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Myofascial Pain Syndrome after Head and Neck Cancer Treatment: Prevalence, Risk Factors and
Influence on Quality of Life
Leticia Rodrigues Cardoso, MSc1; Cláudia Carvalho Rizzo, MD, PhD2; Cleyton Zanardo de Oliveira,
MSc3; Carlos Roberto dos Santos, MD4; André Lopes Carvalho, MD, PhD4
Affiliations:
1. Physical Therapy Department, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos, Sao Paulo, Brazil
2. Anesthesiology Department, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos, Sao Paulo, Brazil
3. Biostatistics Department, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos, Sao Paulo, Brazil
4. Head and Neck Surgery Department, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos, Sao Paulo, Brazil
Funding: This work was funded by an Internal Institutional grant from Barretos Cancer Hospital.
Acknowledgements: We would like to acknowledge the Teaching and Research Institute of the
Barretos Cancer Hospital, notably the Centre for Researcher Support, the Post‐Graduate Secretariat
and the librarians for support and help in the development of this study.
Corresponding Author: Leticia Rodrigues Cardoso, MSc, Physical Therapy Department, Barretos
Cancer Hospital, Barretos, Sao Paulo, Brazil, Antenor Duarte Villela Street, n 1331, Zip Code 14784‐
400 ([email protected])
Running Title: Myofascial Pain Syndrome after Head and Neck Cancer Treatment
Keywords: head and neck cancer, pain, myofascial pain, physiotherapy, quality of life.
This article has been accepted for publication and undergone full peer review but has not beenthrough the copyediting, typesetting, pagination and proofreading process which may lead todifferences between this version and the Version of Record. Please cite this article as an‘Accepted Article’, doi: 10.1002/hed.23825
2
Abstract
Background: Patients undergoing treatment for head and neck cancer (HNC) might develop
myofascial pain syndrome (MPS) as sequelae. The aim of this study was to determine the
prevalence, risk factors and quality of life related to MPS. Methods: This is a prospective study
including HNC patients with at least one year disease free interval. Results: 167 patients were
analysed, MPS was diagnosed in 20 (11.9 %). In the multivariate analysis, hypopharynx tumors (OR =
6.35; 95% CI [1.58; 25.56]) and neck dissection (OR = 3.43; 95% CI [1.16; 10.17]) were independent
factors for MPS. The pain (p<0.001) and shoulder domain (p<0.001) as well as overall UW‐QOL score
(p=0.006) were significantly lower in the MPS patients. Conclusions: MPS was observed in 1 out of 9
patients after HNC treatment and a worse QOL was observed among them. Tumor site and neck
dissection were found to be risk factors for MPS.
3
Introduction
The sequelaes of head and neck cancer (HNC) treatment are related not only to aesthetic
factors but more importantly to vital functions and the patient’s ability to communicate, eat and
work.1 Due to its anatomical localization alone, HNC can entail significant changes in vital functions
and social interaction, disrupting the everyday life of these patients.1,2
Pain is one factor that interferes with the quality of life of cancer survivors.1,3 Myofascial pain
syndrome (MPS) is a regional muscle pain disorder, characterized by intense, deep pain, arising from
one or more muscles and the fascia, and by the presence of one or more hypersensitive regions.4
MPS patients can be identified by the presence of intensely painful points, known as trigger points
(TrPs), within palpable tense muscle bands, which can cause local or referred pain.5
In a systematic literature review of painful cancer syndromes, a high MPS prevalence could be
found among regional pain syndromes, often characterised by continuous localized pain or a
cramping sensation and sometimes related to surgical trauma.6 Chua et al. found that MPS was
observed in 13 % of HNC patients, where the myofascial pain diagnosis was given by the presence of
painful muscles with tender spots on palpation or painful trigger points with muscle involvement.7
The present study’s objective was to determine the prevalence of, risk factors for and quality
of life related to MPS after HNC treatment.
Materials and Methods
The present study was an observational cross‐sectional study evaluating a consecutive series
of patients treated at the Barretos Cancer Hospital, Brazil, which included patients aged above 18
years and less than or equal to 80 years, with at least one year disease‐free interval after oncological
treatment of the oral cavity, oropharyngeal, hypopharyngeal or laryngeal cancer.
Patient selection was carried out at the Head and Neck Department of the Hospital between
June 2011 and September 2012, and data collection as well as patient evaluation was performed at
4
the Department of Physical Therapy. Patients with an impairment of the upper limb, diagnosis of
MPS or fibromyalgia previously of the HNC treatment were excluded from the study.
