1. empiricism the view that knowledge originates inexperience and that science should,therefore, rely and observation andexperimentation.

2. structuralism an early school of psychology that usedintrospection to explore the elementalstructure of the human mind

3. functionalism a school of psychology that focused onhow our mental and behavioral processesfunction-how they enable us to adapt,survive and flourish

4. experimentalpsychology

the study of behavior and thinking usingthe experimental method

5. behaviorism the view that psychology (1) should be anobjective science that (2) studies behaviorwithout reference to mental processes.Most research psychologists today agreewith (1) but not with (2).

6. humanisticpsychology

historically significant perspective thatemphasized the growth potential ofhealthy people and individual's potentialfor fostering personal growth

7. cognitiveneuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brainactivity linked with cognition (includingperception, thinking, memory, andlanguage)

8. psychology The science of behavior and mentalprocesses

9. nature-nurtureissue

the longstanding controversy over therelative contributions that genes andexperience make to the development ofpsychological traits and behaviors.Today's science sees traits and behaviorsarising from the interaction of nature andnurture

10. naturalselection

the principle that, among the range ofinherited variation, those contributing toreproduction and survival will most likelybe passed on to succeeding generations.

11. levels of analysis the differing complementary views, frombiological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any givenphenomenon

12. biopsychologicalapproach

an integrated approach that incorporatesbiological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

13. biologicalpsychology

a branch of psychology that studies thelinks between biological (includingneuroscience and behavior genetics) andpsychological processes

14. evolutionarypsychology

the study of the roots of behavior andmental processes using the principles ofnatural selection

15. psychodynamicpsychology

a branch of psychology that studies howunconscious drives and conflicts influencebehavior, and uses that information to treatpeople with psychological disorders.

16. behavioralpsychology

the scientific study of observable behavior,and its explanation by principles oflearning.

17. cognitivepsychology

the scientific study of all the mentalactivities associated with thinking,knowing, remembering, andcommunicating.

18. social-culturalpsychology

the study of how situations and culturesaffect our behavior and thinking.

19. psychometric the scientific study of the measurement ofhuman abilities, attitudes, and traits

20. basic research pure science that aims to increase thescientific knowledge base.

21. developmentalpsychology

the scientific study of physical, cognitive,and social change throughout the life span

22. educationalpsychology

The study of how psychological processesaffect and can enhance teaching andlearning.

23. personalitypsychology

the study of individual's characteristicspatter of thinking, feeling, and acting.

24. socialpsychology

The scientific study of how we think about,influence, and relate to one another.

25. appliedresearch

scientific study that aims to solve practicalproblems.

26. industrialorganization(I/O)psychology

the application of psychological conceptsand methods to optimizing humanbehavior in workplaces.

27. human factorspsychology

the study of how people and machinesinteract and the design of safe and easilyused machines and environments.

28. counselingpsychology

a branch of psychology that assists peoplewith problems in living (often related toschool, work, or marriage) and inachieving greater well-being.

29. clinicalpsychology

A branch of psychology that studies,assesses, and treats people withpsychological disorders.

Myer's Psychology for AP* Vocabulary [All 14 Units]Study online at quizlet.com/_1axn90

30. psychiatry a branch of medicine dealing withpsychological disorders; practiced byphysicians who sometimes provide medical (forexample, drug) treatments as well aspsychological therapy.

31. SQ3R a study method incorporating five steps: survey,question, read, rehearse, review.

32. hindsightbias

the tendency to believe, after learning anoutcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Alsoknown as the I-knew-it-all-alongphenomenon.)

33. criticalthinking

thinking that does not blindly accept argumentsand conclusions. Rather, it examinesassumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluatesevidence, and assesses conclusions.

34. theory an explanation using an integrated set ofprinciples that organizes observations andpredicts behaviors or events.

35. hypothesis a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.36. operational

definitiona statement of the procedures (operations) usedto define research variables. For example,human intelligence may be operationallydefined as what an intelligence test measures.

37. replication repeating the essence of a research study,usually with different participants in differentsituations, to see whether the basic findingextends to other participants andcircumstances.

38. case study an observation technique in which one personis studied in depth in the hope of revealinguniversal principles.

39. survey a technique for ascertaining the self-reportedattitudes or behaviors of a particular group,usually by questioning a representative, randomsample of the group.

40. population all the cases in a group being studied, fromwhich samples may be drawn. (Note: Except fornational studies, this does not refer to acountry's whole population.)

41. randomsample

a sample that fairly represents a populationbecause each member has an equal chance ofinclusion.

42. naturalisticobservation

observing and recording behavior in naturallyoccurring situations without trying tomanipulate and control the situation.

43. correlation a measure of the extent to which two factorsvary together, and thus of how well either factorpredicts the other.

44. correlationcoefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between tothings (from -1 to +1).

45. scatterplot a graphed cluster of dots, each of whichrepresents the values of two variables. Theslop of the points suggests the direction of therelationship between the two variables. Theamount of scatter suggests the strength of thecorrelation (little scatter indicates highcorrelation).

46. illusorycorrelation

the perception of a relationship where noneexists.

47. experiment a research method in which an investigatormanipulates one or more factors (independentvariables) to observe the effect on somebehavior or mental process (the dependentvariable). By random assignment ofparticipants, the experimenter aims to controlother relevant factors.

48. randomassignment

assigning participants to experimental andcontrol groups by chance, thus minimizingpreexisting differences between thoseassigned to the different groups.

49. double-blindprocedure

an experiment procedure in which both theresearch participants and the research staffare ignorant (blind) about whether theresearch participants have received thetreatment or a placebo. Commonly used indrug-evaluation studies.

50. placeboeffect

experimental results caused by expectationsalone; any effect on behavior caused by theadministration of an inert substance orcondition, which the recipient assumes is anactive agent.

51. experimentalgroup

in an experiment, the group that is exposed tothe treatment, that is, to one version of theindependent variable.

52. controlgroup

in an experiment, the group that is notexposed to the treatment; contrasts with theexperimental group and serves as acomparison for evaluating the effect of thetreatment.

53. independentvariable

the experimental factor that is manipulated;the variable whose effect is being studied.

54. confoundingvariable

a factor other than the independent variablethat might produce an effect in an experiment.

55. dependentvariable

the outcome factor; the variable that maychange in response to manipulations of theindependent variable.

56. mode the most frequently occurring score(s) in adistribution.

57. mean the arithmetic average of a distribution,obtained by adding the scores and thendividing by the number of scores.

58. median the middle score in a distribution; half thescores are above it and half are below it.

59. range the difference between the highest and lowerscores in a distribution.

60. standarddeviation

a computed measure of how much scores varyaround the mean score.

61. normal curve a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve thatdescribes the distribution of many types ofdata; most scores fall near the mean (68% fallwithin one standard deviation of it) and fewerand fewer near the extremes.

62. statisticalsignificance

a statistical statement of how likely it is thatan obtained result occurred by chance.

63. culture the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, andtraditions shared by a group of people andtransmitted form one generation to the next.

64. informedconsent

an ethical principle that research participantsbe told enough to enable them to choosewhether they wish to participate.

65. debriefing the postexperimental explanation for a study,including its purpose and any deceptions, toits participants.

66. biologicalpsychology

a branch of psychology concerned with thelinks between biology and behavior.

67. neuron a nerve cell; the basic building block of thenervous system.

68. sensoryneurons

neurons that carry incoming informationfrom the sensory receptors to the brain andspinal cord.

69. motorneurons

neurons that carry outgoing information fromthe brain and spinal cord to the muscles andglands.

70. interneurons neurons within the brain and spinal cord thatcommunicate internally and intervenebetween sensory inputs and motor outputs.

71. dendrite the bushy, branching extensions of a neuronthat receive messages and conduct impulsestoward the cell body.

72. axon the extension of a neuron, ending inbranching terminal fivers through whichmessages pass to other neurons or to musclesor glands.

73. myelinsheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing thefivers of many neurons; enables vastly greatertransmission speed of neural impulses as thepulse hops from one node to the next.

74. actionpotential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge thattravels down an axon.

75. threshold the level of stimulation required to trigger aneural impulse.

76. synapse the junction between the axon tip of thesending neuron and the dendrite or cellbody of the receiving neuron. The tinygap at the junction is called thesynaptic gap or synaptic cleft.

