My Final Project Vivek

8/4/2019 My Final Project Vivek

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MODINAGAR

AA

PROJECT REPORTPROJECT REPORT

ONON

W i n d & S o l a r P o w e r e d S t r e e t L a m pi n d & S o l a r P o w e r e d S t r e e t L a m p Submitted for the partial fulfillment of

the requirement for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology in Electrical & Electronics EngineeringFrom

U.P. Technical University, LucknowSESSION: 2009-10

SUBMITTED TO:

Er. Vikas SinghEr. Vikas Singh

SUBMITTED BY:

Vivek JaiswalManish Kumar Sharma

Lalit Kumar

Ashutosh Dwivedi


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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project entitled wind and solar powered street

lamp submitted in the partial fulfillment, for the award of degree ofBachelor

of technology [Electrical and Electronics] of UTTAR PRADESH

TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, Lucknow; at K.N,G.D MODI ENGGINEERING

COLLEGE, Modinagar, by Vivek Jaiswal Roll No. 0619521055 is carried out

by him/her under my supervision. The matter embodied in this project work has

not been submitted earlier for award of any degree or diploma in any

university/institution to the best of our knowledge and belief.

Head of the Department (ENE) Director (Engineering)

Date: __/__/____ College Seal


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives us a great sense of pleasure to present the report of

the B. Tech Project undertaken during B. Tech. Final Year. Weowe special debt of gratitude to Mr. Vikas Singh, Head,

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering,

K.N.G.D.Modi Engineering College, Modi Nagar, Ghaziabad for

his constant support and guidance throughout the course of our

work. His sincerity, thoroughness and perseverance have been a

constant source of inspiration for us. It is only his

cognizant efforts that our endeavors have seen light of the

day.

We also take the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution

of Er. Priyank Chaudhry ,Er Shweta Agarwal [Lecturer],

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering,K.N.G.D.Modi Engineering College, Modi Nagar, Ghaziabad for

their full support and assistance during the development of

the project.

We also do not like to miss the opportunity to acknowledge the

contribution of all faculty members of the department for

their kind assistance and cooperation during the development

of our project. Last but not the least, we acknowledge our

friends for their contribution in the completion of the

project.

Signature:

Name :

Roll No.:

Date :


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ABSTRACT

Hybrid power system can be used to reduce energy storage

requirements. The influence of the Deficiency of Power SupplyProbability (DPSP), Relative Excess Power Generated (REPG),

Energy to Load Ratio (ELR), fraction of PV and wind energy,

and coverage of PV and wind energy against the system size and

performance were analyzed. The technical feasibility of PV-

wind hybrid system in given range of load demand was

evaluated. The methodology of Life Cycle Cost (LCC) for

economic evaluation of stand-alone photovoltaic system, stand-

alone wind system and PV-wind hybrid system have been

developed and simulated using the model. The comparative cost

analysis of grid line extension energy source with PV-wind

hybrid system was studied in detail. The optimum combinationof solar PV-wind hybrid system lies between 0.70 and 0.75 of

solar energy to load ratio and the corresponding LCC is

minimum.

The PV-wind hybrid system returns the lowest unit cost values

to maintain the same level of DPSP as compared to standalone

solar and wind systems. For all load demands the levelised

energy cost for PV-wind hybrid system is always lower than

that of standalone solar PV or wind system. The PV-wind hybrid

option is techno-economically viable for rural

electrification.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

Figure Of Wind and Solar Powered Hybrid Street Lamp

Wind Turbine for hybrid system

History of Wind Power

Small "Hybrid" Solar and Wind Electric Systems

Electricity Generation from Wind

Types of Wind Turbines

Parts used

Stepper motor Using as a Dynamo

Solar panel

Figure Of a Typical Solar Panel

LED street lamp

A Typical Led Panel

Advantages of Wind And Solar Powered Lamp

Disadvantages of Wind And Solar Powered Lamp

Application

Economic Analysis

References

Declaration


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INTRODUCTION

The innovativewind and solar poweredhybrid street lampconcept cannot only produce light by using renewable energy, also its a

boost to an everyday object that can operate completely off-

grid. This concept was derived from the effort of designers to

create a more sustainable future that integrates a range of

reusable energy technologies into everyday life objects. These

lamps comprise a solar array connected with a wind turbine,

and can produce up to 380W of power.

These wind/solar powered street lamps are fitted to locally

made usual galvanized steel poles and can be easily swapped

with previous street lamps. The turbines can be either a

horizontal axis wind turbine or a 2nd generation 300W vertical

axis wind turbine. Two solar panels are mounted on the side of

the pole that is capable of producing up to 80W of power.

Energy is vital for the progress of a nation and it has to beconserved in a most efficient manner. Not only the

technologies should be developed to produce energy in a most

environment-friendly manner from all varieties of fuels but

also enough importance should be given to conserve the energy

resources in the most efficient way. Energy is the ultimate

factor responsible for both industrial and agricultural

development. The use of renewable energy technology to meet

the energy demands has been steadily increasing for the past

few years, however, the important drawbacks associated with

renewable energy systems are their inability to guarantee

reliability and their lean nature. Import of petroleumproducts constitutes a major drain on our foreign exchange

reserve. Renewable energy sources are considered to be the

better option to meet these challenges.

More than 200 million people, live in rural areas without

access to grid-connected power [4]. In India, over 80,000

villages remain to be un-electrified and particularly in the

state of Tamil Nadu, about 400 villages (with 63% tribes) are

difficult to supply electricity due to inherent problems of

location and economy. The costs to install and service the

distribution lines are considerably high for remote areas.

Also there will be a substantial increase in transmission line


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losses in addition to poor power supply reliability. Like

several other developing countries, India is characterized by

severe energy deficit. In most of the remote and non-

electrified sites, extension of utility grid lines experiences

a number of problems such as high capital investment, high

lead time, low load factor, poor voltage regulation and

frequent power supply interruptions. There is a growing

interest in harnessing renewable energy sources since they are

naturally

available, pollution free and inexhaustible. It is this

segment that needs special attention and hence concentrated

efforts are continually provided in implementing standalone

PV, wind, bio-diesel generator and integrated systems at sites

that have a large potential of either solar, wind or both.

Traditionally, electrical energy for remote villages has been

derived from diesel generators characterized by high

reliability, high running costs, moderate efficiency and high

maintenance. Hence, a convenient, cost-effective and reliable

power supply is an essential factor in the development of any

rural area. It is a critical factor in the development of the

agro industry and commercial operations, which are projected

to be the core of that areas economy.

