat News, Available at: http://www.asean.org/news/asean-secretariat-news/item/asean-convention-on-counter-terrorism-completes-ratification-process [Accessed: 31 Oct 2013].]

The Convention reaffirmed that terrorism cannot and should not be associated with any religion, nationality, civilisation or ethnic group and stressed the importance of identifying the roots of terrorist incidents. It enabled cooperation in many areas from financing of terrorism to cross-border activities and called for establishment of new jurisdiction in parties to the Convention.

d. The Americas

Just as the other regional organisations, the Organisation of American States, having most of the states in the Americas as its members, including the United States of America, has a crucial role in counter-terrorism strategies of the continent. Members of OAS have developed comprehensive policies to work in cooperation towards combating terrorism.[endnoteRef:123] The Inter-American Convention against Terrorism adopted in 2002- seeks to prevent the financing of terrorist activities, strengthen border controls and increase cooperation among law enforcement authorities in different countries.[endnoteRef:124] [123: OAS.org. n.d. OAS :: Actions Against Terrorism. [online] Available at: http://www.oas.org/en/topics/terrorism.asp [Accessed: 31 Oct 2013].] [124: "AG/RES. 1840 (XXXII-O/02) Inter-American Convention Against Terrorism". 2002. convention adopted atSecond Plenary Session, 3rd June.]

The Convention included measures to prevent financing of terrorism and money laundering; cooperate on border controls; cooperate among law enforcement agencies and in legal areas; transfer people in custody; deny refugee and asylum-seeking status of those partook in terrorism-related activities. While cooperating in the mentioned fields, the Convention emphasised the necessity of non-discrimination and application of human rights and the rule of law.[endnoteRef:125] [125: "AG/RES. 1840 (XXXII-O/02) Inter-American Convention Against Terrorism". 2002. paper presented atSecond Plenary Session, 3rd June.]

Apart from the Convention which constitutes the basis of the counter-terrorism strategy of the Organisation, the Inter-American Committee against Terrorism has an active role operating projects on capacity building and technical assistance, in the fields of maritime security, aviation security, document security, immigration and customs, legislative assistance, countering financing of terrorism, cyber-security, security of tourism and international coordination and cooperation.[endnoteRef:126] [126: "Report on Activities of the Secretariat of the Inter-American Committee against Terrorism". 2012. report presented at Twelfth Regular Session of Inter-American Committee against Terrorism, Washington, D.C., 7th March. Washington, D.C.: Inter-American Committee against Terrorism Secretariat.]

D. CONCLUSION

From the Bibles Old Testament to the present day, terrorism has always existed in the lives of the humankind.[endnoteRef:127] Methods of it have altered, however some people considered violence and killing people as the best way to reach their ideals, be it individuals or states. [127: Laqueur, W. 2007. Terrorism: A Brief History. [online] Available at: http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/publication/2008/05/20080522172730srenod0.6634027.html#axzz2jhqiOV8U [Accessed: 4 Nov 2013].]

As claimed by specialists, terrorism is not something to be stopped only with one single action, which is mostly interpreted as military action or ignorance. As George W. Bush, former president of the United States, stated, terrorism is not created by fighting the terrorists, but is invited by ignoring them.[endnoteRef:128] Jason Burkes a British journalist- example on al-Qaeda can be generalised: It is required to recognise that widespread terrorist organisations represent ideologies, not organisations. There is no point in talking about masterminds or hunting for a global headquarters. There are none.[endnoteRef:129] As a successful example in the near future, it is effective in the counter-terrorism policies to mix 'hard' coercive measures, (), with a 'soft' political strategy that undercuts the legitimacy of the militants' claims[endnoteRef:130] [128: Gilmore, G. 2005. Staying on Offense Key to Defeating Terrorism, Bush Says. American Forces Press Service, Available at: http://www.defense.gov/News/NewsArticle.aspx?ID=18504 [Accessed: 20 Oct 2013].] [129: Burke, J. 2005. Seven ways to stop the terror. The Observer, Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2005/aug/07/july7.terrorism1 [Accessed: 20 Oct 2013]. The original statement is We need to recognise that 'al-Qaeda' is an ideology, not an organisation. There is no point in talking about masterminds or hunting for a global headquarters. There are none.] [130: Ibid.

]

Intergovernmental organisations, especially the United Nations, have been working on the combating of terrorism for a long period, with examining all the aspects from ensuring the rule of law and the human rights to its financing. The United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy can be considered a great success considering its extent. However, violation generated by terrorism still exists in the daily agenda of some people, be it perpetrated by a state or a terrorist entity. Bearing in mind the legal status of the Strategy, which is basically a General Assembly resolution, it is important to help member states and regional or other political organisations enhance their individual (local) and collective (regional) capacity towards their fight against terrorism.

Everyones worried about stopping terrorism. Well, theres really an easy way: Stop participating in it. Noam Chomsky

E. POINTS THAT A RESOLUTION SHOULD COVER

Below are listed the points that are required to be covered in any proposed draft resolution and the final resolution of the committee:

General stance of the General Assembly First Committee on international terrorism

Role of local and regional capacities in combating terrorism and the implementation of the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, measures to advance local and regional capacities

Reasons for the inefficiency of local-, regional- and international-level counter-terrorism policies

Areas the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy and the strategy papers of states and intergovernmental organisations lack

Recommendations of the Committee to the related organs of the United Nations and to other international/supranational bodies

Recommendations for ensuring the successful implementation of the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy in general

Bibliography