77. neurotransmitters chemical messengers that cross thesynaptic gaps between neurons. Whenreleased by the sending neuron,neurotransmitters travel across thesynapse and bind to the receptor siteson the receiving neuron, therebyinfluencing whether that neuron willgenerate a neural impulse.

78. reuptake a neurotransmitter's reabsorption bythe sending neuron.

79. endorphins "morphine within" - natural, opiatelikeneurotransmitters linked to paincontrol and to pleasure.

80. nervous system the body's speedy electrochemicalcommunication network, consisting ofall the nerve cells of the peripheral andcentral nervous systems.

81. central nervoussystem (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord.

82. peripheralnervous system(PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons thatconnect the central nervous system(CNS) to the rest of the body.

83. nerves bundled axons that form neural cablesconnecting the central nervous systemwith muscles, glands, and sense oforgans.

84. somatic nervoussystem

the division of the peripheral nervoussystem that controls the body'd skeletalmuscles. Also called the skeletalnervous system.

85. autonomicnervous system

the part of the peripheral nervoussystem that controls the glands and themuscles of the internal organs (such asthe heart). Its sympathetic divisionarouses; its parasympathetic divisioncalms.

86. sympatheticnervous system

the division of the autonomic nervoussystem that arouses the body,mobilizing its energy in stressfulsituations.

87. parasympatheticnervous system

the division of the autonomic nervoussystem that calms the body, conservingits energy.

88. reflex a simple automatic response to asensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerkresponse.

89. endocrine system the body's "slow" chemicalcommunication system; a set ofglands that secrete hormones intothe blood stream.

90. hormones chemical messengers that aremanufactured buy the endocrineglands, travel through thebloodstream, and affect othertissues.

91. adrenal glands a pair of endocrine glands that sitjust above the kidneys and secretehormones (epinephrine andnorepinephrine) that help arousethe body in times of stress.

92. pituitary gland the endocrine system's mostinfluential gland. Under theinfluence of the hypothalamus, thepituitary regulates growth andcontrols other endocrine glands.

93. lesion tissue destruction; a brain lesion isa naturally or experimentallycaused destruction of brain tissue.

94. electroencephalogram an amplified recording of thewaves of electrical activity thatsweep across the brain's surface.These waves are measured byelectrodes placed on the scalp.

95. CT (computedtomography) scan

a series of X-ray photographstaken from different angles andcombined by computer into acomposite representation of a slicethrough the body. Also called CATscan.

96. PET (positronemissiontomography) scan

a visual display of brain activitythat detects where a radioactiveform of glucose goes while thebrain performs a given task.

97. MRI (magneticresonance imaging)

a technique that uses magneticfields and radio waves to producecomputer-generated images of softtissue. Shows brain anatomy.

98. fMRI (functionalMRI)

a technique for revealingbloodflow and, therefore, brainactivity by comparing successiveMRI scans. Shows brain function.

99. brainstem the oldest part and central core ofthe brain, beginning where thespinal cord swells as it enters theskull; is responsible for automaticsurvival functions.

100. medulla the base of the brainstem; controlsheartbeat and breathing.

101. reticularformation

a nerve network in the brainstem that playsan important role in controlling arousal.

102. thalamus the brain's sensory switchboard, located ontop of the brainstem; it directs messages tothe sensory reviving areas in the cortex andtransmits replies to the cerebellum andmedulla.

103. cerebellum the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem;functions include processing sensory inputand coordinating movement output andbalance.

104. limbic system doughnut-shaped neural system (includingthe hippocampus, amygdala, andhypothalamus) located below the cerebralhemispheres; associated with emotions anddrives.

105. amygdala two lima bean-sized neural clusters in thelimbic system; linked to emotion.

106. hypothalamus a neural structure lying below the thalamus;it directs several maintenance activities(eating, drinking, body temperature), helpsgovern the endocrine system via thepituitary gland, and is linked to emotionand reward.

107. cerebralcortex

the intricate fabic of interconnected neuralcells covering the cerebral hemispheres; thebody's ultimate control and information-processing center.

108. glial cell cells in the nervous system that support,nourish, and protect neurons.

109. frontal lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying justbehind the forehead; involved in speakingand muscle movements and in makingplans and judgements.

110. parietal lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the topof the head and toward the rear; receivessensory input for touch and body position.

111. occipital lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying at theback of the head; includes areas that receiveinformation from the visual fields.

112. temporallobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughlyabove the ears; includes the auditory areas,each receiving information primarily fromthe opposite ear.

113. motor cortex an area at the rear of the frontal lobes thatcontrols voluntary movements.

114. sensorycortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes thatregisters and processes body touch andmovement sensations.

115. association areas areas of the cerebral cortex that are notinvolved in primary motor or sensoryfunctions; rather, they are involved inhigher mental functions such aslearning, remembering, thinking , andspeaking.

116. aphasia impairment of language, usually causedby left hemisphere damage either toBroca's area (impairing speaking) or toWernicke's area (impairingunderstanding).

117. Broca's area controls language expression - an area,usually in the left frontal lobe, thatdirects the muscle movements involvedin speech.

118. Wernicke's area controls language reception - a brainarea involved in languagecomprehension and expression; usuallyin the left temporal lobes.

119. plasticity the brain's ability to change, especiallyduring childhood, by reorganizing afterdamage or by building new pathwaysbased on experience.

120. neurogenesis the formation of new neurons121. corpus callosum the large band of neural fibers

connecting the two brain hemispheresand carrying messages between them.

122. split brain a condition resulting from surgery thatisolates the brain's two hemispheres bycutting the fibers (mainly those of thecorpus callosum connecting them).

123. consciousness our awareness of ourselves and ourenvironment.

124. cognitiveneuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brainactivity linked with cognition(including perception, thinking,memory, and language).

125. dual processing the principle that information is oftensimultaneously processed on separateconscious and unconscious tracks.

126. behavior genetics the study of the relative power andlimits of genetic and environmentalinfluences on behavior.

127. environment every nongenetic influence, fromprenatal nutrition to the people andthings around us.

128. chromosomes threadlike structures made of DNAmolecules that contain the genes.

129. DNA(deoxyribonucleicacid)

a complex molecule containing thegenetic information that makes up thechromosomes

130. genes the biochemical units of heredity that makeup the chromosomes; segments of DNAcapable of synthesizing a protein.

131. genome the complete instructions for making anorganism, consisting of all the geneticmaterial in that organism's chromosomes.

132. identicaltwins

twins who develop from a single fertilized eggthat splits in two, creating two geneticallyidentical organisms.

133. fraternaltwins

twins who develop from separate fertilizedeggs. They are genetically no closer thatbrothers and sisters, but they share a fetalenvironment.

134. heritablity the proportion of variation among individualsthat we can attribute to genes. This may vary,depending on the range of populations andenvironments studied.

135. interaction the interplay that occurs when the effect ofone factor (such as environment) depends onanother factor (such as heredity).

136. moleculargenetics

the subfield of biology that studies themolecular structure and functions of genes.

137. evolutionarypsychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and themind, using principles of natural selection.

138. naturalselection

the principle that, among the range ofinherited trait variations, those that lead toincreased reproduction and survival will mostlikely be passed on to succeedinggenerations.

139. mutation a random error in gene replication that leadsto a change.

140. sensation the faculty through which the external worldis apprehended

141. perception the process of organizing and interpretingsensory information, enabling us torecognize meaningful objects and events

142. bottom-upprocessing

analysis that begins with the sensoryreceptors and works up to the brain'sintegration of sensory information

143. top- downprocessing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we constructperceptions drawing on our experience andexpectations

144. selectiveattention

the focusing of conscious awareness on aparticular stimulus, as in the cocktail partyeffect

145. inattentionalblindness

failing to see visible objects when ourattention is directed elsewhere

146. changeblindness

the tendency to fail to detect changes in anypart of a scene to which we are not focusingour attention

147. psychophysics the study of relationships between thephysical characteristics of stimuli, such astheir intensity, and our psychologicalexperience of them

148. absolutethreshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect aparticular stimulus 50 percent of the time

149. signaldetectiontheory

A theory predicting how and when wedetect the presence of a faint stimulus("Signal") amid background stimulation("Noise"). Assumes there is no singleabsolute threshold and detection dependspartly on a person's experience,expectations, motivation, and level offatigue.

150. subliminal below one's absolute threshold forconscious awareness

151. priming The activation, often unconsciously, ofcertain associations, thus predisposingone's perception, memory, or response

152. differencethreshold

the minimum difference between twostimuli required for detection 50 percent ofthe time. We experience the differencethreshold as a just noticeable difference.(Also called just noticeable difference orJND.)