At present, standalone solar photovoltaic and wind systems

have been promoted around the globe on a comparatively larger

scale [7]. These independent systems cannot provide continuous

source of energy, as they are seasonal. For example,

standalone solar photovoltaic energy system cannot provide

reliable power during non-sunny days. The standalone wind

system cannot satisfy constant load demands due to significant

fluctuations in the magnitude of wind speeds from hour to hour

throughout the year. Therefore, energy storage systems will be

required for each of these systems in order to satisfy the

power demands. Usually storage system is expensive and the

size has to be reduced to a minimum possible for the renewable

energy system to be cost effective. Hybrid power systems can

be used to reduce energy storage requirements.


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Wind & Solar Powered Street Lamp


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Wind Turbine for hybrid system

1. The hybrid.

The solar panels can only work average 3 hours a day under

sunshine. In the raining day and in the night, when solar PV

can not

work, we can expect the wind turbine.

Compare with the solar (only) street lamp, a hybrid system can

reduce the expensive solar PV, and makes the battery charged

in

most kinds of weather.

2. How much power does an MW-400 wind turbine output?

One important thing of a wind turbine is its cut-in speed.Forexample:

Many wind turbines cut-in speed is above 3m/s. That means it

can output 0 when the wind-speed is below 3m/s.

The cut-in speed of the MW-400 is 2.1m/s as it has low coggingalternator, and 6 blades makes it high torque. If the wind in

that area is always 2-3m/s, it also can work and charge the

battery. Sometimes it can work hours more than the above.

One characteristic of the MW wind turbine is that it works

well at lower wind-speed. The

MW-400 can supply 35AH a day to the 24VDC battery bank in the

average wind-speed of

5m/s.

3. The weight vs. the installation.

The weight of the wind turbine and the solar PV is important

when concerning the intensityand the rigidity of the pole. The MW-200 wind turbine is 8.5

Kg, and the MW-400 is 10 Kg.

They are easy to install and light enough.

As the wind turbine can supply more power, the solar PV can be

reduced.


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Windmill electricity

Mankind been harnessing the wind's energy for many years. From

Holland to traditional farms around the world, windmills were

used in the past for pumping water through primitive

irrigation systems or used to grind grain. Then, the wind

turned large "sails" which were connected by a long vertical

shaft that was attached to a grinding machine or to a wheel

that turned and drew water from a well. Today's turbines - can

utilize the energy of the wind to turn large metal blades

which in turn spins a generator that manufactures electric

power.

Windmill electricity turbines, unlike the machines of old, aremounted on very tall towers in order to capture the most wind

energy available. At 100 feet (30 meters) or more above

ground, wind turbines can take advantage of the faster and

less turbulent wind. Turbines catch the wind's energy with

their propeller-like blades. Usually, two or three blades are

mounted on a shaft to form a rotor.

A blade acts much like an airplane wing. When the wind blows,

a pocket of low-pressure air forms on the downwind side of the

blade. The low-pressure air pocket then pulls the blade toward

it, causing the rotor to turn. This is called lift. The force

of the lift is actually much stronger than the wind's force

against the front side of the blade, which is called drag. The

combination of lift and drag causes the rotor to spin like a

propeller, and the turning shaft spins a generator to make

power.

In recent years, government have invested enormous amounts of

(taxpayer) money in windmill electricity "wind farms" to

generate electric power. The only problem with wind generated

power is that when the wind stops, so does the generator and

therefore the electric power production. Electric power cannot

be produced and stored for consumption later. Therefore, wind

power can only be counted on mostly when the wind is blowing

at optimal speeds and only in locations where the prevailing

winds are such that it makes economic sense to build these


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power plants and this may not be when and where the power is

needed.

Stand-alone windmill electricity turbines are typically used

for water pumping or communications. However, homeowners,

farmers, and ranchers in windy areas can also use wind

turbines as a way to cut their power bills.

Small windmill electricity systems also have potential as

distributed energy resources. Distributed energy resources

refer to a variety of small, modular power-generating

technologies that can be combined to improve the operation of

the electric power delivery system.

There is an increasing focus worldwide on renewable energy

sources. Wind Power is one of the best forms of creating

renewable energy. In this article we explore some of the

basics of wind electricity generation.

A windmill is a device that converts wind energy in other

forms of energy. In most cases this involves the wind energy

being transformed into mechanical energy when the blades start

to spin. It is this mechanical energy which is then

transformed into electricity. Given that wind is a naturallyoccurring, free, renewable resource, the ability to make use

of the wind for electricity generation makes it very useful in

the current times of rising energy prices.

Wind energy is best utilized in farms and rural areas. It may

also work in "suburbia", but is unlikely to be much use in

densely populated areas due to the increased number of

obstacles preventing the free flow of the wind.

There are two important prerequisites for the windmill:

* Ideally the windmill should be erected on an area of notless than one hectare. Any smaller than this and it won't work

as well due to there being insufficient wind energy for the

windmill to work.

* The average wind speed in this area should be about 11 mph.

As stated above, try to avoid areas where the windflaw is

distorted. And of course, it pays to install it in area where

there is good consistent wind strength.


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Windmill main components

To construct a windmill there are four main components :

* Blades -- responsible for the capture and utilization of windenergy. Blades can be made of wood or plastic.

* Tower-- the basis of the system which must be high enough tomake use of the wind. It should be constructed of a rigid

material, such as poly-vinyl chloride.

* The shaft -- the shaft joins the blades to the tower andensures that they rotate smoothly.

* The base -- the base holds everything together and ensures thatit is solid and stable


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History of Wind Power

Since ancient times, people have harnessed the wind's energy.Over 5,000 years ago, the ancient Egyptians used wind to sail

ships on the Nile River. Later, people built windmills to

grind wheat and other grains. The earliest known windmills

were in Persia (now called Iran). These early windmills looked

like large paddle wheels. Centuries later, the people of

Holland improved the basic design of the windmill. They gave

it propeller-type blades, still made with sails. Holland's

windmills are world renowned.

American colonists used windmills to grind wheat and corn, to

pump water, and to cut wood at sawmills. As late as the 1920s,

Americans used small windmills to generate electricity in

rural areas without electric service. When power lines began

to transport electricity to rural areas in the 1930s, local

windmills were used less and less, though they can still be

seen on some Western ranches.