The present study has been approved by the Hospital IRB, and all patients who participated
in the study signed an informed consent form.
The patients were interviewed by a research nurse who administered the pain scale and the
University of Washington Quality of Life (UW‐QOL) questionnaire – Portuguese version. A physical
therapist administered the sociodemographic questionnaire and performed the physical
examination of the patient, specifically of the sternocleidomastoid, splenius and upper trapezius
muscles.
In each muscle, the four major criteria for MPS diagnosis, i. e., tense muscle bands, intense
pain in trigger points (TrPs) within a tense muscle band, reproduction of pain upon pressure on the
painful node and limited range of motion due to pain, as well as two of the four minor criteria for
MPS diagnosis, i. e., elicitation of local twitch – visually or on palpation and pain – and an altered
sensation at the site of a TrP upon compression, were evaluated.
To confirm the clinical diagnosis of MPS, all four major criteria and only one minor criterion
must be positive. Patients exhibiting symptoms indicative of MPS were subsequently evaluated by a
physician specialized in pain management to confirm the diagnosis and perform adequate
therapeutic planning.
The statistical software SPSS for Windows® v. 19.0 was used for data storage and statistical
analysis. A descriptive analysis of the data was performed, and the chi‐square and Mann‐Whitney
tests were applied to assess the relationship between the categorical or continuous variables of
interest, respectively, and the occurrence of MPS. Logistic regression was performed to evaluate
independent risk factors for MPS.
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Results
A total of 167 patients were studied, of which 134 (80.2 %) were male, were caucasian, age
ranged from 45 and 60 years in 106 cases (63.4 %), 121 (72.5 %) had up to eight years of education,
and 110 (65.9 %) were married or in a stable relationship. Of note, 152 (91.0 %) were regular
smokers, and 152 (91.0 %) were alcohol consumers.
As for the tumour site, oral cavity/oropharynx was the primary site in 81 (48.5 %) cases, the
larynx in 73 (43.1 %) and the hypopharynx in 13 (7.4 %) patients. When analysing the clinical stage,
the highest frequency was classified as T3/T4, 97 (58.0 %) patients, and of clinically positive lymph
nodes N1/N2/N3, in 62 (37.1 %) patients. With respect to the proposed treatment, 12 (7.1 %) of the
patients underwent surgery alone, 23 (13.7 %) radiotherapy alone, 42 (25.1 %) surgery plus
radiotherapy, 56 (33.5 %) chemoradiation and 34 (20.6 %) a treatment composed of surgery and
chemoradiation. Notably, 67 (40.1 %) of the patients underwent neck dissection, of which 63
(94.0 %) had a selective neck dissection and 4 (6.0 %) a radical neck dissection.
Ninety‐six patients (57.4 %) reported pain, among them 20 (11.9 %) were diagnosed with
MPS. Of the three studied muscles, the trapezius muscle was the most commonly affected, in 80.5 %
of the cases, and it was exclusively affected in 65.0 % of the cases. Table 1
The pain intensity was measured as greater than or equal to four (pain considered as at least
moderate) in 43 (44.8 %) of the 96 patients who reported pain. Of note, a pain intensity of greater
than or equal to four was reported by 55.0 % of the patients with MPS as opposed to 21.1 % of the
cases with no MPS (P < 0.001). Table 2
The use of pain medication was related by 22 patients (13.2%) and the intesity of the pain
was directed associated with the use of pain killers (P < 0.001). Among the patients with MPS, 35%
of them reported the use of medication (P = 0.006) Table 3
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In the univariate analysis, the primary tumor site at hypopharynx (P = 0.008), clinically
positive lymph node (P = 0.024) and performing neck dissection (P = 0.016) were significantly
associated with the occurrence of MPS. Table 4
In the multivariate analysis, the topography of the hypopharynx exhibited a risk almost six
times higher for the occurrence of MPS compared to the topographies of the oral cavity/ oropharynx
and larynx (OR = 6.35; 95%CI [1.58 – 25.56]), and the patients subjected to neck dissection exhibited
odds that were three times higher for the occurrence of MPS compared to patients who did not
undergo neck dissection to treat HNC (OR = 3.43; 95%CI [1.16 – 10.17]). Table 5
The quality of life of the patients was analysed using the scores from each domain of the UW‐
QOL in addition to the overall score for the questionnaire. With respect to the 167 patients, the
three highest scores of the questionnaires were attributed to the domains recreation, shoulder and
anxiety, and the three lowest scores were attributed to the domains saliva, chewing and speech.
