Cultural

MUSEUMS

By BRUNO MOLAJOLI

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

Whenever it is proposed to build a museum-whether large or small-there is usually onepreliminary matter to be settled : the choice of asite . Where several possibilities are available,thedrawbacks and advantages of each must becarefully weighed.

Should the site be central, or on the out-skirts of the town? This appears to be the mostusual dilemma. Until 20 or 30 years ago therewas a preference for the center of a town, withits better transport facilities . But as the use andspeed of public and private transport have grad-ually increased and it has become easier to getfrom one point to another, it has been realizedthat the convenience of a central situation for amuseum is outweighed by the many and sub-stantial advantages of a less central position.These include a greater choice and easier ac-quisition of land (at lower cost), less fatiguefrom the noise of traffic-a growing and al-ready very real problem-and an atmosphereless laden with dust and with gases whichwhen not poisonous are, to say the least, un-pleasant .A museum should always be readily acces-

sible from all parts of the town by public trans-port and, if possible, be within walking dis-tance as well, and must be within easy reach ofschools, colleges, university, and libraries . Asa matter of fact, all these institutions have simi-lar problems and stand equally in need of topo-graphical coordination ; it would be advisable totake this into account at the town-planningstage, rather than deal with each case sepa-rately, as it arises, a method which may involvethe sacrifice or neglect of many desiderata .Museums tend nowadays to be regarded

more and more as "cultural centers." It musttherefore be remembered that as such they arevisited not only by students but by people withdifferent backgrounds who, if a museum is nearenough and easy to reach, may come to it, evenwith little time to spare, in search of instructiverecreation .Though there is still a prejudice against the

building of museums in parks or gardens-onthe plea that this makes them more difficult toreach and disturbs the tranquillity of suchplaces-these are becoming very popular asthe sites of new museums. They offer consider-able advantages-a wider choice of detachedpositions, thus reducing the risk of fire ; a rela-tive degree of protection from dust, noise, vi-brations, exhaust gases from motor engines orfactories, smoke from the chimneys ofhouses and from municipal heating plants, thesulphur content of which is always harmful toworks of art.A belt of trees surrounding the museum

building serves as an effective natural filter fordust and for the chemical discharges that pol-lute the air of a modern industrial town ; it alsohelps to stabilize the humidity of the atmo-sphere, to which paintings and period furnitureare often sensitive . It is said that large trees, ifunduly close to the building, cut off or deflectthe light and thus diminish or alter its effect

Museums, The Organization of Museums, UNESCO,Place de Fontenoy, Paris, 1967,

on color; but this disadvantage would appear tobe unimportant, or in any case easy to over-come .The surrounding land may offer space for an

annex, built at a suitable distance from themuseum itself, to house various types of equip-ment and services (heating and electricity,repair shop, garage, etc.), or the stores re-quired for them (wood, textile materials, fueloils, etc .), which it would be unsafe or, forsome reason, inconvenient to stock in the mainbuilding .Moreover, space will always be available

-at least in theory-for future expansion,either by enlargement of the original buildingor by the construction of connected annexes ;this is particularly important if the first projecthas to be restricted in scale for reasons which,though unavoidable, are likely to be transitory .

The beauty of a museum is considerably en-hanced if it is surrounded by a garden which, ifthe local climate is propitious, can be used toadvantage for the display of certain types ofexhibit, such as ancient or modern sculpture,archaeological or architectural fragments, etc.

Part of the surrounding grounds may alsoprovide space for a car park .The planning of a museum is an outstanding

example of the need not only for preliminaryand specific agreements but for close and un-interrupted collaboration between the architectand his employer .

There is no such thing as a museum plannedin the abstract, suitable for all cases and cir-cumstances . On the contrary, every case hasits own conditions, requirements, characteris-tics, purposes, and problems, the assessmentof which is primarily the task of the museumdirector . It is for him to provide the architectwith an exact description of the result to beaimed at and of the preliminary steps to betaken, and he must be prepared to share inevery successive phase of the work-failingwhich the finished building may fall short insome respects of the many and complex techni-cal and functional demands which e modernmuseum must satisfy .

Another point to be considered is whetherthe new building is to house an entirely newmuseum (whose contents have yet to be as-sembled) or to afford a permanent home for anexisting collection . In the first case we have theadvantage of a free approach to the problemand can decide on an ideal form for the muse-um ; but with the attendant drawback of be-ginning our work in the abstract, on the basisof entirely vague and theoretical assumptionswhich future developments will probably notconfirm . In the second case we must take carenot to go to the opposite extreme by designinga building too precisely adapted to the qualityand quantity of the works or collections whichform the nucleus of the museum ; future needsand possibilities of development should alwaysbe foreseen and provision made for them .

All this is part of the director's responsi-bility .Due regard should also be given to the spe-

cial character of the new museum-the qualityit already possesses and by which it is in futureto be distinguished-in relation to its collec-tions. This may, of course, be of several kinds(artistic, archaeological, technical, scientific,

etc.) and respond to various needs (cultural,general or local permanence or interchange-ability, uniformity of the exhibits or groupdisplay, etc.) .