153. Weber's law The principle that, to be perceived asdifferent, two stimuli must differ by aconstant minimum percentage (rather thana constant amount)

154. sensoryadaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence ofconstant stimulation

155. transduction conversion of one form of energy intoanother. In sensation, the transforming ofstimulus energies, such as sights, sounds,and smells, into neural impulses our brainscan interpret.

156. wavelength The distance between crests of waves, suchas those of the electromagnetic spectrum.

157. hue The dimension of color that is determinedby the wavelength of light; what we knowas the color names blue, green, and soforth.

158. intensity the amount of energy in a light or soundwave, which we perceive as brightness orloudness, as determined by the wave'samplitude

159. pupil the adjustable opening in the center of theeye through which light enters

160. iris a ring of muscle tissue that forms thecolored portion of the eye around the pupiland controls the size of the pupil opening

161. lens the transparent structure behind the pupilthat changes shape to help focus imageson the retina

162. retina the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye,containing the receptor rods and conesplus layers of neurons that begin theprocessing of visual information

163. acommodation act or state of adjustment or adaptation,changes in shape of the occular lens forvarious focal distances

164. rods retinal receptors that detect black, white,and gray; necessary for peripheral andtwilight vision, when cones don't respond

165. cones Retinal receptor cells that are concentratednear the center of the retina and thatfunction in daylight or in well-litconditions. The cones detect fine detail andgive rise to color sensations.

166. optic nerve the nerve that carries neural impulses fromthe eye to the brain

167. blind spot the point at which the optic nerve leavesthe eye, creating a blind spot because noreceptor cells are located there

168. fovea the central focal point in the retina, aroundwhich the eye's cones cluster

169. featuredetectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond tospecific features of the stimulus, such asshape, angle, or movement

170. parallelprocessing

The processing of several aspects of aproblem simultaneously; the brain'snatural mode of information processing formany functions, including vision.Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial)processing of most computers and ofconscious problem solving.

171. Young-Helmhotztrichromatic

retina contains three diff color receptors(blue green red)

172. opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes(red-green, yellow-blue, white-black)enable color vision. For example, somecells are stimulated by green and inhibitedby red; others are stimulated by red andinhibited by green

173. audition the sense or act of hearing174. frequency The number of complete waves that pass a

given point in a certain amount of time175. pitch a tone's highness or lowness; depends on

frequency

176. middle ear the chamber between the eardrum andcochlea containing three tiny bones(hammer, anvil, and stirrup) thatconcentrate the vibrations of the eardrumon the cochlea's oval window

177. cochela The fluid-filled, coiled tunnel in the innerear that contains the receptors for hearing.

178. inner ear structures and liquids that relay soundwaves to the auditory nerve fibers on a pathto the brain for interpretation of sound

179. place theory in hearing, the theory that links the pitchwe hear with the place where the cochlea'smembrane is stimulated

180. frequencytheory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerveimpulses traveling up the auditory nervematches the frequency of a tone, thusenabling us to sense its pitch

181. conductionhearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to themechanical system that conducts soundwaves to the cochlea

182. sensorieneuralhearing loss

hearing impairment caused by lesions ordysfunction of the cochlea or auditorynerve

183. cochlearimplant

a device for converting sounds intoelectrical signals and stimulating theauditory nerve through electrodes threadedinto the cochlea

184. kinesthesis the system for sensing the position andmovement of individual body parts

185. vestibularsense

a sensory system located in structures ofthe inner ear that registers the orientationof the head

186. gate-controltheory

theory that spinal cord containsneurological gate that blocks pains signalsor allows them to pass. gate is opened byactivity of pain going up small nerve fibers& gate is closed by act of large fibers or byinfo coming from brain

187. sensoryinteraction

the principle that one sense may influenceanother, as when the smell of foodinfluences its taste

188. gestalt an organized whole. Gestalt psychologistsemphasized our tendency to integratepieces of information into meaningfulwholes.

189. figure ground The organization of the visual field intoobjects (the figures) that stand out fromtheir surroundings (the ground).

190. grouping the perceptual tendency to organize stimuliinto coherent groups

191. depthperception

the ability to see objects in threedimensions although the images thatstrike the retina are two-dimensional;allows us to judge distance

192. visual cliff a laboratory device for testing depthperception in infants and young animals

193. binocular cues depth cues, such as retinal disparity andconvergence, that depend on the use oftwo eyes

194. retinaldisparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth; bycomparing images from the two eyeballs,the brain computes distance - the greaterthe disparity (difference) between the twoimages, the close the object

195. monocularcues

depth cues, such as interposition andlinear perspective, available to either eyealone

196. phiphenomenon

an illusion of movement created when twoor more adjacent lights blink on and off inquick succession

197. perceptualconsistency

The perceptual stability of the size, shape,and brightness, and color for familiarobjects seen at varying distances, differentangles, and under different lightingconditions.

198. color constancy perceiving familiar objects as havingconsistent color, even if changingillumination alters the wavelengthsreflected by the object

199. perceptualadaptation

in vision, the ability to adjust to anartificially displaced or even invertedvisual field

200. perceptual set a mental predisposition to perceive onething and not another

201. extrasensoryperception

The controversial claim that perceptioncan occur apart from sensory input. Saidto include telepathy, clairvoyance, andprecognition.

202. parapsychology the study of paranormal phenomena,including ESP and psychokinesis

203. Consciousness our awareness of ourselves and ourenvironment

204. Circadianrhythm

the biological clock; regular bodilyrhythms (for example, of temperature andwakefulness) that occur on a 24-hourcycle

205. REM sleep rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleepstage during which vivid dreams commonlyoccur. Also known as paradoxical sleep,because the muscles are relaxed (except forminor twitches) but other body systems areactive

206. Alpha waves the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed,awake state

207. Sleep periodic, natural loss of consciousness--asdistinct from unconsciousness resultingfrom a coma, general anesthesia, orhibernation

208. hallucinations false sensory experiences, such as seeingsomething in the absence of an externalvisual stimulus

209. delta waves the large, slow brain waves associated withdeep sleep

210. NREM sleep non-rapid eye movement sleep;encompasses all sleep stages except forREM sleep

211. insomnia recurring problems in falling or stayingasleep

212. narcolepsy a sleep disorder characterized byuncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferermay lapse directly into REM sleep, often atinopportune times

213. sleep apnea a sleep disorder characterized by temporarycessations of breathing during sleep andrepeated momentary awakenings

214. night terrors a sleep disorder characterized by higharousal and an appearance of beingterrified; unlike nightmares, night terrorsoccur during Stage 4 sleep, within two orthree hours of falling asleep, and areseldom remembered

215. dream a sequence of images, emotions, andthoughts passing through a sleepingperson's mind. ______ are notable fortheir hallucinatory imagery,discontinuities, and incongruities, and forthe dreamer's delusional acceptance of thecontent and later difficulties rememberingit.

216. manifestcontent

according to Freud, the remembered storyline of a dream (as distinct from its latent,or hidden, content)

217. latent content according to Freud, the underlying meaningof a dream (as distinct from its manifestcontent)

218. REM rebound the tendency for REM sleep to increasefollowing REM sleep deprivation (createdby repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

219. hypnosis a social interaction in which one person(the hypnotist) suggests to another (thesubject) that certain perceptions, feelings,thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneouslyoccur

220. posthypnoticsuggestion

a suggestion, made during a hypnosissession, to be carried out after the subject isno longer hypnotized; used by someclincians to help control undesiredsymptoms and behaviors

221. dissociation a split in consciousness, which allowssome thoughts and behaviors to occursimultaneously with others

222. psychoactivedrug

a chemical substance that altersperceptions and moods

223. tolerance the diminishing effect with regular use ofthe same dose of a drug, requiring the userto take larger and larger doses beforeexperiencing the drug's effect

224. withdrawal the discomfort and distress that followdiscontinuing the use of an addictive drug

225. physicaldependence

a physiological need for a drug, marked byunpleasant withdrawal symptoms whenthe drug is discontinued

226. psychologicaldependence

a psychological need to use a drug, such asto relieve negative emotions

227. addiction compulsive drug craving and use, despiteadverse consequences

228. depressants drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, andopiates) that reduce neural activity andslow body functions

229. barbiturates drugs that depress the activity of the centralnervous system, reducing anxiety butimpairing memory and judgement