When comparing the scores of the domains of the UW‐QOL with the occurrence of MPS, the scores
of the domains pain and shoulder, as well as the overall score of the UW‐QOL, were significantly
lower in patients with MPS. Table 6
Discussion
The prevalence of MPS in HNC patients varies in the literature. This discrepancy is mainly due
to the different study populations and the lack of standardized criteria for the diagnosis of MPS. In
addition, the prevalence of MPS is rarely investigated in the population as the diagnostic criteria are
based on clinical examination, and a specific training of professionals is required for the
identification of TrPs and tense muscle bands, which must be identified for the proper diagnosis of
MPS.
In the present study, 57.4 % of the patients reported pain, and 11.9 % were diagnosed with
MPS according to the adopted criteria. van Wilgen et al.8, described a 46.0% frequency of myofascial
pain in HNC patients one year after treatment. However, a diagnosis was only considered to be
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myofascial pain if the same site were considerably painful at least twice during palpation; therefore,
only one of the four obligate criteria was assessed in the above study. On the other hand, Chua et
al.7, using a more restrictive diagnosis criteria ‐ presence of painful muscles with tender spots on
palpation or painful trigger points with muscle involvement ‐ found that MPS was observed in 13 %
of HNC patients.
Regarding the intensity of the pain, 55 % of MPS patients reported pain with an intensity
greater than or equal to four. Few studies have investigated the pain intensity in MPS in this
population, one of which is the work of Esenyel et al.9 However, that study only assessed mean pain
intensity corresponding to grade 3 of the 11‐point Numeric Rating Scale (NRS‐11) in patients with
myofascial pain.
Among the therapeutic modalities performed on HNC patients, neck dissection was
considered to be a risk factor for the occurrence of MPS. Of note, neck dissection is a surgical
procedure that entails muscle involvement and a high risk of nerve lesion, including praxia.10
Sixty‐nine patients on our study underwent neck dissection, only four of them underwent
radical neck dissection (including SAN resection) the others underwent selective neck dissection, and
so no conclusion could be drawn for the association of SAN resection and MPS (1 out of those 4 was
diagnosed with MPS). Among the patients submitted to selective neck dissection, all of them got the
level II dissected (I, II and III or II, III and IV), and no difference was observed when comparing those
groups (data not shown). As type of neck dissection did not influenced the result we decided to
group the patients underwent neck dissection (regardless of the type) and compare them to those
that did not received a neck dissection as part of his treatment.
Despite the higher index of preservation of the spinal accessory nerve (SAN), neuropathy may
occur through the surgical manipulation of the nerve.11 Anatomically, this nerve is closely linked to
the neck lymphatic drainage, in the lateral cervical region, and the removal of lymph nodes for
diagnostic/treatment purposes can cause a lesion or praxia to the SAN.12,13 Lima et al.14 assessed SAN
8
neuropathy upon neck dissection, which included an electroneuromyographic exam, and found the
upper fibres of the trapezius muscle to be affected with pain and limited abduction of the arm in all
patients evaluated after surgery. In this study we did not perform a functional assessment of the
SAN and this can be a limitation on finding the possible association of SAN function and the MPS, we
found that neck dissection, a proxy, for the SAN function (as this is at risk on the procedure) was
associated with the risk for MPS.
For van Wilgen et al.,8 neck dissection was a predictive factor for reduced sensitivity in the
neck, reduced range of motion of the neck and pain in the shoulder. Furthermore, MPS was strongly
related to shoulder pain. In the study of Terrell et al.,15 neck dissection was considered to be a risk
factor for the reduction of physical function scores in HNC patients after treatment.
The comparison among the treatment performed and its association with MPS showed that
when chemotherapy was added to the regiment, the rates of MPS were higher compared with the
same treatment without chemotherapy, however, this association was not statistically significant.
Interestingly, we observed that patients with hypopharyngeal tumours exhibited a greater
likelihood to exhibit MPS, even in the multivariate analysis. We have not found studies in the
literature that have assessed the hypopharynx specifically with respect to the presence of MPS. We
hypostatize that, as the hypopharynx cancer usually presents with more neck disease requiring
extensive neck dissection, this might be the reason, however, the tumor site remained as an
independent risk factor for MPS (adjusted by neck dissection). We adjusted the multivariate model
for all possible variables, still hypopharynx cancer patients presented a higher risk for MPS. It is
worth note that the small number of those cases in the study making this possibly as outliers,
moreover, this finding must be validated in further studies.