Naturally, every type of collection, everykind of material, every situation has its owngeneral and individual requirements whichwill considerably influence the structure of thebuilding and the form and size of the exhibi-tion rooms and related services . It is no useattempting to present a series of archaeologicalor ethnographical exhibits, whose interest ischiefly documentary, in the space and sur-roundings that would be appropriate to a col-lection of works of art, paintings, or sculptureof great aesthetic importance, or to apply thesame standards to a museum arranged chrono-logically and one whose exhibits are classifiedin artistic or scientific categories ; nor in it pos-sible to display a collection of small works ofart, such as jewelry, small bronzes, medallions,miniatures, etc., in rooms of the size needed forlarge objects of less meticulous workmanship,which require to be seen as a whole and from acertain distance .

Even a picture gallery cannot be designed insuch a way as to serve equally well for the exhi-bition of old pictures and modern ones : for,apart from the fact that aesthetic considera-tions recommend different settings for the twogroups, it is obvious that a gallery of oldpaintings is comparatively "stabilized," where-as the appearance of a modern gallery is tosome extent "transitory," owing to the greaterease and frequency with which additions,changes, and rearrangements can be mode, Inthe letter case, therefore, not only the architec-tural features of the building but also its actualconstruction must be planned with a view tofacilitating the rapid displacement and change-over of exhibits . The transport of heavy statues,the adaptation of space and the use of thesources of light in the way and on the scalemost appropriate for particular works of art,should be taken into account as well as the pos-sibility either of grouping or of displaying themsingly, according to the importance and empha-sis to be attributed to them .A museum must be planned not only in rela-

tion to its purpose end to the quality and typeof its exhibits, but also with regard to certaineconomic and social considerations . For in-stance, if it is to be the only institution in thetown which is suitable for a number of culturalpurposes (theatrical performances, lectures,concerts, exhibitions, meetings, courses ofinstruction, etc.) it may be desirable to take ac-count in the initial calculations of the financialresources on which it will be able to rely, thenature of the local population, the trend of de-velopment of that population as revealed bystatistics, and the proportion of the populationwhich is interested in each of the museum's ac-tivities .

In fact, the word "museum" covers a widerange of possibilities, and the architect com-missioned to design one must make clear-tohimself first of all-not only the specific char-acter of the museum he is to build but the po-tential subsidiary developments and relatedpurposes which can be sensed and foreseen inaddition to the dominant theme.The future may see substantial changes in

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MUSEUMS

our present conception of museums. If thearchitect who designs one allows in his planfor easy adaptation to now fashions, new de-velopments, new practical and aesthetic possi.bilities, his work will be all the sounder andmore enduring . A museum is not like an exhibi-tion, to be broken up after a short time andbrought together later in an entirely differentform . There should be nothing "ephemeral" inits character or appearance, even where thepossibility of changes or temporary arrange-ments is to be contemplated .

These considerations should be borne inmind when the architectural plans for thebuilding are drawn up .

According to a prejudice which, thoughgradually dying, is still fairly common, a muse-um building should be imposing in appearance,solemn, and monumental . The worst of it isthat this effect is often sought through theadoption of an archaic style of architecture . Weare all acquainted with deplorable instances ofnew buildings constructed in imitation of theantique; they produce a markedly antihistoricslimpression, just because they were inspired bya false view of history . Another outmoded prej-udice is that which demands s "classical"setting for ancient works of art, as though theirvenerable dignity would suffer and their aes-thetic value be diminished if they were placedin modern surroundings.But though the style of the building should

be frankly contemporary and governed by thecreative imagination of its designer, architec-tural interest must not be an and in itself butshould be subordinated to the purpose in view .In other words we must not devote our entireeffort to designing rooms which will be archi-tecturally pleasing ; it is at least equally impor-tant that attention be concentrated on theworks exhibited, that their miss an valour beensured and their predominance established. Amuseum in which the works of art were rele-gated to the background and used to "com-plete" a pretentious architectural scheme,could not be regarded as successful ; butneither could a museum which went to theother extreme, where the construction wassubordinated to cold, mechanically functionalconsiderations so that no spatial relationshipcould be created between the works of art andother exhibits-a museum with a completelyimpersonal atmosphere .

The ideal would seem to lie somewherebetween these two extremes-the aim being toallow for that sense of proportion which shouldalways be in evidence when a museum isplanned, to ensure that the visitor will findthere the friendly, welcoming atmosphere, theattractive and convenient features that ha en-joys in his own house.

It is the difficult but essential task of thearchitect, no less then of the director of a muse-um, to bring the place into conformity with thementality and customs of every citizen of what-ever rank and standard of education. Muchwill depend on the level of taste of both men, ontheir human qualities of sympathy and sensibil-ity, which must go hand in hand with theirprofessional abilities and which cannot beprompted or taught.

PLANS FOR SMALL MUSEUMS

The foregoing remarks apply to every new mu-seum, whatever its size . We shall now considermore particularly the principles and character-istics on which the planning and constructionof small museums should be based.

By "smell museum" we understand any in-

stitution whose program and finances are re-stricted so that, at least at its inception, thepremises built for it will be of limited size, inmost cases only one story high .

It is not so easy to determine precisely withinwhat limits the idea of the "little museum'' isto be confined ; for while it may, at its smallest,consist of one room, it may on the other handbe of an appreciable extent, though still toosmall to be properly described as a medium-sized or large museum .For the present purpose it may be assumed

that the "small museum" will not consist ofmore than 10 to 12 medium-sized exhibitionrooms (16 X 24 sq ft) in addition to its otherservices .A new museum, even an this small stale,

cannot function efficiently unless it respectsthe general principles of museogrephy and thespecial possibilities for applying them whichare provided by the particular circumstancesgoverning its construction .