230. opiates opium and its derivatives, such asmorphine and heroin; they depress neuralactivity, temporarily lessening pain andanxiety

231. stimulants drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and themore powerful amphetamines, cocaine,and Ecstacy) that excite neural activity andspeed up body functions

232. amphetamines drugs that stimulate neural activity,causing speeded-up body functions andassociated energy and mood changes

233. methamphetamine a powerfully addictive drug thatstimulates the central nervous system,with speeded-up body functions andassociated energy and mood changes;over time, appears to reduce baselinedopamine levels

234. Ecstacy (MDMA) a synthetic stimulant and mildhallucinogen. Produces euphoria andsocial intimacy, but with short-termhealth risks and longer-term harm toserotonin-producing neurons and tomood and cognition

235. hallucinogens psychedelic ("mind-manifesting")drugs, such as LSD, that distortperceptions and evoke sensory imagesin the absence of sensory input

236. LSD a powerful hallucinogenic drug; alsoknown as acid (lysergic aciddiethylamide)

237. near-deathexperience

an altered state of consciousnessreported after a close brush with death(such as through cardiac arrest); oftensimilar to drug-induced hallucinations

238. THC the major active ingredient inmarijuana; triggers a variety of effects,including mild hallucinations

239. learning a relatively permanent change in anorganism's behavior due to experience

240. habituation an organism's decreasing response toa stimulus with repeated exposure to it

241. associativelearning

learning that certain events occurtogether. the events may be two stimuli(as in classical conditioning) or aresponse and its consequences (as inoperant conditioning)

242. classicalconditioning

a type of learning in which one learnsto link two or more stimuli andanticipate events

243. behaviorism the view that psychology (1) should bean objective science that (2) studiesbehavior without reference to mentalprocesses. most researchpsychologists today agree with (1) butnot (2)

244. unconditionedresponse

in classical conditioning, theunlearned, naturally occurringresponse to the unconditionedstimulus, such as salivation whenfood is in the mouth

245. unconditionedstimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulusthat unconditionally-naturally andautomatically-triggers a response

246. conditionedresponse

in classical conditioning, the learnedresponse to a previously neutral stimulus

247. conditionedstimulus

in classical conditioning, an originallyirrelevant stimulus that, after associationwith an unconditioned stimulus, comes totrigger a conditioned response

248. acquisition in classical conditioning, the initial stage,when one links a neutral stimulus and anunconditioned stimulus so that the neutralstimulus begins triggering the conditionedresposne. in operant conditioning, thestrengthening of a reinforced response

249. higher-orderconditioning

a procedure in which the conditionedstimulus in one conditioning experience ispaired with a new neutral stimulus,creating a second (often weaker)conditioned stimulus

250. extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response;occurs in classical conditioning when anunconditioned stimulus does not follow aconditioned stimulus; occurs in operantconditioning when a response is no longerreinforced

251. spontaneousrecovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of anextinguished conditioned response

252. generalization the tendency, once a response has beenconditioned, for a stimuli similar to theconditioned stimulus to elicit similarresponses

253. discrimination in classical conditioning, the learnedability to distinguish between aconditioned stimulus and stimuli that donot signal an unconditioned stimulus

254. learnedhelplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignationan animal or human learns when unableto avoid repeated aversive events

255. respondentbehavior

behavior that occurs as an automaticresponse to some stimulus

256. operantconditioning

a type of learning in which behavior isstrengthened if followed by a reinforcer ordiminished if followed by a punisher

257. operantbehavior

behavior that operates on the environment,producing consequences

258. law of effect Thorndike's principle that behaviorsfollowed by favorable consequencesbecome more likely, and that behaviorfollowed by unfavorable consequencesbecome less likely

259. operantchamber

in operant conditioning research, achamber (also known as a Skinner box)containing a bar or key that an animal canmanipulate to obtain a food or waterreinforcer; attached devices record theanimal;s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

260. shaping an operant conditioning procedure inwhich reinforcers guide behavior towardcloser and closer approximations of thedesired behavior

261. discriminativestimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus thatelicits a response after association withreinforcement (in contrast to related stimulinot associated with reinforcement)

262. reinforcer in operant conditioning, any event thatstrengthens the behavior it follows

263. positivereinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positivestimuli, such as food; any stimulus that,when presented after a response,strengthens the response

264. negativereinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping orreducing negative stimuli, such as shock;any stimulus that, when removed after aresponse, strengthens the response (NOTpunishment)

265. primaryreinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such asone that satisfies a biological need

266. conditionedreinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing powerthrough its association with a primaryreinforcer; also known as a secondaryreinforcer

267. continuousreinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every timeit occurs

268. partial(intermittent)reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time;results in slower acquisition of s responsebut much greater resistance to extinctionthan does continuous reinorcement

269. fixed-ratioschedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcementschedule that reinforces a response onlyafter a specified number of responses

270. variable-ratioschedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcementschedule that reinforces a response after anunpredictable number of responses

271. fixed-intervalschedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcementschedule that reinforces a response onlyafter a specified time has elapsed

272. variable-intervalschedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcementschedule that reinforces a response atunpredictable time intervals

273. punishment an event that decreases the behavior that itfollows

274. cognitivemap

a mental representation of the layout of one'senvironment. for example, after exploring amaze, rats act as if they have learned this

275. latentlearning

learning that occurs but is not apparent untilthere is an incentive to demonstrate it

276. insight a sudden and often novel realization of thesolution to a problem

277. intrinsicmotivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively forits own sake

278. extrinsicmotivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receivepromised rewards or avoid threatenedpunishment

279. biofeedback a system for electronically recording,amplifying, and feeding back informationregarding a subtle psychological state, suchas blood pressure or muscle tension

280. observationallearning

learning by observing others; also calledsocial learning

281. modeling the process of observing and imitating aspecific behavior

282. mirrorneurons

frontal lobe neurons that fire whenperforming certain actions or whenobserving another doing so; the brain'smirroring of another;s action may enableimitation and empathy

283. prosocialbehavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior; theopposite of antisocial behavior

284. memory the persistence of learning over time throughthe storage and retrieval of information

285. encoding the processing of information into thememory system

286. storage the retention of encoded information overtime

287. retrieval the process of getting information out ofmemory storage

288. sensorymemory

the immediate, very brief recording ofsensory information in the memory system

289. short-termmemory

activated memory that holds a few itemsbriefly before the information is stored orforgotten

290. long-termmemory

the relatively permanent and limitlessstorehouse of the memory system; includesknowledge, skills, and experiences

291. workingmemory

a newer understanding of short-termmemory that focuses on conscious, activeprocessing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of informationretrieved from long-term memory

292. parallelprocessing

the processing of many aspects of a problemsimultaneously; the brain's natural mode ofinformation processing for many functions.Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial)processing of most computers and ofconscious problem solving.

293. automaticprocessing

unconscious encoding of incidentalinformation, such as space time, andfrequency, and of well-learned information,such as word meanings.

294. effortfulprocessing

encoding that requires attention andconscious effort.

295. rehearsal the conscious repetition of information, eitherto maintain it in consciousness or to encode itfor storage.

296. spacingeffect

the tendency for distributed study of practiceto yield better long-term retention that isachieved through massed study or practice.

297. serialpositioneffect

our tendency to recall best the last and firstitems in a list.

298. visualencoding

the encoding of picture images

299. acousticencoding

the encoding of sound, especially the sound ofwords

300. semanticencoding

the encoding of meaning, including themeaning of words

301. imagery mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortfulprocessing, especially when combined withsemantic encoding

302. menemonics memory aids, especially those techniques thatuse vivid imagery and organizational devices

303. chunking organizing items into familiar, manageableunits; often occurs automatically

304. iconicmemory

a momentary sensory memory of visualstimuli; a photographic or picture-imagememory lasting no more than a few tenths ofa second

305. echoicmemory

a momentary sensory memory of auditorystimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds andwords can still be recalled within 3 or 4seconds

306. long-termpotentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potentialafter brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be aneural basis for learning and memory.

