BASICS OF HYDROLOGY OF INDIA

Dr. B. S. Murty

Professor

Department of Civil Engineering

IIT Madras

bsm@iitm.ac.in

1. Shard K. Jain, P. K. Agarwal, V. P. Singh:

Hydrology and Water Resources of India, Springer, 22007

2. Peter Fiener: Lecture Notes on Sustainable River Basin Management

3. Ministry of Water Resources (GoI): Central Groundwater Board

4. Ministry of Water Resources (GoI): Central Water Commission

5. K. Subramanya: Engineering Hydrology, Tat McGraw Hill, 2013

Sources:

Shnakar et al., 2011, India’s Groundwater Challenge; Economic & Political Weekly

Basic Concepts - Storages & fluxes

Major storages and their amounts

Atmosphere

Soil moisture Rivers

Lakes OceansGround water

Vegetation

fluxes

1338 * 106 km³ =

2635 m

0.129 *106 km³ = 0.025 m

23.4*106 km³ = 46 m

0.17*106 km³ = 0.03 m 0.19*106 km³ = 0.4 m

1.12*103 km³ =

0.002 m

Heights given a uniform distribution over the whole earth surface

(Datasource: Baumgartner and Liebscher (1996))Credit: Fiener

Basic Concepts - Storages & fluxes

(modified after Dingman, 2002)

EvapotranspirationC

atc

hm

en

t

Perkolation

Runoff

Interception

Snowpack

Surface detention

Soil moisture

GroundwaterRivers and Lakes

Vegetation

Evaporation

Transpiration

Evaporation

Evaporation

SnowfallRain

InfiltrationSurface runoff

SnowmeltEnergy

Precipitation

Credit: Fiener

Runoff generation, concentration & stream flow

Credit: Fiener

Conservation of mass

Amount in - amount out = change in storage

t

S

t

Q

t

I

∆∆=

∆−

∆For each time step:

SQI ∆=−Integrated over time:

� fundament of water balance equation

I = Inflow [m³]

Q = Outflow [m³]

∆S = Storage change [m³]

∆t = Change in time [s]

(1)

(2)

Credit: Fiener

Conservation of mass

Conceptual diagram of a system.

i is input rate, q is output rate and S is storage (Dingman, 2002)Credit: Fiener

Conservation of energy

Amount in - amount out = change in storage

t

G

t

S

t

L

t

R

t

R hhud

∆∆=

∆±

∆±

∆−

∆

� used particularly in evaporation analyses

Rd = downward radiation [W/m²]

Ru = upward radiation [W/m²]

Lh = Latent heat flux [W/m²]

Sh = Sensible heat flux [W/m²]

∆G = Change in heat storage (e.g. in ground) ~

change in temperature

(3)

Credit: Fiener

Water balance equations

SGETQGP outin ∆=++−+ )(

P = precipitation (liquid and solid)

Gin = groundwater inflow (liquid)

Q = stream outflow (liquid)

ET = evapotranspiration (vapor)

Gout = groundwater outflow (liquid)

∆S = change in all forms of storage (liquid and solid)

(4)

Credit: Fiener

Water Balance for India

Total Precipitation = 4000 km3

Immediate loss to atmosphere = 700 km3

Infiltration into the ground = 2150 km3

Surface Runoff = 1150 km3

Total water Resources = 1953 km3

62% in Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna

Remaining in the rest 23 basins

Utilizable water resources = 1122 km3

Credit: Jain et al.

Source: India-WRIS wiki

Source: India-WRIS wiki

Sl. No Basin Code Basin Name Area (sq.km)

1 B1 Indus (Up to border) 321289

2 B2a Ganga 861452

3 B2b Brahmaputra 194413

4 B2c Barak and others 41723

5 B3 Godavari 312812

6 B4 Krishna 258948

7 B5 Cauvery 81155

8 B6 Pennar 55213

9 B7East flowing rivers between Mahanadi and Pennar

86643

10 B8East flowing rivers between Pennar and Kanyakumari

100139

11 B9 Mahanadi 141589

12 B10Brahmani and Baitarni

51822

Credit: www.gangapedia.in

Credit: Fiener et al.

Climate:

Temperature varies from 47 C to -40 C

Rainfall: 11,000 mm to Nil

Dictated by monsoons

MAI = moisture Availability Index =

75% of probable rainfall / Reference crop evapotranspiration

Based on MAI: Most places in India are Arid during Oct - May

Source: FAO/EC/ISRIC, 2003

19

S. Feng and Q. Fu: Expansion of global dry lands under a warming climate, (Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 10081–10094, 2013)

World is getting dryer ??