There are certain mussographical considera-tions which must have a decisive influence onthe structure of the building, for instance, onthe arrangement of the rooms or the type ofroof chosen, and which are therefore of techni-cal importance in the construction .Consequently, the successful planning of a

museum entails the well-considered choiceand unerring application of these decidingprinciples, whose chief theoretical and piacti-calaspectsIshall nowbrieflydescribe .

Natural Lighting

This is one of the subjects mostkeenly discussed by museum authorities, andis, indeed, of outstanding Importance . It wasbelieved at one time that electric light, beingeasy to switch on, adaptable and unvarying inits effects and able to give full value to architec-tural features, might provide not merely analternative to the use of daylight in museums,but a substitute for It . But experience hasforced us to recognize that-especially whererunning expenses have to be

considered-day-light is still the bast means of lighting a muse-um, despite the variations and difficultieswhich characterize it at different seasons andin different places . The building should there-fore be so planned as to make the best use ofthis source of light, even if certain other struc-tural features have to be sacrificed as a result .

Daylight may coma from above or from theside . In the former case suitable skylights willbe provided in the ceilings of the exhibitionrooms. In the letter case, one or more wallswill be pierced by windows, the height andwidth of which must be decided according toindividual requirements (see Fig. 1a-j.).

Lighting from Above

This type of lighting, some-times called overhead lighting (I dislike thisterm, which seems too restrictive, ignoring thepossibility of directing the light from above atany desirable angle), has long been favored bythe designers of museums, for it presents cer-tain obvious advantages .

1 . A freer and steadier supply of light, lessliable to be affected by the different aspects ofthe various rooms in the building and by anylateral obstacles (other buildings, trees, etc.)which might tend, by causing refraction or bycasting shadows, to alter the quantity or qualityof the light itself .

2. The possibility of regulating the amountof light cast on the pictures or other exhibitsand of securing full and uniform lighting, givinggood visibility with a minimum of reflection ordistortion .

3. The saving of wallspace, which thus re-mains available for exhibits .

4. The maximum latitude in planning spaceinside the building, which can be divided with-out requiring courtyards or light shafts .5. The facilitation of security measures,

owing to fewer openings in the outside walls.

Compared with these advantages, the draw-backs seem trifling and can in any case be re-duced or overcome by suitable technical andstructural measures. They are:

1 . The excess of radiating light, or of dif-fused light interspersed with irregular rays .2. The disadvantages inseparable from any

system of skylights (increased weight of theroof or coiling supports ; liability to becomecoated with dirt ; risk of panes being broken ;danger of rainwater infiltration ; condensationof moisture ; admission of sun rays ; irradia-tion and dispersion of heat, etc.) .3. The monotony of the lighting, and oppres-

sive claustrophobic effect produced on visitorscalled upon to walk through a long successionof rooms lit from above.

4. The greater complexity of the architec-tural and technical problems to be solved inproviding a roof which, while adopted to thisform of lighting, will effectively serve its vari-ous purposes (problems relating to weather-proof qualities, heating, maintenance, cleaning,security, etc.) .Lateral Lighting

This is provided either by ordi-nary windows of various shapes and sizes,placed at suitable intervals in the walls, or bycontinuous openings ; both windows andopenings may be placed either at a level atwhich people can see out of them or in theupper part of the wall .The solution adopted will be determined by

the type of museum and the nature of its exhib-its, an the advantages end disadvantages varyfrom one to another.Windows at the usual level, whether separate

or continuous, have one serious drawback, inthat the wall in which they are placed is ren-dered useless and the opposite wall practicallyuseless, because showcases, paintings, andany other object with a smooth reflecting sur-face, if placed against the wall facing thesource of light, will inevitably cause an inter-play of reflections which impedes visibility.These windows will, however, shed full andagreeable light an exhibits placed against theother walls and in the center of the room at acorrect angle to the source of light .

Advocates of lateral lighting point out thatthis is particularly successful in bringing outthe plastic and luminous qualities of paintingsand sculpture created in past centuries, whenartists usually worked by such light .

All this must be considered in conjunctionwith the proper use of the floor space, theshape, arrangement, and sequence of the dif-ferent rooms, their size and depth in relation tothe outer walls-the aim being to make themost of the sources of light and to obtain thegreatest possible uniformity of lightingthroughout each room .A definite practical advantage is, however,

that of rendering possible the utmost simplicityand economy in the style of building, permittingthe adoption of the ordinary, nontransparentroofing (flat or sloped) customary in the dis-trict, and providing, thanks to the side win-dows, a convenient end simple method of regu-lating ventilation and temperature in museumswhich cannot afford expensive air-condi-tioning apparatus.Another advantage of windows placed at the

ordinary level is that some of them can befitted with transparent glass, allowing pleasantviews of the countryside, gardens, or architec-turally interesting courtyards . This provides a

Fig . 1

Different methods of admitting natural light from above . (a) Cross section . (b) to (h) Cross section and viewfrom above . (i) and (i) Cross section .

diversion, resting the visitor's eyes and re-freshing his mind .