307. flashbulbmemory

a clear memory of an emotionally significantmoment or event

308. amnesia the loss of memory

309. implicitmemory

retention independent of consciousrecollection. (nondeclarative orprocedural memory)

310. explicitmemory

memory of facts and experiences that onecan consciously know and "declare"(declarative memory)

311. hippocampus a neural center that is located in thelimbic system; helps process explicitmemories for storage

312. recall a measure of memory in which the personmust retrieve information learned earlier,as on a fill-in-the-blank test

313. recognition a measure of memory in which the personneed only identify items previouslylearned, as on a multiple-choice test

314. relearning a measure of memory that assesses theamount of time saved when learningmaterial for a second time

315. priming the activation, often unconsciously, ofparticular associations in memroy

316. deja vu the eerie sense that"I've experienced thisbefore." Cues from the current situationmay subconsciously trigger retrieval of anearlier experience

317. mood-congruentmemory

the tendency to recall experiences that areconsistent with one's current good or badmood

318. proactiveinterference

the disruptive effect of prior learning onthe recall of new information

319. retroactiveinterference

the disruptive effect of new learning onthe recall fo old information

320. repression the psychoanalytic theory, the basisdefense mechanism that banishes fromconsciousness anxiety-arousingthoughts, feelings, and memories

321. misinformationeffect

incorporating misleading informationinto one's memory of an event

322. source amnesia attributing to the wrong source an eventwe have experiences, heard about, readabout, or imagined (sourcemisattribution) the heart of many falsememories

323. cognition the mental activities associated withthinking, knowing, remembering, andcommunicating

324. concept a mental grouping of similar objects,events, ideas, or people

325. prototype a mental image or best example of acategory. provides a quick and easymethod for sorting items into categories

326. algorithm a methodical, logical rule or procedurethat guarantees solving a particularproblems. contrasts with the usuallyspeedier - but also more error-prone-use of heuristics

327. heuristic a simple thinking strategy that oftenallows us to make judgements andsolve problems efficiently; usuallyspeedier but also more error-pronethan algorithms

328. insight a sudden and often novel realization ofthe solution to a problem; it contrastswith strategy-based solutions

329. creativity the ability to produce novel andvaluable ideas

330. confirmation bias a tendency to search for informationthat supports our preconceptions andto ignore or distort contradictoryevidence

331. fixation the inability to see a problem from anew perspective, by employing adifferent mental set

332. mental set a tendency to approach a problem inone particular way, often a way thathas been successful in the past

333. functionalfixedness

the tendency to think of things only interms of their usual functions; animpediment to problem solving

334. representativenessheuristic

judging the likelihood o things interms of how well they seem torepresent, or math, particularprototypes; may lead us to ignore otherrelevant information

335. availabilityheuristic

estimating the likelihood of eventsbased on their availability in memory;if instances come readily to mind(perhaps because of their vividness),we presume such events are common

336. overconfidence the tendency to be more confident thancorrect-to overestimate the accuracy ofour beliefs and judgements

337. beliefperseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptionsafter the basis on which they wereformed has been discredited

338. intuition an effortless, immediate, automaticfeeling or thought, as contrasted withexplicit, conscious reasoning

339. framing the way an issue is posed; can affectdecisions and judgements

340. language our spoken, written, or signed words and theways we combine them to communicatemeaning

341. phoneme in language, the smallest distinctive soundunit

342. morpheme in a language, the smallest unit that carriesmeaning; may be a word or a part of a word(such as a prefix)

343. grammar in a language, a system of rules that enablesus to communicate with and understandothers

344. semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaningfrom morphemes, words, and sentences in agiven language; also the study of meaning

345. syntax the rules for combing words intogrammatically sensible sentences in a givenlanguage

346. babblingstage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage ofspeech development in which the infantspontaneously utters various sounds at firstunrelated to the household language

347. one-wordstage

the stage in speech development, from aboutage 1 to 2, during which a child speaksmostly in single words

348. two-wordstage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speechdevelopment during which a child speaksmostly two-word statements

349. telegraphicspeech

early speech stage in which a child speakslike a telegram -go car"- using mostly nouns and verbs

350. linguisticdeterminism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determinesthe way we think

351. motivation a need or desire that energizes and directsbehavior

352. instinct a complex behavior that is rigidly patternedthroughout a species and is unlearned

353. drive-reductiontheory

the idea that a physiological need creates anaroused tension state (a drive) that motivatesan organism to satisfy the need

354. homeostasis a tendency to maintain a balanced orconstant internal state; the regulation of anyaspect of body chemistry, such as bloodglucose, around a particular level

355. incentive a positive or negative environmental stimulusthat motivates behavior

356. hierarchy ofneds

Maslow's pyramid of human needs,beginning at the base with physiologicalneeds that must first be satisfied beforehigher-level safety needs and thenpsychological needs become active

357. glucose the form of sugar that circulates in the bloodand provides the major source of energy forbody tissues; when its level is low, we feelhunger

358. set point the point at which an individual's "weightthermostat" is supposedly set; when the bodyfalls below this weight, an increase in hungerand a lowered metabolic rate my act to restorethe lost weight

359. basalmetabolicrate

the body's resting rate of energy expendenture

360. anorexianervosa

an eating disorder in which a person (usuallyan adolescent female) diets and becomessignificantly (15% or more) underweight, yet,still feeling fat, continues to starve

361. bulimianervosa

an eating disorder characterized by episodes ofovereating, usually of high-calorie foods,followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, orexcessive exercise

362. binge-eatingdisorder

significant binge-eating episodes, followed bydistress, disgust, or guilt, but without thecompensatory purging, fasting, or excessiveexercise that marks bulimia nervosa

363. sexualresponsecycle

the four stages of sexual responding describedby Masters and Jonson - excitement, plateau,orgasm, and resolution

364. refractoryperiod

a resting period after orgasm, during which aman cannot achieve another orgasm

365. estrogens sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted ingreater amounts by females than by males andcontributing to female sex characteritics; innonhuman female mammals, estrogen levelspeak during ovulation, promoting sexualreceptivity

366. testosterone the most important of the male sex hormones;both males and females have it, but theadditional testosterone in males stimulates thegrowth of the male sex organs in the fetus andthe development of the male sexcharacteristics during puberty

367. sexualorientation

an enduring sexual attraction towardmembers of either one's own sex (homosexualorientation) or the other sex (heterosexualorientation)

368. emotion a response of the whole organism, involving(1) physiological arousal, (2) expressivebehaviors, and (3) conscious experience

369. James-Langetheory

the theory that our experience of emotion isour awareness of our physiological responsesto emotion-arousing stimuli

370. Cannon-Bard theory

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulussimultaneously triggers (1) physiologicalresponses and (2) the subjective experience ofemotion

371. two-factortheory

the Schachter-Singer theory that toexperience emotion one must (1) bephysically aroused and (2) cognitively labelthe arousal

372. polygraph a machine, commonly used in attempts todetect lies, that measures several of thephysiological responses accompanyingemotion (such as perspiration andcardiovascular and breathing changes).

373. facialfeedback

the effect of facial expressions on experiencedemotions, as when a facial expression ofanger or happiness intensifies feelings ofanger or happiness

374. catharsis emotional release; the catharsis hypothesismaintains that "releasing" aggressive energy(through action or fantasy) relievesaggressive urges

375. feel-good,do-goodphenomenon

people's tendency to be helpful when alreadyin a good mood

376. well-being self-perceived happiness or satisfaction withlife; used along measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economicindicators) to evaluate people's quality of life

377. adaptation-levelphenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds,of lights, of income) relative to a neutral leveldefined by our prior experience

378. relativedeprivation

the perception that we are worse off relativeto those with whom we compare ourselves

379. behavioralmedicine

an interdisciplinary field that integratesbehavioral and medical knowledge andapplies that knowledge to health and disease

380. healthpsychology

a subfield of psychology that providespsychology's contribution to behavioralmedicine

381. stress the process by which we perceive andrespond to certain events, called stressors,that we appraise as threatening orchallenging

382. generaladaptationsyndrome(GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptiveresponse to stress in three phases - alarm,resistance, exhaustion

383. coronaryheartdisease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish theheart muscle; the leading cause of death inNorth America

384. Type A Friedman and Rosenman'sterm for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verballyaggressive, and anger-pronepeople

385. Type B Friedman and Rosenman'sterm for easygoing, relaxedpeople

386. psychophysiologicalillness

literally, "mind-body" illness;any stress-related physicalillness, such as hypertensionand some headaches

387. psychoneuroimmunology the study of howpsychological, neural, andendocrine processes togetheraffect the immune system andresulting health

388. lymphocytes the two types of white bloodcells that are part of the body'simmune system: B lymphocytesform in the bone marrow andrelease antibodies that fightbacterial infections; Tlymphocytes form in thethymus and other lymphatictissue and attack cancer cells,viruses, and foreignsubstances