Energy from Moving Air

Wind is simply air in motion. It is caused by the uneven

heating of the Earth's surface by the sun. Because the Earth's

surface is made of very different types of land and water, it

absorbs the sun's heat at different rates.

The Daily Wind Cycle

During the day, the air above the land heats up more quickly

than the air over water. The warm air over the land expands

and rises, and the heavier, cooler air rushes in to take its

place, creating wind. At night, the winds are reversed because

the air cools more rapidly over land than over water.

In the same way, the atmospheric winds that circle the earth

are created because the land near the Earth's equator is

heated more by the sun than the land near the North and South

Poles.


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Small "Hybrid" Solar and Wind Electric Systems

According to many renewable energy experts, a small "hybrid"electric system that combines wind and solar (photovoltaic)

technologies offers several advantages over either single

system.

In much of the United States, wind speeds are low in the

summer when the sun shines brightest and longest. The wind is

strong in the winter when less sunlight is available. Because

the peak operating times for wind and solar systems occur at

different times of the day and year, hybrid systems are more

likely to produce power when you need it.

Many hybrid systems are stand-alone systems, which operate"off-grid"not connected to an electricity distribution

system. For the times when neither the wind nor the solar

system are producing, most hybrid systems provide power

through batteries and/or an engine generator powered by

conventional fuels, such as diesel. If the batteries run low,

the engine generator can provide power and recharge the

batteries.

Adding an engine generator makes the system more complex, but

modern electronic controllers can operate these systems

automatically. An engine generator can also reduce the size ofthe other components needed for the system. Keep in mind that

the storage capacity must be large enough to supply electrical

needs during non-charging periods.

Battery banks are typically sized to supply the electric load

for one to three days.
http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/electricity/index.cfm/mytopic=10880http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/electricity/index.cfm/mytopic=10710http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/electricity/index.cfm/mytopic=10610http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/electricity/index.cfm/mytopic=10880http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/electricity/index.cfm/mytopic=10710http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/electricity/index.cfm/mytopic=10610


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Electricity Generation from Wind

How Wind Turbines Work

Like old fashioned windmills, todays wind machines (also

called wind turbines) use blades to collect the winds kinetic

energy. The wind flows over the blades creating lift, like the

effect on airplane wings, which causes them to turn. The

blades are connected to a drive shaft that turns an electric

generator to produce electricity.

With the new wind machines, there is still the problem of what

to do when the wind isn't blowing. At those times, other typesof power plants must be used to make electricity.

Wind Power Production

In 2008, wind machines in the United States generated a total

of 52 billion kilowatt-hours, about 1.3% of total U.S.

electricity generation. Although this is a small fraction of

the Nation's total electricity production, it was enough

electricity to serve 4.6 million households or to power theentire State of Colorado.

The amount of electricity generated from wind has been growing

rapidly in recent years. Generation from wind in the United

States nearly doubled between 2006 and 2008.

New technologies have decreased the cost of producing

electricity from wind, and growth in wind power has been

encouraged by tax breaks for renewable energy and green

pricing programs. Many utilities around the country offer

green pricing options that allow customers the choice to pay

more for electricity that comes from renewable sources tosupport new technologies.
http://apps3.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/markets/pricing.shtmlhttp://apps3.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/markets/pricing.shtmlhttp://apps3.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/markets/pricing.shtmlhttp://apps3.eere.energy.gov/greenpower/markets/pricing.shtml


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Types of Wind Turbines

There are two types of wind machines (turbines) used today,

based on the direction of the rotating shaft (axis):

horizontal-axis wind machines and vertical-axis wind

machines. The size of wind machines varies widely. Small

turbines used to power a single home or business may have

a capacity of less than 100 kilowatts. Some large

commercial-sized turbines may have a capacity of 5

million watts, or 5 megawatts. Larger turbines are often

grouped together into wind farms that provide power to

the electrical grid.

Horizontal-axis Turbines Look Like Windmills

Most wind machines being used today are the horizontal-axis

type. Horizontal-axis wind machines have blades like airplane

propellers. A typical horizontal wind machine stands as tall

as a 20-story building and has three blades that span 200 feetacross. The largest wind machines in the world have blades

longer than a football field. Wind machines stand tall and

wide to capture more wind.

Vertical-axis Turbines Look Like Egg Beaters

Vertical-axis wind machines have blades that go from top to

bottom. The most common type the Durries wind turbine, named

after the French engineer Georges Durries who patented the

design in 1931 looks like a giant, two-bladed egg beater.

This type of vertical wind machine typically stands 100 feet


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tall and 50 feet wide. Vertical-axis wind machines make up

only a very small share of the wind machines used today.

Wind Power Plants Produce Electricity

Wind power plants, or wind farms, as they are sometimes

called, are clusters of wind machines used to produceelectricity. A wind farm usually has dozens of wind machines

scattered over a large area. The world's largest wind farm,

the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center in Texas, has 421 wind

turbines that generate enough electricity to power 220,000

homes per year.

Many wind plants are not owned by public utility companies.

Instead, they are owned and operated by business people who

sell the electricity produced on the wind farm to electric

utilities. These private companies are known as Independent

Power Producers.


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Parts used

Vertical blades as wind turbine

Dynamo for generating electricity

Solar panel for generating electricity

Light emitting diodes (LED) as street light


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Vertical blades as wind turbine

Vertical-axis wind turbines(or VAWTs) have the main rotorshaft arranged vertically. Key advantages of this arrangement

are that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind

to be effective. This is an advantage on sites where the winddirection is highly variable. VAWTs can utilize winds from

varying directions.

With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed

near the ground, so the tower doesn't need to support it, and

it is more accessible for maintenance. Drawbacks are that some

designs produce pulsating torque. Drag may be created when the

blade rotates into the wind.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical-axis_wind_turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical-axis_wind_turbine


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It is difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers,

meaning they are often installed nearer to the base on which

they rest, such as the ground or a building rooftop. The wind

speed is slower at a lower altitude, so less wind energy is

available for a given size turbine. Air flow near the ground

and other objects can create turbulent flow, which can

introduce issues of vibration, including noise and bearing

wear which may increase the maintenance or shorten the service

life. However, when a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the

building generally redirects wind over the roof and this can

double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of the

rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of the

building height, this is near the optimum for maximum wind

energy and minimum wind turbulence.


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Dynamo for generating electricity

Oil may be the world's favorite fuel, but not for much longer.