For this purpose it may be wise, even whereoverhead lighting is adopted, to arrange a fewlateral openings for the passing visitor .High-placed windows, especially if they oc-

cupy more than one wall, provide more light,more closely resembling that supplied by sky-lights, and leave all four walls free for exhibits :but as they must be placed at a considerableheight, if visitors are not to be dazzled, therooms must be comparatively large and theceilings lofty . This means that considerablestretches of wall will be left blank, and buildingexpenses will increase owing to the larger sizeof the rooms .The tendency nowadays is to abandon uni-

form lighting in favor of light concentrated onthe walls and on individual exhibits or groupsof exhibits, which are thus rendered more con-spicuous and more likely to attract the visitor'sattention . Consequently, instead of lighting thewhole room, it is found preferable to light theshowcases from within, either by artificiallighting or by backing them with frosted glasswhich admits daylight from outside .

This is a possibility which the architect of asmall museum can bear in mind, making use ofit in special cases and for objects (glass, ce-ramics, enamels, etc .) whose effect can beheightened by such lighting . But it entailsspecial structural features which may compli-cate the general budget .Moreover, if the lighting system is too rigid,

too definitely planned to suit a particularsetting and to establish certain relationshipsbetween that setting and the exhibits, it willform an impediment by imposing a certain sta-bility, tending to reduce the museum to thestatic condition from which modern institu-tions are striving to emerge-the present-daybeing that a museum should make a lively, dy-namic impression .

It therefore seems preferable, especially insmall museums, to choose an intermediate sys-tem which can be adapted to varying needs andnecessary changes, even if it thus becomesmore difficult to achieve ideal results .

Utilization and Division of Space

In designing a mu-seum the architect will also be decisively in-

Cultural

MUSEUMS

Cultural

MUSEUMS

Fig . 2

(a) to (d) Floor plans for the location of doors in relation to the use of space . (e) 1 -Traditional locationof doors . 2 to 8 - Secondary doors . 9 to 15- Polygonal enclosures .

fluenced by the way in which it is intended toutilize and divide the space to be devoted to thedisplays . This, too, is of course closely con-nected with the question of lighting, which wehave already discussed .The modern tendency is to create large un-

broken spaces, which can then be divided up bymovable partitions or lightweight structures, tobe grouped or displaced as required .The traditional system is the contrary one of

dividing the space, by means of permanentwalls, into rooms of various sizes, which maybe either communicating or independent (con-nected, in the letter case, by passages or sidegalleries) (see Fig . 2a-e) .A small museum may do well to adopt an

intermediate system with a succession of av-erage-sized rooms (for the display of perma-nent collections whose contents will notchange, such as those received through be-quests, donations, etc .) and one or more largerooms which can be variously divided up whenrequired by movable partitions or light struc-tures .The structure of the building and, with it,

the interior and exterior technical features,

will vary according to the purpose for which itis intended . Requirements and costs will bedifferent in each separate case, for it is evidentthat the larger the surface to be roofed in onespan without intermediate supports, thegreater the technical problem and the cost ofthe roof . Furthermore, the architect's calcula-tions for the various features of a coordinatedproject (plan, circulation, lighting, etc .) willnot be the same if the project relates to rigidconstruction subdivided by permanent wells,or to flexible construction, adjusted to thechanges periodically effected in the museum .

Museum Services Before considering the plan-ning of the museum it is essential to determinethe size and location of the various services .In other words, we must decide how muchspace can end should be allocated for sub-sidiary activities, or for those necessary to thefunctioning of the museum in its relationshipwith the public (offices, rooms for meetingsand lectures, library, documentation service)on the same floor as the exhibition rooms,end which services and technical plant (heatingand electrical apparatus, storerooms, work-

shops, garage, etc .) can be housed in the base-ment or, if possible, in special outlying build-ings to be built as annexes, at a convenientdistance from the main building .

It should be remembered that the usualcustom is to set aside for these purposes enarea which may be as much as 50 percent ofthe total space available. In small museumsthis proportion may be reduced . But the factremains that two conflicting needs have to bereconciled : on the one hand there must beeasy communication between the public roomsand the museum services, since this makesfor smooth relations between visitors andstaff ; on the other hand it must be possible toseparate these two sections, so that they canfunction independently at any time . This isnecessary chiefly to safeguard the collectionset times when the building is closed to thepublic while the curators or office staff arestill at work end the library and lecture hallin use .

Planning

It is hardly necessary to explain, before em-

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MUSEUMS

barking upon a discussion of the differentquestions that may arise when a small mu-seum is being planned and built, that my aimis merely to put forward certain suggestionsto serve an practical pointers, based on experi-ence of the subject, with no intention of tres-passing upon the domains of the varioustechnical authorities who must inevitably beconsulted .

The Exterior A museum which is to be builtin an isolated spot or reserved space (park,garden, etc .) needs to be surrounded by anenclosure, especially if the site forms partof an extensive area . For the visitor, thisenclosure will provide a foretaste of themuseum's architecture, and thus must notconstitute a "psychological barrier," thoughthe fundamental aim of security, which ithas to serve, must not be sacrificed .