389. developmentalpsychology

a branch of psychology thatstudies physical, cognitive,and social change throughoutthe life span

390. zygote the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid celldivision and develops into anembryo

391. embryo the developing humanorganism from about 2 weeksafter fertilization through thesecond month

392. fetus the developing humanorganism from 9 weeks afterconception to birth

393. teratogens agents, such as chemicals andviruses, that can reach theembryo or fetus duringprenatal development andcause harm

394. fetal alcoholsyndrome(FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities inchildren caused by a pregnant woman'sheavy drinking; in severe cases,symptoms include noticeable facialmisproportions

395. habituation decreasing responsiveness with repeatedstimulation; as infants gain familiaritywith repeated exposure to a visualstimulus, their interest wanes and theylook away sooner

396. maturation biological growth processes that enableorderly changes in behavior, relativelyuninfluenced by experience

397. cognition all the mental activities associated withthinking, knowing, remembering, andcommnicating

398. schema a concept or framework that organizesand interprets information

399. assimilation interpreting our new experiences in termsof our existing schemas

400. accommodation adapting our current understandings(schemas) to incorporate newinformation

401. sensorimotorstage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth toabout 2 years of age) during whichinfants know the world mostly in terms oftheir sensory impressions and motoracitvities

402. objectpermanence

the awareness that things continue toexist even when not perceived

403. preoperationalstage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2to 6 or 7 years of age) during which achild learns to use language but does notyet comprehend the mental operations ofconcrete logic

404. conservation the principle (which Piaget believed to bea part of concrete operational reasoning)that properties such as mass, volume, andnumber remain the same despite changesin the forms of objects

405. egocentrism in Piaget's theory, the preoperationalchild's difficulty taking another's point ofview

406. theory of mind people's ideas about their own and others'mental states -- about their feelings,perceptions, and thoughts, and thebehaviors these might predict

407. concreteoperationalstage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitivedevelopment (from about 6 or 7 to 11 yearsof age) during which children gain themental operations that enable them tothink logically about concrete events

408. formaloperationalstage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitivedevelopment (normally beginning about age12) during which people begin to thinklogically about abstract concepts

409. autism a disorder that appears in childhood and ismarked by deficient communication, socialinteraction, and understanding of others'states of minds

410. strangeranxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonlydisplay, beginning by about 8 months of age

411. attachment an emotional tie with another person; shownin young children by their seeking closenessto the caregiver and showing distress onseparation

412. criticalperiod

an optimal period shortly after birth when anorganism's exposure to certain stimuli orexperience produces proper development

413. imprinting the process by which certain animals formattachments during a critical period veryearly in life

414. temperament a person's characteristic emotional reactivityand intensity

415. basic trust according to Erik Erikson, a sense that theworld is predictable and trustworthy; said tobe formed during infancy by appropriateexperiences with responsive caregivers

416. self-concept our understanding and evaluation of who weare

417. gender in psychology, the biologically and sociallyinfluenced characteristics by which peopledefine male and female

418. aggression physical or verbal behavior intended to hurtsomeone

419. Xchromosome

the sex chromosome found in both men andwomen; females have two & males have one;one from each parent produces a female child

420. Ychromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males;when paired with an X chromosome from themother, it produces a male child

421. testosterone the most important of the male sexhormones; both males & females have it, butthe additional amount in males stimulatesthe growth of the male sex organs in thefetus and the development of male sexcharacteristics during puberty

422. role a set of expectations (norms) about a socialposition, defining how those in the positionought to behave

423. gender role a set of expected behavior for males or forfemales

424. gender identity our sense of being male or female425. gender typing the acquisition of a traditional masculine

or feminine role426. social learning

theorythe theory that we learn social behavior byobserving and imitating and by beingrewarded or punished

427. adolescence the transition period from childhood toadulthood, extending from puberty toindependence

428. puberty the period of sexual maturation, duringwhich a person becomes capable ofreproducing

429. primary sexcharacteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, andexternal genitalia) that make sexualreproduction possible)

430. secondary sexcharacteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics,such as female breasts and hips, malevoice quality, and body hair

431. menarche the first menstrual period432. identity our sense of self; according to Erikson, the

adolescent's task is to solidify a sense ofself by testing and integrating various roles

433. social identity the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the partof our answer to "Who am I?" that comesfrom our group memberships

434. intimacy in Erikson's theory, the ability to formclose, loving relationships; a primarydevelopmental task in late adolescence andearly adulthood

435. emergingadulthood

for some people on modern cultures, aperiod from the late teens to mid-twentiesbridging the gap between adolescentdependence and full independence andresponsible adulthood

436. menopause the time of natural cessation ofmenstruation; also refers to the biologicalchanges a woman experiences as herability to reproduce declines

437. cross-sectionalstudy

a study in which people of different agesare compared with one another

438. longitudinalstudy

research in which the same people arerestudied and retested over a long period

439. crystallizedintelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbalskills; tends to increase with age

440. fluidintelligence

our ability to reason speedily andabstractly; tends to decrease during lateadulthood

441. social clock the culturally preferred timing of socialevents such as marriage, parenthood, andretirement

442. personality an individual's characteristic pattern ofthinking, feeling, and acting.

443. freeassociation

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploringthe unconscious in which the personrelaxes and says whatever comes to mind,no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

444. psychoanalysis Freud's theory of personality that attributesthoughts and actions to unconsciousmotives and conflicts; the techniques usedin treating psychological disorders byseeking to expose and interpretunconscious tensions.

445. unconscious according to Freud, a reservoir of mostlyunacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings,and memories. According to contemporarypsychologists, information processing ofwhich we are unaware.

446. id a reservoir of unconscious psychic energythat, according to Freud, strives to satisfybasic sexual and aggressive drives. the idoperates on the pleasure principle,demanding immediate gratification.

447. ego the largely conscious, "executive" part ofpersonality that, according to Freud,mediates among the demands of the id,superego, and reality. The ego operates onthe reality principle, satisfying the id'sdesires in ways that will realistically bringpleasure rather than pain.

448. superego the part of personality that, according toFreud, represents internalized ideals andprovides standards for judgement (theconscience) and for future aspirations.

449. psychosexualstages

the childhood stages of development (oral,anal, phallic, latency, genital) duringwhich, according to Freud, the id'spleasure-seeking energies focus on distincterogenous zones.

450. Oedipuscomplex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desirestoward his mother and feelings of jealousyand hatred for the rival father.

451. identification the process by which, according to Freud,children incorporate their parents' valuesinto their developing superegos.

452. fixation according to Freud, a lingering focus ofpleasure-seeking energies at an earlierpsychosexual stage, in which conflictswere unresolved.

453. defensemechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego'sprotective methods of reducing anxiety byunconsciously distorting reality.

454. repression in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defensemechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memoriesfrom consciousness.

455. regression psychoanalytic defense mechanism inwhich an individual faced with anxietyretreats to a more infantile psychosexualstage, where some psychic energy remainsfixated.

456. reactionformation

psychoanalytic defense mechanism bywhich the ego unconsciously switchesunacceptable impulses into their opposites,Thus, people may express feelings that areopposite of their anxiety-arousingunconscious feelings.

457. projection psychoanalytic defense mechanism bywhich people disguise their ownthreatening impulses by attributing them toothers.

458. rationalization psychoanalytic defense mechanism thatoffers self-justifying explanations in placeof the real, more threatening, unconsciousreasons for one's actions.

459. displacement psychoanalytic defense mechanism thatshifts sexual or aggressive impulses towarda more acceptable or less threateningobject of person, as when redirecting angertoward a safer outlet.

460. sublimation psychoanalytic defense mechanism bywhich people re-channel theirunacceptable impulses into sociallyapproved activities.

461. denial psychoanalytic defense mechanism bywhich people refuse to believe or even toperceive painful realities.

462. collectiveunconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inheritedreservoir of memory traces form ourspecies' history.

463. projective test a personality test, such as the Rorschachor TAT, that provides ambiguous stimulidesigned to trigger projection of one'esinner dynamics.

464. ThematicApperceptionTest (TAT)

a projective test in which people expresstheir inner feelings and interests throughthe stories they make up about ambiguousscenes.

465. Rorschachinkblot test

the most widely used projective test, a set of10 inkblots, designed by HermannRorschach; seeks to identify people's innerfeelings by analyzing their interpretationsof the blots.