Modern homes are powered mostly by electricity and it won't be

much longer before most of us are driving electric cars as

well. Electricity is superbly convenient. You can produce itin all kinds of different ways using everything from coal and

oil to wind and waves. You can make it in one place and use it

on the other side of the world if you want to. And, once

you've produced it, you can store it in batteries and use it

days, weeks, months, or even years later. What makes electric

power possibleand indeed practicalis a superb

electromagnetic device called an electricity generator: a kind

of electric motor working in reverse that converts ordinary

energy into electricity. Let's take a closer look at

generators and find out how they work!

Where does electricity come from?

The best way to understand electricity is to start by giving

it its proper name: electrical energy. If you want to run

anything electrical, from a toaster or a toothbrush to an MP3

player or a television, you need to feed it a steady supply of

electrical energy. Where are you going to get that from?

There's a basic law of physics called the conservation of

energy that explains how you can get energyand how you can't.

According to this law, there's a fixed amount of energy in the

universe and some good news and some bad news about what we

can do with it. The bad news is that we can't create moreenergy than we have already; the good news is that we can't

destroy any energy either. All we can ever do with energy is

convert it from one form into another.

If you want to find some electricity to power your television,

you won't be making energy out of thin air: the conservation

of energy tells us that's impossible. What you'll be doing is

using energy converted from some other form into the

electrical energy you need. Generally, that happens in a power

plant some distance from your home. Plug in your TV and

electrical energy flows into it through a cable. The cable ismuch longer than you might think: it actually runs all the way

from your TVunderground or through the airto the power plant

where electrical energy is being prepared for you from an

energy-rich fuel such as coal, oil, gas, or atomic fuel. In

these eco-friendly times, some of your electricity will also

be coming from wind turbines, hydroelectric power plants

(which make power using the energy in dammed rivers), or

geothermal energy (Earth's internal heat). Wherever your

energy comes from, it'll almost certainly be turned into

electricity with the help of a generator. Only solar cells

make electricity without using generators.
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How generators work

An electric motor is essentially just a tight coil of copper

wire wrapped around an iron core that's free to rotate at high

speed inside a powerful, permanent magnet. When you feed

electricity into the copper coil, it becomes a temporary,

electrically powered magnetin other words, an electromagnet

and generates a magnetic field all around it. This temporary

magnetic field pushes against the magnetic field that the

permanent magnet creates and forces the coil to rotate. By a

bit of clever design, the coil can be made to rotate

continuously in the same direction, spinning round and round

and powering anything from an electric toothbrush to an

electric train.

So how is a generator different? Suppose you have an electrictoothbrush with a rechargeable battery inside. Instead of

letting the battery power the motor that pushes the brush,

what if you did the opposite? What if you turned the brush

back and forth repeatedly? What you'd be doing would be

manually turning the electric motor's axle around. That would

make the copper coil inside the motor turn around repeatedly

inside its permanent magnet. If you move an electric wire

inside a magnetic field, you make electricity flow through the

wirein effect, you generate electricity. So keep turning the

toothbrush long enough and, in theory, you would generate

enough electricity to recharge its battery. That, in effect,is how a generator works. (Actually, it's a little bit more

tricky than this and you can't actually recharge your

toothbrush this way, though you're welcome to try!)

In practice, you need to put in a huge amount of physical

effort to generate even small amounts of electricity. You'll

know this if you have a bicycle with dynamo lights powered

from the wheels: you have to pedal somewhat harder to make the

lights glowand that's just to produce the tiny amount of

electricity you need to power a couple of torch bulbs. A

dynamo is simply a very small electricity generator. At theopposite extreme, in real power plants, gigantic electricity

generators are powered by steam turbines. These are a bit like

spinning propellers or windmills driven using steam. The steam

is made by boiling water using energy released from burning

coal, oil, or some other fuel. (Note how the conservation of

energy applies here too. The energy that powers the generator

comes from the turbine. The energy that powers the turbine

comes from the fuel. And the fuelif it's coal or oil

originally came from plants powered by the Sun's energy. The

point is simple: energy always has to come from somewhere.)
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generation of electricity by rotation of axis


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Stepper motor Using as a Dynamo

1. Stepping Motor Types

Introduction

Variable Reluctance Motors

Unipolar Motors

Bipolar Motors

Bifilar Motors

Multiphase Motors

Introduction

Stepping motors come in two varieties, permanent magnet and

variable reluctance (there are also hybrid motors, which are

indistinguishable from permanent magnet motors from the

controller's point of view). Lacking a label on the motor, you

can generally tell the two apart by feel when no power is

applied. Permanent magnet motors tend to "cog" as you twistthe rotor with your fingers, while variable reluctance motors

almost spin freely (although they may cog slightly because of

residual magnetization in the rotor). You can also distinguish

between the two varieties with an ohmmeter. Variable

reluctance motors usually have three (sometimes four)

windings, with a common return, while permanent magnet motors

usually have two independent windings, with or without center

taps. Center-tapped windings are used in unipolar permanent

magnet motors.

Stepping motors come in a wide range of angular resolution.

The coarsest motors typically turn 90 degrees per step, while

high resolution permanent magnet motors are commonly able to

handle 1.8 or even 0.72 degrees per step. With an appropriate

controller, most permanent magnet and hybrid motors can be run

in half-steps, and some controllers can handle smaller

fractional steps or microsteps.

For both permanent magnet and variable reluctance stepping

motors, if just one winding of the motor is energised, the

rotor (under no load) will snap to a fixed angle and then hold

that angle until the torque exceeds the holding torque of the
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motor, at which point, the rotor will turn, trying to hold at

each successive equilibrium point.

Variable Reluctance Motors

If your motor has three windings, typically connected as shown

in the schematic diagram in Figure 1.1, with one terminalcommon to all windings, it is most likely a variable

reluctance stepping motor. In use, the common wire typically

goes to the positive supply and the windings are energized in

sequence.

The cross section shown in Figure 1.1 is of 30 degree per step

variable reluctance motor. The rotor in this motor has 4 teeth

and the stator has 6 poles, with each winding wrapped around

two opposite poles. With winding number 1 energised, the rotor

teeth marked X are attracted to this winding's poles. If the

current through winding 1 is turned off and winding 2 is

turned on, the rotor will rotate 30 degrees clockwise so thatthe poles marked Y line up with the poles marked 2. An

animated GIF of figure 1.1 is available.