If, on the contrary, the museum is to over-look a public street, it will always be advisable :(a) to separate it from the stream of trafficby a belt of trees or even by flowerbeds ; (b)to set back the entrance in a quiet corner :(c) to allow space for a public car park .The architect should think of the building

he has been asked to design as an organismcapable of growing, and therefore providefrom the outset for suitable possibilities ofexpansion, so that when the time comes forthis it will not require far-reaching and costlyalterations . He should regard the portion to bebuilt as the nucleus of a cell, capable ofmultiplying itself or at least of joining up,according to plan, with future enlargements .Where space permits, it is beat to allow for

horizontal expansion, as this, though moreexpensive, has the twofold advantage ofenabling all the display rooms to be kepton one level and of leaving the roof free foroverhead lighting .Renouncing all pretensions to a monumental

style, the outward appearance of the building-especially if overhead lighting is adopted, sothat there are no windows to break the sur-face-should be distinguished by a simplebalance of line and proportion and by itsfunctional character .

Arrangement Any general plan of constructionwhich entails an apportionment of premisesis closely bound up with the purpose of themuseum and the nature, quality, and principalcomponents of its collections . Each type ofmuseum has different requirements, whichmay be met by various architectural methods .

It is difficult to give any exact classifica-tion of the different types of collections, butwe can offer a very brief one, if only to indi-cate the wide range of demands the designer ofa museum may be called upon to meet :

1 . Museums of art and archaeology . Thesize of the rooms and height of the ceilingswill be determined by the nature and dimen-sions of the works to be exhibited . It is notdifficult to calculate a practical minimum cap-able either of accommodating old paintings,which are usually large, or medium-sizedmodern canvases ; a suitable room mightmeasure about 16 by 23 ft, with wall accom-modation to a height of about 14 ft . In the caseof furniture, or of examples of decorative art(metal, glass, ceramics, textiles, etc .) to bedisplayed in showcases, the ceiling need not beas high . If pictures and sculpture are to beshown separately, their settings must be dif-ferent from the point of view of space andlighting . For silver, jewelry, or preciousobjects, it may be better to use showcases setin the wells-which can thus be equipped withlocking devices and antiburglar safeguards-lit from within, the rooms being left in semi-darkness . Rooms lit by artificial means rather

then by sunlight are best for drawings, en-gravings, watercolors, and textiles . Suchrooms may be long and narrow rather thensquare-rather like corridors or galleries-asthe visitor has no need to stand back in orderto look at the exhibits, which will be arrangedin showcases against the longest walls .

2 . Historical or archival museums . Theseneed less space for the showcases in whichtheir exhibits are placed, and comparativelylarge and numerous storerooms for the docu-ments kept in reserve . Relics and papers arebest shown in rooms equipped with suitableprotective devices and artificially lighted,though some use may also be made of indirectnatural light .

3 . Ethnographic and folk museums . Theexhibits are usually displayed in showcases .They are often large and cumbersome, re-quiring a good deal of space . Considerablespace is also needed for reproducing typicalsurroundings, if this is done with genuinepieces and properties or full-sized replicas .Strong artificial lighting is generally used asbeing more effective than daylight .4 . Museums of physical and natural sci-

ences, technological or educational museums .Owing to the great variety of collections in-volved, their division into sections and thenecessary scientific cataloging, these mu-seums differ in size end in architectural andfunctional characteristics . Where the exhibitsare arranged in series (minerals, insects, fos-sils, dried plants, etc .), medium-sized roomsmay suffice, whereas reconstructions andbuilt-up displays of animals or plants demandconsiderable space and special technical fea-tures (for instance, means of keeping thespecial materials and preparations in goodcondition, unaffected by the atmosphere, orequipment for maintaining aquaria, permanentfilm displays, etc .) . This type of museumneeds laboratories for the preparation andupkeep of certain exhibits (stuffing, drying,disinfecting, etc .) .

It thus rests with the architect to decide,for each of these types of museum, what ar-rangement will beat satisfy the particularconditions, purposes, and requirements in-volved .

There can never be any objection to adoptingthe modern principle of a building so con-structed that its interior can be adapted,divided, and altered to meet the varying de-mands of successive exhibitions . If this isdone, the most important thing is that the con-struction shall be "flexible," that is, capableof adaptation to the different features it mustsimultaneously or successively contain, whilepreserving unchanged its general framework-entrances and exits, lighting system, generalservices and technical installation . This princi-ple is particularly valuable in smell museumsend in any others which must allow for en-largements not always foreseeable at theoutset .

The internal arrangement of the availablespace, the distribution and style of the gal-leries can then be either temporary or compara-tively permanent . In the former case, use willbe made of movable partitions, panels oflightweight materiel (plywood or thin metalframes covered with cloth, etc .) fitted intospecial supports or into holes or groovessuitably placed in the floor ; these can eitherbe separate or arranged in groups held togetherby bolts or hinges .

This system is very practical for smallmuseums which intend to follow a definitecultural program including successive loanexhibitions of works of art, and are thereforeobliged to make frequent changes, dictatedby circumstances, in the size and appearanceof their galleries . It has, however, the draw-

backs that all the interior structure is inde-pendent of the outer walls of the building andmade of comparatively fragile materials whichare expensive to keep in repair ; moreoverthe place never looks settled, but rathermechanical and disjointed-en effect whichis displeasing to the eye unless the architectdesigns the component parts with great taste .

Other objections to this method include thedifficulty of preparing new catalogs and guidesto keep pace with the changes, and of over-coming the conservatism of a great proportionof the public ; and, above all, the consequentimpossibility of arranging circulation withinthe building, and other matters affecting thedivision of space on a permanent basis . Thesethings have to be left to the organizers of eachsuccessive exhibition, and therefore cannot beincluded in the architect's original plan .