466. terror-managementtheory

a theory of death-related anxiety; explorespeople' emotional and behavioral responsesto reminders of their impending death.

467. self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimatepsychological needs that arises after basicphysical and psychological needs are metself-esteem is achieved; the motivation tofulfill one's potential.

468. unconditionalpositiveregard

according to Rogers, an attitude of totalacceptance toward another person.

469. self-concept all our thoughts and feeling about ourselves,in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

470. trait a characteristic pattern of behavior or adisposition to feel and act, as assessed byself-report inventories and peer reports.

471. personalityinventory

a questionnaire (often with true-false oragree-disagree items) on which peoplerespond to items designed to gauge a widerange of feelings and behaviors; used toassess selected personality traits.

472. MinnesotaMultiphasicPersonalityInventory(MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinicallyused of all personality tests. Originallydeveloped to identify emotional disorders(still considered its most appropriate use),this test is now used for many otherscreening purposes.

473. empiricallyderived test

a test (such as the MMPI) developed bytesting a pool of items and then selectingthose that discriminate between groups.

474. social-cognitiveperspective

views behavior as influenced by theinteraction between people's traits(including their thinking) and their socialcontext.

475. reciprocaldeterminism

the interacting influences of behavior,internal cognition, and environment.

476. personalcontrol

the extent to which people perceive controlover their environment rather that feelinghelpless.

477. external locusof control

the perception that chance or outside forcesbeyond your personal control determineyour fate.

478. internal locusof control

the perception that you control your ownfate.

479. positivepsychology

the scientific study of optimal humanfunctioning; aims to discover and promotestrengths and virtues that enableindividuals and communities to thrive.

480. self in contemporary psychology, assumed to bethe center of personality, the organizer ofour thoughts, feelings, and actions.

481. spotlighteffect

overestimating others' noticing andevaluating our appearance, performance,and blunder (as if we presume a spotlightshine on us).

482. self-esteem one's feelings of high or low self worth483. self-serving

biasa readiness to perceive oneself favorably.

484. indicisualism giving priority to one's own goals over groupgoals and defining one's identity in thermsof personal attributes rather than groupidentifications.

485. collectivism giving priority to the goals of one's group(often one's extended family or work group)and defining one's identity accordingly.

486. intelligencetest

a method for assessing an individual'smental aptitudes and comparing them withthose of others, using numerical scores.

487. intelligence mental quality consisting of the ability tolearn from experience, solve problems, anduse knowledge to adapt to new situations.

488. generalintelligence

a general intelligence factor that, accordingto Spearman and others, underlies specificmental abilities and is therefore measured byevery task on an intelligence test.

489. factoranalysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clustersof related items (called factors) on a test;used to identify different dimensions ofperformance that underlie a person's totalscore.

490. savantsyndrome

a condition in which a person otherwiselimited in mental ability has an exceptionalspecific skill, such as in computation ordrawing.

491. emotionalintelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage,and use emotions.

492. mental age a measure of intelligence test performancedevised by Binet; the chronological age thatmost typically corresponds to a given level ofperformance. Thus, a child who does as wellas the average 8-year-old is said to have amental age of 8.

493. Stanford-Binet

the widely used American revision (byTerman at Stanford University) of Binet'soriginal intelligence test.

494. intelligencequotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age(ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by100 (thus, IQ=ma/ca x 100). Oncontemporary intelligence test, the averageperformance for a given age is assigned ascore of 100.

495. achievementtests

tests designed to assess what a personhas learned.

496. aptitude tests tests designed to predict a person's futureperformance; aptitude is the capacity tolearn

497. Wechsler AdultIntelligenceScale (WAIS)

the most widely used intelligence test;contains verbal and performance(nonverbal) subtests.

498. standardization defining meaningful scores bycomparison with the performance of apretested group.

499. normal curve the symmetrical, bell-shaped curve thatdescribes the distribution of manyphysical and psychological attributes;most scores fall near the average, andfewer and fewer scores lie near theextremes.

500. reliability the extent to which a test yieldsconsistent results, as assessed by theconsistency of scores on two halves of thetest, or on retesting.

501. validity the extent to which a test measures orpredicts what it is supposed to.

502. content validity the extent to which a test samples thebehavior that is of interest.

503. predictivevalidity

the success with which a test predicts thebehavior it is designed to predict; it isassessed by computing the correlationbetween test scores and the criterionbehavior. (Also called criterion-relatedvalidity).

504. intellectualdisability

(formerly referred to as mentalretardation) a condition of limited mentalability, indicated by an intelligence scoreof 70 or below and difficulty in adaptingto the demands of life; varies from mild toprofound.

505. Down syndrome a condition of intellectual disability andassociated physical disorders caused byan extra copy of chromosome 21.

506. stereotypethreat

a self-confirming concern that one will beevaluated based on a negative stereotype.

507. PsychologicalDisorder

Deviant, distressful, and dysfunctionalpatterns of thoughts, feelings, orbehaviors.

508. Attention-DeficitHyperactivityDisorder(ADHD)

A psychological disorder marked by theappearance by age 7 of one or more ofthree key symptoms: extreme inattention,hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

509. Medical Model The concept that diseases have physicalcauses that can be diagnosed, treated,and, in most cases, cured, often throughtreatment in a hospital.

510. DSM-IV-TR A classification system that describes thefeatures used to diagnose each recognizedmental disorder and indicates how thedisorder can be distinguished from other,similar problems.

511. AnxietyDisorders

Psychological disorders characterized bydistressing, persistent anxiety ormaladaptive behaviors that reduceanxiety.

512. GeneralizedAnxietyDisorder

An anxiety disorder in which a person iscontinually tense, apprehensive, and in astate of autonomic nervous systemarousal.

513. Panic Disorder An anxiety disorder marked byunpredictable minutes-long episodes ofintense dread in which a personexperiences terror and accompanyingchest pain, choking, or other frighteningsensations.

514. Phobia An anxiety disorder marked by apersistent, irrational fear and avoidanceof a specific object or situation.

515. Obsessive-compulsiveDisorder (OCD)

An anxiety disorder characterized byunwanted repetitive thoughts and/ oractions.

516. SomatoformDisorder

Psychological disorder in which thesymptoms take a bodily form withoutapparent physical cause.

517. ConversionDisorder

A rare somatoform disorder in which aperson experiences very specific genuinephysical symptoms for which nophysiological basis can be found.

518. Hypochonriasis A somatoform disorder involvingexcessive concern about health anddisease.

519. DissociativeDisorders

Disorders in which conscious awarenessbecomes separated from previousmemories, thoughts, and feelings.

520. DissociativeIdentityDisorder (DID)

A rare dissociative disorder in which aperson exhibits two or more distinct andalternating personalities. Also calledmultiple personality disorder.

521. Post-TraumaticStress Disorder

An anxiety disorder characterized byhaunting memories, nightmares, socialwithdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/orinsomnia that lingers for four weeks ormore after a traumatic experience.

522. Post-TraumaticGrowth

Positive psychological changes as a resultof struggling with extremely challengingcircumstances and life crises.

523. MoodDisorders

Psychological disorders characterized byemotional extremes.

524. MajorDepressiveDisorder

A mood disorder in which a personexperiences, in the absence of drugs or amedical condition, two or more weeks ofsignificantly depressed moods, feelings ofworthlessness, and diminished interest orpleasure in most activities.

525. Mania A mood disorder marked by a hyperactive,wildly optimistic state.

526. BipolarDisorder

A mood disorder in which the personalternates between the hopelessness andlethargy of depression and the overexcitedstate of mania.

527. Schizophrenia A group of severe disorders characterizedby disorganized and delusional thinking,disturbed perceptions, and inappropriateemotions and actions.

528. Delusions False beliefs, often of persecution orgrandeur, that may accompany psychoticdisorders.

529. PersonalityDisorders

Psychological disorders characterized byinflexible and enduring behavior patternsthat impair social functioning.

530. AntisocialPersonalityDisorder

A personality disorder in which the person(usually a man) exhibits a lack ofconscience for wrongdoing, even towardfriends and family members; may beaggressive and ruthless or a clever conartist.