To rotate this motor continuously, we just apply power to the

3 windings in sequence. Assuming positive logic, where a 1

means turning on the current through a motor winding, the

following control sequence will spin the motor illustrated in

Figure 1.1 clockwise 24 steps or 2 revolutions:

Winding 1 1001001001001001001001001

Winding 2 0100100100100100100100100

Winding 3 0010010010010010010010010

time --->

The section of this tutorial on Mid-Level Control provides

details on methods for generating such sequences of control

signals, while the section on Control Circuits discusses the

power switching circuitry needed to drive the motor windings

from such control sequences.

There are also variable reluctance stepping motors with 4 and

5 windings, requiring 5 or 6 wires. The principle for driving

these motors is the same as that for the three winding

variety, but it becomes important to work out the correctorder to energise the windings to make the motor step nicely.

The motor geometry illustrated in Figure 1.1, giving 30

degrees per step, uses the fewest number of rotor teeth and

stator poles that performs satisfactorily. Using more motor

poles and more rotor teeth allows construction of motors with

smaller step angle. Toothed faces on each pole and a

correspondingly finely toothed rotor allows for step angles as

small as a few degrees.
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Unipolar Motors

Unipolar stepping motors, both Permanent magnet and hybrid

stepping motors with 5 or 6 wires are usually wired with a

center tap on each of two windings. In use, the center taps of

the windings are typically wired to the positive supply, and

the two ends of each winding are alternately grounded toreverse the direction of the field provided by that winding.

The motor cross section is of a 30 degree per step permanent

magnet or hybrid motor -- the difference between these two

motor types is not relevant at this level of abstraction.

Motor winding number 1 is distributed between the top and

bottom stator pole, while motor winding number 2 is

distributed between the left and right motor poles. The rotor

is a permanent magnet with 6 poles, 3 south and 3 north,

arranged around its circumfrence.

For higher angular resolutions, the rotor must haveproportionally more poles. The 30 degree per step motor in the

figure is one of the most common permanent magnet motor

designs, although 15 and 7.5 degree per step motors are widely

available. Permanent magnet motors with resolutions as good as

1.8 degrees per step are made, and hybrid motors are routinely

built with 3.6 and 1.8 degrees per step, with resolutions as

fine as 0.72 degrees per step available.

As shown in the figure, the current flowing from the center

tap of winding 1 to terminal a causes the top stator pole to

be a north pole while the bottom stator pole is a south pole.This attracts the rotor into the position shown. If the power

to winding 1 is removed and winding 2 is energised, the rotor

will turn 30 degrees, or one step.

To rotate the motor continuously, we just apply power to the

two windings in sequence. Assuming positive logic, where a 1

means turning on the current through a motor winding, the

following two control sequences will spin the motor

illustrated in Figure 1.2 clockwise 24 steps or 2 revolutions:

Winding 1a 1000100010001000100010001

Winding 1b 0010001000100010001000100Winding 2a 0100010001000100010001000

Winding 2b 0001000100010001000100010

time --->

Winding 1a 1100110011001100110011001

Winding 1b 0011001100110011001100110

Winding 2a 0110011001100110011001100

Winding 2b 1001100110011001100110011

time --->

Note that the two halves of each winding are never energized

at the same time. Both sequences shown above will rotate a


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permanent magnet one step at a time.The top sequence onlypowers one winding at a time thus, it uses less power. The

bottom sequence involves powering two windings at a time and

generally produces a torque about 1.4 times greater than the

top sequence while using twice as much power.

The section of this tutorial on Mid-Level Control providesdetails on methods for generating such sequences of control

signals, while the section on Control Circuits discusses the

power switching circuitry needed to drive the motor windings

from such control sequences.

The step positions produced by the two sequences above are not

the same; as a result, combining the two sequences allows half

stepping, with the motor stopping alternately at the positions

indicated by one or the other sequence. The combined sequence

is as follows:

Winding 1a 11000001110000011100000111Winding 1b 00011100000111000001110000

Winding 2a 01110000011100000111000001

Winding 2b 00000111000001110000011100

time --->

Bipolar Motors

Bipolar permanent magnet and hybrid motors are constructed

with exactly the same mechanism as is used on unipolar motors,

but the two windings are wired more simply, with no center

taps. Thus, the motor itself is simpler but the drive

circuitry needed to reverse the polarity of each pair of motor

poles is more complex. The schematic in Figure 1.3 shows how

such a motor is wired, while the motor cross section shownhere is exactly the same as the cross section

The drive circuitry for such a motor requires an H-bridge

control circuit for each winding; these are discussed in more

detail in the section on Control Circuits. Briefly, an H-

bridge allows the polarity of the power applied to each end of

each winding to be controlled independently. The control

sequences for single stepping such a motor are shown below,

using + and - symbols to indicate the polarity of the power

applied to each motor terminal:

Terminal 1a +---+---+---+--- ++--++--++--++--
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Terminal 1b --+---+---+---+- --++--++--++--++

Terminal 2a -+---+---+---+-- -++--++--++--++-

Terminal 2b ---+---+---+---+ +--++--++--++--+

time --->

Note that these sequences are identical to those for a

unipolar permanent magnet motor, at an abstract level, andthat above the level of the H-bridge power switching

electronics, the control systems for the two types of motor

can be identical.

Note that many full H-bridge driver chips have one control

input to enable the output and another to control the

direction. Given two such bridge chips, one per winding, the

following control sequences will spin the motor identically to

the control sequences given above:

Enable 1 1010101010101010 1111111111111111

Direction 1 1x0x1x0x1x0x1x0x 1100110011001100

Enable 2 0101010101010101 1111111111111111

Direction 2 x1x0x1x0x1x0x1x0 0110011001100110

time --->

To distinguish a bipolar permanent magnet motor from other 4

wire motors, measure the resistances between the different

terminals. It is worth noting that some permanent magnet

stepping motors have 4 independent windings, organized as two

sets of two. Within each set, if the two windings are wired in

series, the result can be used as a high voltage bipolar

motor. If they are wired in parallel, the result can be used

as a low voltage bipolar motor. If they are wired in series

with a center tap, the result can be used as a low voltage

unipolar motor.

Bifilar Motors

Bifilar windings on a stepping motor are applied to the same

rotor and stator geometry as a bipolar motor, but instead of

winding each coil in the stator with a single wire, two wires

are wound in parallel with each other. As a result, the motor

has 8 wires, not four.

In practice, motors with bifilar windings are always powered

as either unipolar or bipolar motors. Figure 1.4 shows the

alternative connections to the windings of such a motor.