If, on the other hand, the interior apace is tobe divided up in a more or less permanent man-ner, the question of "flexibility" being set asideuntil the comparatively distant time whenthe original plan of the museum comes to beradically altered, than the dividing walls canbe really "built" to lest, even if lightweightmaterials are employed . For their role will bereduced to providing a background for worksof art, for showcases, or for any exhibits hungon them, and to supporting their share ofwhatever type of roof or ceiling is chosen .

fn this case the interior arrangement willbe very similar to, if not identical with, thatof a museum of the traditional type, plannedas a complete building with all its sectionspermanently fixed and the size and shape ofits rooms settled once and for all .

In this kind of structure it is more thenever necessary to plan with a view to enablingthe public to circulate and to arranging the col-lections and services in the most rational andfunctional manner possible .

The question of circulation must be studiedattentively, so that the arrangement and theitinerary will be clear not only to anyonelooking at the ground plan of the museumbut also to anyone walking through the rooms .It should be planned to fit the logical orderof the exhibition, whether that order is gov-erned by chronology, by the nature of thematerial displayed, or as in a scientific mu-seum, aims at providing a connected sequenceof practical information .

Though a compulsory, one-way route maynot be entirely desirable in a large museum,it is satisfactory and one might say logicalin a smell one, as it saves space and facilitatessupervision . Visitors should not have to turnback and return through rooms they have al-ready seen, in order to reach the exit . Theyshould, however, be able to turn off on theirway round if they wish to cut short their visitor confine it to certain things that particularlyinterest them .

So, even if a museum is to show a seriesof selected works of the first quality, we shouldconsider the possibility of arranging them inproximity to one another in such a way thatthey can be seen without the necessity oftraversing the entire building . For example,in a succession of rooms surrounding an innercourtyard (see Fig . 3) .Care should always be taken, however, to

avoid the confusion of too many adjacentdoors, or of rooms running parallel to oneanother ; visitors must not be made to feelthat they are in a maze where they can easilylose their way .

If the designer's preference or the demandsof space result in a series of rooms ell setalong the same axis, it may be desirable toconnect them by a corridor . But this shouldnot be the only means of access to the rooms,for if the visitor is forced to return to it each

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Fig . 3

Suggested floor plan for e small museum .

time, fatigue and bewilderment will be muchincreased .

Entrance However many outside doors maybe found necessary for the various museumservices (but these should be as few as pos-sible, to facilitate supervision and securitymeasures), there must be only one public en-trance, placed quite separately from the others.This should lead into a vestibule where certainessential services will be located-sale oftickets, information service, and sale ofcatalogs and postcards . In a small museumone person will of course be responsible for

all this, and the necessary installation mustbe carefully planned to ensure the mostpractical form and arrangement . The officialin charge should not be confined to a booth be-hind a window, but should be able to moveabout freely and leave his [her) position whencircumstances require .

In a little museum it would be particularlyunsuitable to design the entrance hall on amassive or pompous scale, as was customaryin the past, making it unnecessarily lofty, andto decorate it in would-be monumental style,like the atrium of a classical temple, witharches and pillars . Modern architects tendincreasingly to reduce overhead space and givethe greatest possible width and depth, pro-ducing a balanced effect of greater intimacyand attraction . It is important for the entrancehall to seem attractive even to the casual pas-serby-who is always a potential visitor to themuseum . It should provide an easy introductionto the building, a point from which the indi-vidual visitor can find his way without dif-ficulty and where large parties can be greetedand assembled . It must therefore be fairlyspacious, and provided with the strict mini-mum of sturdily built furniture (one or twotables for the sale of tickets, catalogs, etc .,a cloakroom, a few benches or chairs, a noticeboard, a general plan of the museum to guidevisitors, a clock, and perhaps a public tele-

phone booth and a letterbox) . It is not advis-able to have only one door from here into theexhibition rooms ; there should be two, anentrance and an exit, far enough apart toprevent delay should there be a crowd butplaced in such a way that both can be easilywatched at the same time .

In museums where arriving and departingvisitors are to be mechanically counted, anautomatic turnstile should be installed, servingboth doors but placed at a sufficient distancefrom the main entrance and the ticket office .Another possible method is that of the photo-electric cell, but the objection to this is thatwhen visitors are crowding through the turn-stile the record may not be accurate . In mu-seums where admission is free, attendancecan be computed for statistical purposes moresimply by the custodian with a manual coun-ter-which will avoid adding an unnecessarycomplication to the fittings of the entrancehall .

Exhibition Rooms-Shape and Requirements A mu-seum in which all the rooms are the same sizebecomes very monotonous . By varying their di-mensions and the relation between height andwidth-and also by using different colors forthe walls and different kinds of flooring-weprovide a spontaneous and unconscious stim-ulus to attention (see Fig . 4a-f) .

Fig . 4

Different ways of dividing up exhibition space .

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MUSEUMS

Fig . 5

In 1942, Mies van der Robe devoted a great deal of attention to the theoretical design of a museum for asmall city to provide a setting for Picasso's painting Guernica . The building is designed to be as flexible as possible,consisting simply of a floor slab, columns, roof plate, free-standing partitions and exterior walls of glass .

The relative "absence of architecture" intensifies the individuality of each work of art and at the same time incor-porates it into the entire design .