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, IIT-MADRAS

Not to scale

Hindu, February 26, 2015

EPHEMERAL STREAMS

21

EPHEMERAL CHANNEL

FLASH FLOODS

FLOOD ROUTING

TRANSMISSION LOSSES

MANAGEMENT OF FLASH FLOODS

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, IIT-MADRAS

Picture source : USGS 2006

22

MOVEMENT OF FLOOD FLOW IN DRY CHANNEL BED

MANAGING GROUNDWATER RECHARGE USING FLOOD WATER

Infil

trat

ion

rate

Time

Steady state

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, IIT-MADRAS

Not to scale

Spatial and temporal variability

� Example - precipitation

Spatial variability

(Fiener et al. 2009)

0 40 80 120 160

-0.8

-0.4

0

0.4

0.8

1.2Event start: 26.08.96, 18:30Stations' distance: 583 m

A02 - A08

Event 116

Diff

eren

ces

inra

inin

tens

ity[m

mm

in-1

]

Time since start of event [min]

Temporal variability

Credit: Fiener

Credit: Fiener

Major Mountain Ranges in India

Credit: Jain et al.

UNESCO, 1974 Credit: Subramanya

UNESCO, 1974Normal dates of withdrawal of monsoon

October – November:

Cyclones

Mid-December:

Extra tropical disturbances

from west cause

precipitation in J&K

Summer:

Some convective rainfall

A fewcyclones in Bay of Bengal

Credit: Subramanya

IMD, Govt. of IndiaSW Monsoon Rainfall (cm) Credit: Subramanya

Annual Precipitation = 4000 km3

Maximum rainfall = 1100 cm

104 cm in a day

Rainy day > 2.5 mm of rain

Rainy days: 20 in NW

> 180 NE

140 in west cost

40 to 60 central

Precipitation – India

basic aspects – point measur.– interpolation - areal measur. – variation space/time – recurrence intervals

Ma

p:

Sta

tio

n d

ata

: h

ttp

://w

ww

.kli

ma

dia

gra

mm

e.d

e;

ave

rag

e1

96

1-1

99

0)

Credit: Fiener

Monsoon-driven precipitation in India - summer

(AGUADO & BURT 2004)

July

Credit: Fiener

Monsoon-driven precipitation in India - winter

(AGUADO & BURT 2004)

January

January

Equator

Credit: Fiener

INTENSITY – DURATION - FRQUENCY

( )n

a

bt

KTi

+=

i= intensity in cm/h

T = return period in years

T = Storm duration in hours

K,b,a and n = empirical constants

Location K a b n

Agra 4.911 0.167 0.25 0.629

New Delhi 5.208 0.157 0.5 1.107

Nagpur 11.45 0.156 1.25 1.032

Chennai 6.126 0.166 0.5 0.803

Bangalore 6.275 0.126 0.5 1.128

Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Dehradun

Isopluvial Map: 50 year 24 hour duration: IMD Credit: Subramanya

Credit: Jain et al.

Credit: Jain et al.

Credit: Jain et al.

Dhar & Kulkarni, 1974

Hershfield Method

Credit: Jain et al.

Annual PET

Spatial variability

of mean annual

potential evaporation

in India

http://www.nih.ernet.in/rbis/india_information

/evaporation.htmCredit: Fiener

Credit: Fiener

Soil profile horizons - summary

Hillel (1998)

World soils

Soils in India

FAO Word Soil Map

Nitisol

Vertisol

CAMBISOLSweakly to moderately

developed soils

LUVISOLSsoils with subsurface

accumulation of high activity

clays and high base saturation

Soils with subsurface

accumulation of low

activity clays and high

base saturation

Lixisol

Credit: Fiener

A Cambisol in the FAO World Reference Base for

Soil Resources is a soil with a beginning of soil

formation. The horizon differentiation is weak.

This is evident from weak, mostly brownish

discolouration and/or structure formation in the

soil profile.[1]

Cambisols are developed in medium and fine-

textured materials derived from a wide range of

rocks, mostly in alluvial, colluvial and aeolian

deposits.

Most of these soils make good agricultural land

and are intensively used. Cambisols in temperate

climates are among the most productive soils on

earth.

Cambisol (FAO); Braunerde (German Taxonomy)

II.

Na

tura

l wa

ter

reso

urc

es

Credit: Fiener

Lixisol develop on old landscapes in a tropical climate with a

pronounced dry season. Their age and mineralogy have led to low

levels of plant nutrients and a high erodibility, making agriculture

possible only with frequent fertilizer applications, minimum tillage,

and careful erosion control. Perennial crops are thus more suitable for

these soils than root or tuber crops. They occupy just under 3.5

percent of the continental land area on Earth, mainly in east-central

Brazil, India, and West Africa.