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Figure 1.4

To use a bifilar motor as a unipolar motor, the two wires of

each winding are connected in series and the point of

connection is used as a center-tap. Winding 1 in Figure 1.4 is

shown connected this way.

To use a bifilar motor as a bipolar motor, the two wires of

each winding are connected either in parallel or in series.

Winding 2 in Figure 1.4 is shown with a parallel connection;this allows low voltage high-current operation. Winding 1 in

Figure 1.4 is shown with a series connection; if the center

tap is ignored, this allows operation at a higher voltage and

lower current than would be used with the windings in

parallel.

It should be noted that essentially all 6-wire motors sold for

bipolar use are actually wound using bifilar windings, so that

the external connection that serves as a center tap is

actually connected as shown for winding 1 in Figure 1.4.

Naturally, therefore, any unipolar motor may be used as a

bipolar motor at twice the rated voltage and half the rated

current as is given on the nameplate.

The question of the correct operating voltage for a bipolar

motor run as a unipolar motor, or for a bifilar motor with the

motor windings in series is not as trivial as it might first

appear. There are three issues: The current carrying capacity

of the wire, cooling the motor, and avoiding driving the

motor's magnetic circuits into saturation. Thermal

considerations suggest that, if the windings are wired in

series, the voltage should only be raised by the square root

of 2. The magnetic field in the motor depends on the number ofampere turns; when the two half-windings are run in series,

the number of turns is doubled, but because a well-designed

motor has magnetic circuits that are close to saturation when

the motor is run at its rated voltage and current, increasing

the number of ampere-turns does not make the field any

stronger. Therefore, when a motor is run with the two half-

windings in series, the current should be halved in order to

avoid saturation; or, in other words, the voltage across the

motor winding should be the same as it was.


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For those who salvage old motors, finding an 8-wire motor

poses a challenge! Which of the 8 wires is which? It is not

hard to figure this out using an ohm meter, an AC volt meter,

and a low voltage AC source. First, use the ohm meter to

identify the motor leads that are connected to each other

through the motor windings. Then, connect a low-voltage AC

source to one of these windings. The AC voltage should be

below the advertised operating voltage of the motor; voltages

under 1 volt are recommended. The geometry of the magnetic

circuits of the motor guarantees that the two wires of a

bifilar winding will be strongly coupled for AC signals, while

there should be almost no coupling to the other two wires.

Therefore, probing with an AC volt meter should disclose which

of the other three windings is paired to the winding under

power.

Multiphase Motors

Figure 1.5

A less common class of permanent magnet or hybrid steppingmotor is wired with all windings of the motor in a cyclic

series, with one tap between each pair of windings in the

cycle, or with only one end of each motor winding exposed

while the other ends of each winding are tied together to an

inaccessible internal connection. In the context of 3-phase

motors, these configurations would be described as Delta and Y

configurations, but they are also used with 5-phase motors, as

illustrated in Figure 1.5. Some multiphase motors expose all

ends of all motor windings, leaving it to the user to decide

between the Delta and Y configurations, or alternatively,

allowing each winding to be driven independently.Control of either one of these multiphase motors in either the

Delta or Y configuration requires 1/2 of an H-bridge for each

motor terminal. It is noteworthy that 5-phase motors have the

potential of delivering more torque from a given package size

because all or all but one of the motor windings are energised

at every point in the drive cycle. Some 5-phase motors have

high resolutions on the order of 0.72 degrees per step (500

steps per revolution).

Many automotive alternators are built using a 3-phase hybrid

geometry with either a permanent magnet rotor or an


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electromagnet rotor powered through a pair of slip-rings.

These have been successfully used as stepping motors in some

heavy duty industrial applications; step angles of 10 degrees

per step have been reported.

With a 5-phase motor, there are 10 steps per repeat in the

stepping cycle, as shown below:

Terminal 1 +++-----+++++-----++

Terminal 2 --+++++-----+++++---

Terminal 3 +-----+++++-----++++

Terminal 4 +++++-----+++++-----

Terminal 5 ----+++++-----+++++-

time --->

With a 3-phase motor, there are 6 steps per repeat in the

stepping cycle, as shown below:

Terminal 1 +++---+++---

Terminal 2 --+++---+++-

Terminal 3 +---+++---++

time --->

Here, as in the bipolar case, each terminal is shown as being

either connected to the positive or negative bus of the motor

power system. Note that, at each step, only one terminal

changes polarity. This change removes the power from one

winding attached to that terminal (because both terminals of

the winding in question are of the same polarity) and applies

power to one winding that was previously idle. Given the motor

geometry suggested by Figure 1.5, this control sequence willdrive the motor through two revolutions.

To distinguish a 5-phase motor from other motors with 5 leads,

note that, if the resistance between two consecutive terminals

of the 5-phase motor is R, the resistance between non-

consecutive terminals will be 1.5R.

Note that some 5-phase motors have 5 separate motor windings,

with a total of 10 leads. These can be connected in the star

configuration shown above, using 5 half-bridge driver

circuits, or each winding can be driven by its own full-

bridge. While the theoretical component count of half-bridge

drivers is lower, the availability of integrated full-bridge

chips may make the latter approach preferable.


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Stepper Motor Control

A stepper motor is a motor controlled by a series of

electromagnetic coils. The center shaft has a series of

magnets mounted on it, and the coils surrounding the shaft are

alternately given current or not, creating magnetic fields

which repulse or attract the magnets on the shaft, causing the

motor to rotate.

This design allows for very precise control of the motor: by

proper pulsing, it can be turned in very accurate steps of set

degree increments (for example, two-degree increments, half-

degree increments, etc.). They are used in printers, disk

drives, and other devices where precise positioning of the

motor is necessary.

There are two basic types of stepper motors, unipolar steppers

and bipolar steppers.

Unipolar Stepper Motors

The unipolar stepper motor has five or six wires and four

coils (actually two coils divided by center connections on

each coil). The center connections of the coils are tied

together and used as the power connection. They are called

unipolar steppers because power always comes in on this one

pole.


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Bipolar stepper motors

The bipolar stepper motor usually has four wires coming out of

it. Unlike unipolar steppers, bipolar steppers have no common

center connection. They have two independent sets of coils

instead. You can distinguish them from unipolar steppers by

measuring the resistance between the wires. You should find

two pairs of wires with equal resistance. If youve got the

leads of your meter connected to two wires that are not

connected (i.e. not attached to the same coil), you should see

infinite resistance (or no continuity).