One of the museum's original features is the auditorium which consists of free-standing partitions and an acousticaldropped ceiling ."Two openings in the roof plate (3 and 7) admit light into an inner court (7) and into an open passage 13) . Outer

walls (4) and those of the inner court ere of glass . On the exterior, free-standing walls of stone would define outercourts 11) and terraces (10). Offices (2) and wardrobes would be free-standing . A shallow recessed area 15) is pro-vided, around the edge of which small groups could sit for informal discussions . The auditorium (8) is defined byfree-standing walls providing facilities for lectures, concerts and intimate formal discussions . The form of thesewalls and the shell hung above the stage would be dictated by the acoustics. The floor of the auditorium is recessedin steps of seat height, using each step as a continuous bench . Number (6) is the print department and a space forspecial exhibits . Number (9) is a pool ." (From P. C . Johnson, "Mies van der Rohe," Museum of Modern Art, NewYolk, 1947 .1

to the windows, because otherwise the twowalls meet in a dark corner where nothingcan be exhibited . But if the daylight is admittednot through a vertical or comparatively narrowwindow, but through a "ribbon" of glass run-ning the whole length of the wall, the problemis not the same . In this case the two end walls,meeting the outside wall from the normaldirection, or at a slight angle, will be welllit throughout their length ; the doorways cantherefore be placed at the furthest extremities,thus adding to the effective depth of the room .One important fact should be remembered

when the shape of the rooms is being decided .A square room, when it exceeds a certain size(about 23 sq ft), has no advantage over anoblong one, either from the point of view ofcost (roof span) or from that of the use of spacein the satisfactory display of the exhibits,expecially if they are paintings .

It is sometimes found advisable to placea work of art of outstanding interest andexceptional value in a room by itself, to attractand concentrate the greatest possible attention .Such a room need be only large enough toaccommodate a single work ; but there mustalways be enough space for the public tocirculate freely. Galleries intended for perma-nent exhibitions may, on the contrary, be ofconsiderable size, though it is never advisablefor them to be more than about 22 ft wide, 12to 18 ft high, and 65 to 80 ft long .

Monotony also results when a number ofrooms follow one another in a straight line .Even where this cannot be entirely avoided,the rooms should be so constructed that thedoors are not opposite one another, providinga "telescopic" view through the building .An uninterrupted prospect of the long routeahead is usually found to have a depressingeffect on visitors .

There are, however, undoubted advantagesin being able to see into several rooms at thesame time ; it is a help, for instance, in directingvisitors, and for security purposes .

On the other hand, by varying the positions ofthe doors we are also able to place the visitor,from the moment of his entrance, at the pointchosen by the organizer of the display as thebest for conveying an immediate and strikingimpression of its general contents, or for givinga view of the most important piece in thatparticular room . In principle, the door shouldbe placed in such a way that a visitor comingthrough it will see the full length of the op-posite wall . It is therefore not advisable for itto face a window, since the visitor will thenbe dazzled just as he comes in .With regard to the shape and size of the

rooms, I have already pointed out that dimen-sions should be varied so as to stimulate theattention of the public and should also beadapted to the size of the exhibits .

1 ought perhaps to repeat here, for the sake

of clarity, that the form and size of the roomswill also depend to some extent on the lightingsystem chosen . Overhead lighting allowsgreater diversity of shape (rectangular, polyg-onal, circular, etc .) because the lighting canalways be arranged on a scale to suit the room.Oblong rooms, divided by partitions to a certainheight, but with one ceiling and skylight,should however be avoided ; this system hasproved unsatisfactory both from the aestheticand from the functional points of view .

The practice of rounding off the cornersof rectangular rooms is also going out offashion, as it has been found that the advan-tage of unbroken walls and the impression ofbetter use of light in a more compact spaceare offset by the resultant monotony, and thatthe general effect is not pleasing to the eye .

Lateral lighting requires shallow rooms,their walls set at an oblique angle to the sourceof light . But the larger the windows, the moredifficult it becomes to prevent light frombeing reflected in the works placed againstthe opposite wall . It is undeniably difficultto give a pleasing appearance to these asym-metrical rooms ; the taste of a fine architectis needed to give them character and harmony,either by careful attention to spatial propor-tion or by the use of different colors for thewalls end ceiling .

Theoretically, the door between two laterallylit rooms should be placed near the wall next

Cultural

SMALL MUSEUMS

PLANNING THE SMALL MUSEUM

The objective of the proposed museum shouldbe clearly defined, as well as the geographic re-gion, the subject (history, natural history, or art)and extent of display and other services .

The following is an example of a suitable basicstatement for a small museum :

The basic objective of the Museum is to collect, pre-serve, study and exhibit significant objects of the com-munity, and provide related educational services inorder to increase public knowledge and stimulate cre-ative activity.

This statement should have further definitionby incorporating a reference to the type of collec-tions, whether human history, natural history orart.A good museum includes these basic functions :

(1) curatorial, (2) display, (3) display preparation,(4) education . In order to realize both objectivesand functions, certain facilities and spaces areessential .

There must be sufficient diversification ofspaces to allow each function to be undertakenseparately while at the same time combining cer-tain activities in a single area as required foreconomy in a small museum . Because of the manyand varied kinds of tasks which a museum hasto perform, it is absolutely impossible to maintaingood housekeeping and curatorial procedureswithout separation of functions into separaterooms . This relation between functions and physi-cal facilities is summarized in the following .