531. eclecticapproach

an approach to psychotherapy that,depending on the client's problems, usestechniques from various forms of therapy

532. psychotherapy treatment involving psychologicaltechniques; consists of interactionsbetween a trained therapist and someoneseeking to overcome psychologicaldifficulties or achieve personal growth

533. psychoanalysis Sigmond Freud's therapeutic technique.Freud believed the patient's freeassociations, resistances, dreams, andtransferences and the therapistsinterpretations of them released previouslyrepressed feelings, allowing the patient togain self-insight

534. resistance in psychoanalysis, the blocking fromconsciousness of anxiety laden material

535. interpretation in psychoanalysis, the analyst'snoting supposed dream meanings,resistances, and other significantbehaviors and events in order topromote insight

536. transference in psychoanalysis, the patient'stransfer to the analyst of emotionslinked with other relationships(such as love or hatred for a parent)

537. psychodynamictherapy

therapy deriving from thepsychoanalytic tradition that viewsindividuals as responding tounconscious forces and childhoodexperiences, and that seeks toenhance self-insight

538. insight therapies a variety of therapies that aim toimprove psychological functioningby increasing the client's awarenessof underlying motives and defenses

539. client centeredtherapy

a humanistic therapy, developed byCarl Rogers, in which the therapistuses techniques such as activelistening within a genuine,accepting, empathic environment tofacilitate client's growth. Also calledperson-centered therapy.

540. active listening empathic listening in which thelistener echoes, restates, andclarifies. A feature of Rogers' clientcentered therapy

541. unconditionalpositive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmentalattitude, which Carl Rogers believedwould help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

542. behavior therapy therapy that applies learningprinciples to the elimination ofunwanted behaviors

543. counterconditioning a behavior therapy procedure thatuses classical conditioning to evokenew responses to stimuli that aretriggering unwanted behaviors;includes exposure therapies andaversive conditioning

544. exposure therapies behavioral techniques, such assystematic desensitization, that treatanxieties by exposing people (inimagination or actualitiy) to thethings they fear or avoid

545. systematicdesensitization

a type of exposure therapy thatassociates a pleasant relaxed statewith gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly usedto treat phobias

546. virtual realityexposure therapy

an anxiety treatment thatprogressively exposes people tosimulations of their greatest fearssuch as airplane flying, spiders, orpublic speaking

547. aversiveconditioning

a type of counterconditioning thatassociates an unpleasant states(such as nausea) with an unwantedbehavior (such as drinking)

548. token economy an operant conditioning procedurein which people earn a token ofsome sort or exhibiting a desiredbehavior and can later exchangethe tokens for various privileges ortreats

549. cognitive therapy therapy that teaches people new,more adaptive ways of thinking andacting; based on the assumptionthat thoughts intervene betweenevents and our emotional reactions

550. Aaron Beck sought to reverse patient'scatastrophizing beliefs aboutthemselves, their situations andfutures using cognitive therapy

551. DonaldMeichenbaum

offered stress inoculation training:teaching people to restructure theirthinking in stressful situations

552. cognitive behavioraltherapy

a popular integrative therapy thatcombines cognitive therapy withbehavior therapy

553. family therapy therapy that treats the family as asystem. Views an individual'sunwanted behaviors as influencedby or directed at other familymembers

554. regression towardthe mean

the tendency for extreme or unusualscores to regress toward theiraverage

555. meta-analysis a procedure for statisticallycombining the results of manydifferent research studies

556. evidence basedpractice

clinical decision-making thatintegrates the best availableresearch with clinical expertise andpatient characteristics andpreferences

557. biomedical therapy prescribed medications or medicalprocedures that act directly on thepatient's nervous system

558. psychopharmacology the study of the effects of drugs onmind and behavior

559. antipsychoticdrugs

drugs used to treat schizophrenia andother forms of severe thought disorder

560. tardivedyskinesia

involuntary movements of the facialmuscles, tongue, and limbs; a possibleneurotoxic side effect of long-term use ofantipsychotic drugs that target certaindopamine receptors

561. antianxietydrugs

drugs used to control anxiety andagitation

562. antidepressantdrugs

drugs used to treat depression; alsoincreasingly prescribed for anxiety.Different types work by altering theavailability of various neurotransmitters

563. electroconvulsivetherapy

a biomedical therapy for severelydepressed patients in which a briefelectric current is sent through the brainof an aenesthetized patient

564. repetitivetranscranialmagneticstimulation

the application of repeated pulses ofmagnetic energy to the brain; used tostimulate or suppress brain activity

565. psychosurgery surgery that removes or destroys braintissue in an effort to change behavior

566. lobotomy invented by Egas Moniz, a now-rarepsychosurgical procedure once used tocalm uncontrollably emotional or violentpatients. The procedure cut the nervesconnecting the frontal loves to theemotion-controlling centers of the innerbrain

567. resilience the personal strength that helps mostpeople cope with stress and recover fromadversity and even trauma

568. social psychology scientific study of how we think about,influence, and relate to one another

569. attributiontheory

theory that we explain someone'sbehavior by crediting either the situationor the person's disposition

570. fundamentalattribution error

the tendency for observes, whenanalyzing another's behavior, tounderestimate the impact of the situationand to overestimate the impact ofpersonal disposition

571. attitude feelings, often influenced by our beliefs,that predispose us to response in aparticular way to objects, people, andevents

572. central route ofpersuasion

attitude change in which interestedpeople focus on the actual argument andrespond with favorable thoughts

573. peripheralroute ofpersuasion

attitude change in which people areinfluenced by incidental cues

574. foot in the doortechnique

the tendency for people who have agreedto a small request to comply later with alarger request

575. role set of expectations (norms) about a socialposition that define how those in theposition ought to behave

576. cognitivedissonancetheory

theory that we act to reduce thediscomfort we feel when two of ourthoughts are inconsistent; change ourattitudes rather than our behaviors

577. conformity adjusting one's behavior/thinking tocoincide with a group standard

578. normativesocial influence

influence resulting from a person's desireto gain approval or avoid disapproval

579. informativesocial influence

influence resulting from one'swillingness to accept others' opinionsabout reality

580. socialfacilitation

stronger responses on simple/well-learned tasks in the presence of others

581. social loafing tendency for people in a group to exertless effort toward attaining a commongoal than when by themselves

582. deindividuation the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situationsthat foster arousal or anonymity

583. grouppolarization

tendency of group members to move to anextreme position after discussing an issueas a group

584. culture the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes,values, and traditions shared by a groupof people and transmitted throughgenerations

585. norm understood rule for accepted/expectedbehavior

586. personal space the buffer-zone we like to maintainaround our bodies

587. prejudice an unjustifiable attitude toward a groupand its members; generally involvedstereotyped beliefs

588. stereotype generalized belief about a group of people589. discrimination unjustifiable negative behavior toward a

group and its members590. ingroup us; people with whom we share a

common identity591. outgroup them; those perceived as different or apart

from our ingroup

592. ingroup bias tendency to favor our own group593. scapegoat

theorythe theory that prejudice offers an outlet foranger by providing someone to blame

594. other raceeffect

the tendency to recall faced of one's ownrace more accurately than faces of anotherrace

595. just worldphenomenon

tendency for people to believe the world isjust and that people therefore get what theydeserve and deserve what they get

596. aggression any physical/verbal behavior intended tohurt or destroy

597. frustration-aggressionprinciple

the principle that frustration, the blockingof an attempt to achieve some goal, createsanger which can generate aggression

598. mere-exposureeffect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure tonovel stimuli increases liking of them

599. passionatelove

an aroused state of intense positiveabsorption in another, usually present atthe beginning of a love relationship

600. companionatelove

the deep affectionate attachment we feel forthose with whom our lives are intertwined

601. equity a condition in which people receive from arelationship is proportional to what theygive to it

602. self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself toothers

603. altruism unselfish regard for the welfare of others604. bystander

effecttendency for any given bystander to be lesslikely

605. socialexchangetheory

theory that our social behavior is anexchange process; the aim of which is tomaximize benefits and minimize costs

606. reciprocitynorm

an expectation that people will help, nothurt, those who have helped them

607. social-responsibilitynorm

an expectation that people will help thosedependent upon them

608. conflict a perceived incompatibility of actions,goals, or ideas

609. mirror-imageperceptions

mutual views often held by conflictingpeople, as when each side sees itself asethical and peaceful and views the otherside as evil and aggressive

610. self-fulfillingprophecy

an expectation that causes you to act inways that make that expectation come true

611. superordinategoals

shared goals that override differencesamong people and require their cooperation

612. GRIT strategy designed to decrease international tensions613. social

trapa situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutuallydestructive behavior

Myer's Psychology for AP* Vocabulary [All 14 Units]