The UW‐QOL scores revealed a worse quality of life for patients with MPS, noting that a
difference of 6 to 8 points in the score of the questionnaire can result in a clinically relevant
worsening of the patient’s quality of life.16,17
9
It is worth noting that a significant proportion of HNC patients (57.4 %) with no evidence of
disease presented with pain, moreover, 1/4 of them was classified as moderate to severe pain (NRS‐
11 ≥ 4). Most of these patients were not receiving medication or specific treatment for the pain,
which leads us to believe that pain is a neglected symptom in this population, as is the diagnosis of
MPS.
We could conclude by our study that 1 out of 9 patients will present MPS after HNC
treatment, being most of them undiagnosed. The hypopharynx tumors and the performance of neck
dissection are risk factors for the occurrence of MPS in this population, and that patients diagnosed
with MPS have a worse quality of life.
Our findings suggest that patients undergoing neck dissection should have evaluation by
physiotherapist and initiate rehabilitation as needed. Moreover, as soon as the MPS is diagnosed, a
multidisciplinary team (including a professional specialized in pain management) should take care of
that patient.
References
10
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Neck. 1993; 15(6): 485‐96.
2. Mehanna HM, Morton RP. Does quality of life predict long‐term survival in patients with head
and neck cancer? Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2006; 132(1): 27‐31.
3. Vartanian JG, Carvalho AL, Toyota J, Kowalski LP. Socioeconomic effects of and risk factors for
disability in long‐term survivors of head and neck cancer. Arch Otolaryngology Head and Neck
cancer. 2006; 132(1): 32‐5.
4. Dommerholt JD, Bron C. Etiology of myofascial trigger points. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2012;
16: 439‐44.
5. Simons DG. Understanding effective treatments of myofascial trigger points. Journal of
Bodywork and Movement Therapies. 2002; 6(2): 81‐8.
6. Chang VT, Janjan N, Jain S, Chau C. Regional Cancer Pain Syndromes. Journal of Palliative
Medicine. 2006; 9(6): 1435‐53.
7. Chaplin JM, Morton RP. A prospective longitudinal study of pain in head and neck cancer
patients. Head Neck. 1999; 21: 531‐37.
8. van Wilgen CP, Dijkstra PU, van der Laan BFA, Plukker JT, Roodenburg JLN. Morbidity of the
neck after head and neck cancer therapy. Head Neck. 2004; 26: 785‐91.
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9. Esenyel M, Caglar N, Aldemir T. Treatment of miofascial pain. American Journal of Physical
Medicine & Rehabilitation. 2000; 79(1): 48‐52.
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of life, and spinal accessory nerve status after neck dissection. Laryngoscope. 2000; 110(4): 620‐26.
11. Robbins KT, Clayman G, Levine PA, Medina J, Sessions R, Shaha A, et al. Neck dissection
classification update: revisions proposed by the American Head and Neck Society and the American
Academy of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2002; 128(7):
751‐58.
12. Lockart RD, Hamilton GF, Fyfe FW. Anatomia del músculo trapezio y del nervio espiñal. In
Anatomia Humana. Mexico: Interamericana, 1965:273‐321.
13. Petrera JE, Trojaborg W. Conduction studies along the accessory nerve and follow‐up of
patients with trapezius palsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1984; 47:630‐636.
14. Lima LP, Amar A, Lehn CN. Spinal accessory nerve neuropathy following neck dissection. Braz J
Otorhinolaryngol. 2011; 77(2): 259‐62.
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quality of life in patients with head and neck cancer. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2004; 130:
401‐08.
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16. Jaeschke R, Singer J, Guyatt GH. Measurment of health status. Ascertaining the minimal
clinically important difference. Control Clin Trials. 1989; 10:407‐415.
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disease‐specific quality of life questionnaire. J Clin Epidemiol. 1994; 47: 81‐87.
Table 1 – Frequency of myofascial pain syndrome (MDS) in splenius, sternocleidomastoid
(SCM) and upper trapezius muscles in patients after head and neck cancer treatment.
Variable Category No. of patients (%)
Splenius 2 (10.0)
Trapezius 13 (65.0)
SCM 0 (0.0)
Splenius + SCM 1 (5.0)
Splenius + Trapezius 1 (5.0)
SCM + Trapezius 2 (10.0)
MPS
SCM + Trapezius + Splenius 1 (5.0)
Table 2 – Association of pain intensity according to the Numerical Rating Scale with
myofascial pain syndrome (MPS). [QUERY AU IF EDITOR CHANGES TO TCH ARE OK]
MPS = Myofascial Pain Syndrome; NRS‐11 = 11‐point Numerical Rating Scale.