Like other motors, stepper motors require more power than a

microcontroller can give them, so youll need a separate power

supply for it. Ideally youll know the voltage from the

manufacturer, but if not, get a variable DC power supply,

apply the minimum voltage (hopefully 3V or so), apply voltage

across two wires of a coil (e.g. 1 to 2 or 3 to 4) and slowly


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raise the voltage until the motor is difficult to turn. It is

possible to damage a motor this way, so dont go too far.

Typical voltages for a stepper might be 5V, 9V, 12V, 24V.

Higher than 24V is less common for small steppers, and

frankly, above that level its best not to guess.

To control the stepper, apply voltage to each of the coils in

a specific sequence. The sequence would go like this:

Step wire 1 wire 2 wire 3 wire 4

1 High low high low

2 low high high low

3 low high low high4 high low low high

To control a unipolar stepper, you use a Darlington Transistor

Array. The stepping sequence is as shown above. Wires 5 and 6

are wired to the supply voltage.

To control a bipolar stepper motor, you give the coils current

using to the same steps as for a unipolar stepper motor.

However, instead of using four coils, you use the both poles

of the two coils, and reverse the polarity of the current.


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Solar panel

Solar energy begins with the sun. Solar panels, also known as

photovoltaics, are used to convert light from the sun, which

is composed of particles of energy called "photons", intoelectricity that can be used to power elecrical loads. Light

from the sun is a renewable energy resource which provides

clean energy, produced by solar panels.

Solar panels can be used for a wide variety of applications

including remote power systems for cabins, telecommunications

equipment, remote sensing, and of course for the production of

electricity by residential and commercial solar panel systems.

On this page, we will discuss the history, technology, and

benefits of solar panels. We will learn how solar panels work,

how solar panels are made, where you can buy solar panels, andhow solar panels create electricity.

How Do Solar Panels Work ?

Solar panels collect clean renewable energy in the form of

sunlight and convert that light into electricity which can

then be used to provide power for electrical loads. Solar

panels are comprised of several individual solar cells which

are themselves composed of layers of silicon, phosphorous(which provides the negative charge), and boron (which

provides the positive charge). Solar panels absorb the photons

and in doing so initiate an electric current. The resulting

energy generated from photons striking the surface of the

solar panel allows electrons to be knocked out of their atomic

orbits and released into the electric field generated by the

solar cells which then pull these free electrons into a

directional current This entire process is known as the

Photovoltaic Effect.

An average home has more than enough roof area for the

necessary number of solar panels to produce enough solarelectricrity to supply all of its power needs. Assisted by an

inverter, a device that converts the direct current (or DC

current), generated by a solar panel into alternating current

(or AC current), solar panel arrays can be sized to meet the

most demanding electrical load requirements. The AC current

can be used to power loads in your home or commercial

building, your recreational vehicle or your boat (RV/Marine

Solar Panels), your remote cabin or home, and remote traffic

controls, telecommunications equipment, oil and gas flow

monitoring, RTU, SCADA, and much more.
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The Benefits of Solar Panels

Using solar panels is a very practical way to produce

electricity for many applications. The obvious would have to

be off-grid living. Living off-grid means living in a location

that is not serviced by the main electric utility grid. Remote

homes and cabins benefit nicely from solar power systems. No

longer is it necessary to pay huge fees for the installation

of electric utility poles and cabling from the nearest main

grid access point. A solar electric system is potentially less

expensive and can provide power for upwards of three decades

if properly maintained.

Besides the fact that solar panels make it possible to liveoff-grid, perhaps the greatest benefit that you would enjoy

from the use of solar power is that it is both a clean and a

renewable source of energy. With the advent of global climate

change, it has become more important that we do whatever we

can to reduce the pressure on our atmosphere from the emission

of greenhouse gases. Solar panels have no moving parts and

require little maintenance. They are ruggedly built and last

for decades when porperly maintained.

Last, but not least, of the benefits of solar panels and solar

power is that, once a system has paid for its initial

installation costs, the electricity it produces for the

remainder of the system's lifespan, which could be as much as

15-20 years depending on the quality of the system, is

absolutely free! For grid-tie solar power system owners, the

benefits begin from the moment the system comes online,

potentially eliminating monthy electric bills or, and this is

the best part, actually earning the system's owner additional

income from the electric company. How? If you use less power

than your solar electric system produces, that excess power

can be sold, sometimes at a premium, to your electric utility

company!

There are many other applications and benefits of using solar

panels to generate your electricity needs - too many to list

here. But as you browse our website, you'll gain a good

general knowledge of just how versatile and convenient solar

power can be.


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A TYPICAL SOLAR PANEL
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LED street lamp

Amidst all the hubbub about tackling global warming and

cultivating green energy, one subject receives little

coverage: streetlights. While an important public service,

streetlights are expensive to maintain and taken together,

suck down a lot of energy. So when a city like Los Angeles

announces that it's converting 140,000 streetlights to light

emitting diodes or LEDs, and Pittsburgh states that it's

considering doing the same with 40,000 lights, it's time to

take notice.

LEDs are gaining traction as a great alternative totraditional lighting because they are relatively

environmentally friendly, don't consume much electricity and

have long life spans.

Some of the world's biggest electronics firms are now touting

LEDs as the next big thing in lighting, whether in a small

appliance or the biggest skyscrapers. By 2013, the LED market,

which covers anything from holiday lights to those on the

Empire State Building, is expected to be worth $1 billion

In the past, LED lights had been seen in devices likeindicator lights in appliances, calculators or in large sports

scoreboards. But now, many large cities around the world --

Los Angeles, San Francisco, Toronto and Tianjin, China, to

name a few -- are now switching to LED streetlights. Portugal

is in the midst of a massive conversion program that is

expected to encompass all of its streetlights.

In this article, we'll take a close look at why LED

streetlights are taking off. We'll also maintain a critical

eye as we discuss some of the lights' disadvantages.

Advantage of LED Streetlights

Chief among the advantages of LEDs is that they have extremely

long lives -- they don't have filaments that can quickly burn

out -- and they don't contain toxic chemicals like mercury,

unlike traditional high-pressure sodium lamps or mercury-vapor

lamps. An LED light can last 100,000 hours [source: Rosenthal

and Barringer]. These lights also have reduced maintenance

costs because of their long lives, and they give off less heat

than other bulbs. Because they last so long, LEDs are suitable
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for places where replacing light bulbs is expensive,

inconvenient or otherwise difficult.