Lixisols are defined by the presence of a subsurface layer of

accumulated kaolinitic clays, where at least half of the readily

displaceable ions are calcium, magnesium, sodium, or potassium, but

they are also identified by the absence of an extensively leached layer

below the surface horizon (uppermost layer). They are related to the

Oxisol order of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy. Related FAO soil groups

originating in tropical climates and also containing layers with clay

accumulations are Acrisols and Nitisols.

From pint of view of Agriculture

Credit: Jain et al.

Indo-Gangetic Alluvium:

Deposited by the numerous tributaries of Indus, Ganga and

Brahmaputra

Black Cotton Soils

Typical soil of Deccan trap (mAharashtra, MP, Karnataka

High Fertility

Fine grained, dark, high proportion of Ca and Mg

Poor in phosphorous, nitrogen and OM

Red Soils

A large part of peninsular India

Redness is due to general diffusion of iron (not high proportion)

Uplands: soils are poor, thin, gravelly, light colored

Plains: Fertile, deep and dark

Laterites

Produced by atmospheric weathering of several types of rocks

Found in areas with intermittent occurrence of moist climate

Very poor in lime and magnesia

Credit: Jain et al.

Agro-climatic regions

Interactions between ground water and surface runoff (semi-arid climate)

Interactions between ground water and surface runoff (semi-arid climate)

Exemplary (monsoon) flow regimes of Indian

rivers (data from Jain et al. 2007)

Runoff regimes India

(Jain et al. 2007)

II.

Na

tura

l wa

ter

reso

urc

es

•India receives 75% of fresh water during monsoon months

•Other months, depends on groundwater or stored water

•Uneven distribution of rains in different months

•Total annual precipitation: 4000 km3

•Evaporation & loss to atmosphere: 700 km3

•Retained on land surface: 1150 km3

•Infiltration into soil: 2150 km3

•Retained in soil: 1650 km3

•Recharge to groundwater: 500 km3

Only 500 km3 percolate down to the ground water deposits.

A large amount of fresh water applied to agricultural fields (about 120 km3) moves down to ground water table

About 50 km3 of surface flow also ends up as ground water.

Therefore, a total of about 670 km3 of fresh water enters the ground water annually.

Shnakar et al., 2011, India’s Groundwater Challenge; Economic & Political Weekly

Shnakar et al., 2011, India’s Groundwater Challenge; Economic & Political Weekly

Shnakar et al., 2011, India’s Groundwater Challenge; Economic & Political Weekly

Shnakar et al., 2011, India’s Groundwater Challenge; Economic & Political Weekly

Shnakar et al., 2011, India’s Groundwater Challenge; Economic & Political Weekly

Shnakar et al., 2011, India’s Groundwater Challenge; Economic & Political Weekly

Shnakar et al., 2011, India’s Groundwater Challenge; Economic & Political Weekly

Source: Vijayashankar et al. 2011

Credit: www.gangapedia.in

Credit: Fiener et al.

Hindu, February 26, 2015

The shastras warn that deep wells are foolish to

dig. . . At eight arm-lengths depth, the well is

manohar, or beautiful. At thirteen arm-lengths, it

becomes rudrakupa, a well that causes fear.

Morna Livingston, Steps to Water

Calcaric Regosol (FAO); Renzina (German Taxonomy)

(Ku

nze

et

al.

19

94

)

II.

Na

tura

l wa

ter

reso

urc

es

Credit: Fiener

Luvisol (FAO); Parabraunerde auf Löss (German Taxonomy)

(Ku

nze

et

al.

19

94

)

II.

Na

tura

l wa

ter

reso

urc

es

Credit: Fiener

Podsol (FAO); Podsol (German Taxonomy)

Segeberger Forst, Kreis Segeberg

Aeh

Bh

O

Bs

Bv

Cv

Ae

II.

Na

tura

l wa

ter

reso

urc

es

Chernozem (Russia) / Phaeozem (EU) (FAO)

Schwarzerde

(German Taxonomy)(K

un

ze e

t a

l. 1

99

4)

II.

Na

tura

l wa

ter

reso

urc

es

Credit: Fiener

Rhodic Nitisol (FAO)

©ISRIC, NL

Ah

Bt

BtC

CBt

II.

Na

tura

l wa

ter

reso

urc

es

Credit: Fiener

Calcic Vertisol (FAO)

(Zech & Hintermaier-Erhard, 2002)

Ah

BA

B

BkC

C

II.

Na

tura

l wa

ter

reso

urc

es

Planosol(FA

O); P

seudogley(G

erman Taxonom

y)

(Kunze et al. 1994)

II. Natural water resources

Gleysol(FA

O); G

ley(G

erman Taxonom

y)

(Kunze et al. 1994)

II. Natural water resources

Geology of Tamil Nadu

Ground water India