The Technical Requirements of Small Museums,Raymond O . Harrison, M.R .A] .C . Technical Paper No .1, Canadian Museums Association, Ottawa, Ontario,1966 .

Fig. 1

Space organization diagram .

Functions Space required

l . Curatorial Functionsa. Collection, preservation, identification, documentation, study, restora- a . Office-workroom, Workshop

tion .b. Storage of collections. b . Reserve Collection Room

2 . Display FunctionThematic and changing displays of selected objects and . documents from Display Gallerythe collections arranged to tell a story .

3 . Display Preparation FunctionThe preparation of exhibits. Workshop,

Office-workroom

4 . Educational and Public FunctionsThis term has been expanded to include all public functions . .a . Lectures, school tours, society meetings, films, and social functions . a . Lecture room,

Chair storage closet,Kitchenette

b . Reception, information, sales, supervision of display gallery . b. LobbySales and Information Counter

c . Public requirements . c. Cloak room,Washrooms

S . Other Servicesa . Mechanical . a . Heating-ventilation plantb . Janitorial . b . Janitor's closet

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SMALL MUSEUMS

Fig. 2 Basic plan 1 .

Fig . 3

Basic plan 2.

Cultural

SMALL MUSEUMS

Cultural

SMALL MUSEUMSGallery Design

ORGANIZATION OF SPACE

The next step in the planning of a museum isthe working relationship between these variousfunctions . The planning of a good museum mustreflect the most efficient manner in which the vari-ous tasks are carried out individually and in rela-tionship to each other, without one adversely af-fecting the other. A major consideration in thisplanning is the matter of future expansion andconstruction in several stages .

The diagram (Fig . 1) illustrates the most effi-cient working arrangement,

To illustrate the manner in which a good smallmuseum may be planned on the basis of the or-ganizational diagram, three basic plans are pre-sented as examples, ranging from the smallestpossible at 1960 sq ft, up to 3823 sq ft, andtherefore representing three different capital ex-penditures and operating costs . All plans incorpo-rate provisions for future expansion and construc-tion in several stages as a basic principle .

It should be further noted that the museumplans shown are based upon collections compris-ing smaller types of specimens and artifacts.Large equipment, vehicles, and farm machinerywould require considerably more space althoughthe basic functions outlined earlier would still ap-ply . The following is a summary of some mainfeatures .

Basic Plan 1This plan (Fig . 2) shows the absolutely minimumsizes of spaces required for an effective minimummuseum . It will be noted that the display areais only about 40 percent of the area of the build-ing .

Future expansion of the existing collection stor-age room can take place as the collections grow,while the existing display room also can be in-creased in size as required . Future addition ofa lecture room off the lobby can also be achievedso that the educational functions of the museumcan be expanded . Note that these additions canbe made without complication to the roof struc-ture of the original plan . The number of perimeterdisplay cases shown would be ample to maintainand ensure changing displays.

Basic Plan 2This (Fig . 3) is an expansion of Plan 1, with allow-ance for further expansion of the display, collec-tion, and educational functions in the future . Thenumber of perimeter cases shown would be amplefor the story theme and changing exhibits whilethe center of the room may have larger items,photographic panels or special feature displays .The display room is 33 percent of gross.

GALLERY DESIGN*

The average American museum visitor (Fig . 4),if a man, is about 5 ft 9 1/4 in tall, and his eyelevel is 5 ft 4 3/4 in ; the average woman is about5 ft 3 1/4 in tall, and her eye level is 4 ft 11 3/4in . Thus, the mean adult eye-level height is about5 ft 2 1/4 in . With little eye movement, peopleusually see and recognize with ease things thatare within an approximately elliptical cone of vi-sion, with the apex of the cone at the eye-levelheight . Studies have shown that, in general, the

* Reprinted with permission from Technical Leaflet#52, Gallery and Case fxhi6il Design, by Arm into Neal,Copyright 1969 by the American Association for Stateand Local History, 1400 8th Avenue South, Nashville,TN 37203 .

Fig . S Difficulties encountered in viewing detailsmore than 3 ft below or 1 ft above one's eye level.

adult museum visitor observes an area only alittle over 1 ft above his own eye level to 3 ftbelow it at an average viewing distance of 24-48 in (Fig . 5) . Arranging objects and labelsabove and below these limits places a strain onseldom-used muscles and produces aching backs,tired feet, burning eyes, and stiff necks . Somequite large objects, such as totem poles or dino-saurs, will inevitably soar above these viewinglimits, and, in this event, the visitor must be per-mitted space to back far enough away from theobject to comprehend it without becoming a casefor an orthopedic specialist (Fig . 6) .

The flow of visitors is like the flow of waterin a stream . If the cases are arranged with gentlycurving lines to take advantage of this patternof movement (Fig . 76), visitors will find the roommore attractive and can progress easily with theline of the case . Often the arrangements can bestaggered (Fig . 7c) which produces a certainmystery and a desire on the part of the visitorto peek around corners to see what is next . Itis not always necessary to have a wide openinginto a hall . Cases that are arranged to narrowthe entrance a bit (Fig . 7d), so that the hallinside then opens out, provide a certain amountof interest .

Fig . 4

Measurements of adult and six-year-old visitors in relation to cases .

Fig . 6

Viewing distance should increase with greater size of object .

Cultural

SMALL MUSEUMSGallery Design

Fig . 7

Possible gallery arrangements .