LEDs are highly energy efficient. While compact fluorescent

lamps (CFLs) recently have been touted as the standard in

green lighting, LEDs actually have double their energy

efficiency [source: Rosenthal and Barringer]. They use 15percent of the energy of an incandescent bulb while generating

more light per watt [source: Taub]. LEDs produce 80 lumens per

watt; traditional streetlights can only muster 58 lumens per

watt [source: Bailey].

Because of their energy efficiency and long lifespan, LED

streetlights are advocated as a means for reducing carbon

emissions. According to one estimate, converting all American

light fixtures to LEDs would halve the amount of energy used

for lighting in the country [source: Rosenthal and Barringer].

By integrating solar panels, the lights can become self-sufficient and even send excess energy back to the grid, with

the adoption of so-called "smart" energy grids.

So what else do these lights have going for them? For one,

there's no warm up needed -- they're quick to turn on. They

don't produce ultraviolet light, which is what attracts bugs.

Because they produce "directional" light -- light emitted in

one direction, rather than a diffused glow -- they can be used

to direct light on specific areas. Unlike compact fluorescent

lamps, they can be dimmed, allowing for more flexibility in

controlling light levels. Some cities have harnessed LED

lights to create clever effects, such as increasing in

brightness when a pedestrian walks by or integrating systems

that alert officials when a particular light needs

maintenance. They can also be used to blink rapidly to signal

to emergency responders where they are needed.
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A TYPICAL LED PANEL


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Advantages of Wind And Solar Powered Lamp

A massive tower structure is less frequently used, as wind and

solar poweredlamp are more frequently mounted with the lower

bearing mounted near the ground.

Designs without yaw mechanisms are possible with fixed

pitch rotor designs.

A wind and solar powered lamp can be located nearer the

ground, making it easier to maintain the moving parts.

wind and solar powered lamp have lower wind startup

speeds than HAWTs. Typically, they start creating

electricity at 6 m.p.h. (10 km/h).

wind and solar powered lamp may be built at locations

where taller structures are prohibited.

wind and solar powered lamp situated close to the ground

can take advantage of locations where mesas, hilltops,

ridgelines, and passes funnel the wind and increase wind

velocity.

wind and solar powered lamp may have a lower noisesignature.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesa


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Disadvantages of Wind And Solar Powered Lamp

Most wind and solar powered lamp produce energy at only 50%

of the efficiency of HAWTs in large part because of the

additional drag that they have as their blades rotate into

the wind. Versions that reduce drag produce more energy,

especially those that funnel wind into the collector area.

A wind and solar powered lamp that uses guy-wires to hold it

in place puts stress on the bottom bearing as all the weightof the rotor is on the bearing. Guy wires attached to the

top bearing increase downward thrust in wind gusts. Solving

this problem requires a superstructure to hold a top bearing

in place to eliminate the downward thrusts of gust events in

guy wired models.

While wind and solar powered lamp parts are located on the

ground, they are also located under the weight of the

structure above it, which can make changing out parts nearly

impossible without dismantling the structure if not designed

properly.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy-wireshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy-wires


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APPLICATIONS

wind and solar powered lamp can be used in many places like:

In our cities in place of street light polls we can use this

wind and solar powered lamp with lights attached to it so

that it can generate electricity any time or any season and

give light.

It can be used in village also.

It can be used in our houses also

It can be used in many other places where there is problem

in reaching sun light or the area is covered with high

buildings and does not got much area to to put horizontal

wind turbines.


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ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

It is pertinent that economic justification should be made

while attempting to optimize the size of integrated powergeneration systems favouring an affordable unit price of power

produced. The economic analysis7 of the hybrid system has been

made and the cost aspects have also been taken into account

for optimization of the size of the systems. Using the model

developed various costs namely, LEC, LUC and LCC have been

computed considering the life period and replacement costs of

the individual systems. Life cycle cost analysis is a tool

used to compare the ultimate delivered cost of technologies

with different cost structures the pay back analysis method

for PV wind hybrid system depends on the various parameters

such as investment, replacement cost, annual operation andmaintenance cost, income etc. Table-1 shows the cost values of

the economic parameters and components for the base case.


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References

greenterrafirma.com

www.alvestaenergy.com

www.vawtmuce.com

www.reuk.co.uk

www.petersonpower.com

www.envirotekpower.co.uk

www.solarpanelinfo.com

www.tatabpsolar.com

www.greenpower4less.com

www.energysavers.gov

CONCLUSION
http://www.vawtmuce.com/http://www.vawtmuce.com/


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In the present scenario standalone solar photovoltaic and wind

systems have been promoted around the globe on a comparatively

larger scale. These independent systems cannot provide

continuous source of energy, as they are seasonal. The solar

and wind energies are complement in nature. By integrating andoptimizing the solar photovoltaic and wind systems, the

reliability of the systems can be improved and the unit cost

of power can be minimized.

A PV wind hybrid systems is designed for rural electrification

for the required load at specified Deficiency of Power Supply

Probability (DPSP). A new methodology has been developed to

determine the size of the PV wind hybrid system using site

parameters, types of wind systems, types of solar photovoltaic

system, number of days of autonomy of battery and life period

of the system.

A primary model was developed to optimize PV-wind hybridsystem for any specific location, by considering the

parameters DPSP and REPG. The developed model processes the

input parameters pertaining to the wind velocity, solar

insolation, environment temperature, load distribution, wind

and PV system parameters like cut-in-speed, cut-off-speed,

rated speed, rotor diameter, hub height, peak module power,

capacity of the PV panel and wind systems. It computes the

output parameters like PV capacity, array configuration,

number of modules, tilt angle, inverter capacity, battery

capacity, charge controller capacity and wind machine

capacity. The optimal size of the hybrid system is determinedbased on the calculated values of REPG for a specified DPSP.

Thus the model suggests the optimum combination of the

capacity of wind, PV and battery units of a chosen type that

can generate power with a minimum REPG by implementation of

iterative technique.

A secondary model developed for optimizing techno economic

aspects like LCC, LEC or LUC considering the parameters like

life period of solar system, wind system, battery discount

rate, escalation rate, cost of the module, wind machine,

battery, inverter BOS components and CO2 mitigation cost for

solar photovoltaic wind hybrid system.

DECLARATION


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I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my

knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by

another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the

award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher

learning, except where due acknowledgment has been made in the text.

Signature

Name

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