No. of patients (%) by NRS‐11 score
0 1 to 3 ≥ 4
p‐value
MPS
No 71 (48.3) 44 (29.9) 32 (21.8)
Yes 0 (0.0) 9 (45.0) 11 (55.0)
<0.001
Table 3 – Comparative analysis of the use of pain control medication with pain intensity according to the Numerical Rating Scale and myofascial pain syndrome (MPS) in patients after head and neck cancer treatment. [QUERY AU IF CHANGES TO TCH ARE OK]
No. of patients (%) by Medication Status
No Yes
p‐value
NRS‐11
0 69 (97.2) 2 (2.8)
1 to 3 46 (86.8) 7 (13.2)
≥ 4 30 (69.8) 13 (30.2)
<0.001
MPS
No 132 (89.8) 15 (10.2)
Yes 13 (65.0) 7 (35.0)
0.007
MPS = Myofascial Pain Syndrome; NRS‐11 = 11‐point Numerical Rating Scale.
Table 4 – Association of variables with myofascial pain syndrome (MPS). [QUERY AU IF
CHANGES TO TCH ARE OK]
No. of patients by MPS status
No Yes
p‐value
Gender
Male 120 (89.6) 14 (10.4)
Female 27 (81.8) 6 (18.2)
0.236
Age
< 45 years 9 (90.0) 1 (10.0)
≥ 45 and < 60 years 91 (85.8) 15 (14.2)
≥ 60 years 47 (92.2) 4 (7.8)
0.512
Alcohol
No 14 (93.3) 1 (6.7)
Yes 133 (87.5) 19 (12.5)
0.999
Tobacco
No 14 (93.3) 1 (6.7)
Yes 133 (87.5) 19 (12.5)
0.999
Topography
Oral cavity/oropharynx 72 (88.9) 9 (11.1)
Hypopharynx 8 (61.5) 5 (38.5)
Larynx 67 (91.8) 6 (8.2)
0.008
T classification
T1/T2 62 (88.6) 8 (11.4)
T3/T4 85 (87.6) 12 (12.4)
0.853
Table 4 – Association of variables with myofascial pain syndrome (MPS). (continued)
N classification
N0 97 (92.4) 8 (7.6)
N1/N2/N3 50 (80.6) 12 (19.4)
0.024
Therapeutic modalities
Surgery 11 (91.7) 1 (8.3)
Radiotherapy (RT) 21 (91.3) 2 (8.7)
Surgery + RT 38 (90.5) 4 (9.5)
Chemoradiation (RT + CT) 49 (87.5) 7 (12.5)
Surgery + RT + CT 28 (82.4) 6 (17.6)
0.850
Neck dissection
No 93 (93.0) 7 (7.0)
Yes 54 (80.6) 13 (19.4)
0.016
Table 5 – Logistic regression for the analysis of independent risk factors for myofascial pain
syndrome (MPS) in a model adjusted by oncological treatment and time from treatment.
C. I. 95 %
Variable Category OR
Lower limit Upper limit
p‐value
Oral Cavity/
oropharynx Ref. _ _ 0.025
Hypopharynx 6.35 1.58 25.56 0.009
Topography
Larynx 1.18 0.36 3.87 0.781
No Ref. _ _ Neck dissection
Yes 3.43 1.16 10.17 0.026
Table 6 – Comparative analysis of the scores of the University of Washington Quality of Life
questionnaire with myofascial pain syndrome (MPS) in patients after head and neck cancer
treatment. [QUERY AU IF TCH IS OK AS EDITED.]
Mean (SD) by MPS status
No Yes p‐value
Shoulder 92.1 (18.3) 66.7 (24.3) <0.001
Pain 84.6 (23.1) 67.5 (16.4) <0.001
Overall 83.9 (13.9) 83.7 (15.0) 0.006
Anxiety 90.4 (18.8) 83.7 (21.8) 0.086
Mood 89.4 (20.4) 81.2 (26.7) 0.099
Taste 80.2 (29.9) 69.9 (30.5) 0.099
Saliva 65.3 (31.5) 54.9 (33.0) 0.170
Chewing 76.5 (34.2) 70.0 (29.9) 0.214
Swallowing 82.8 (23.8) 76.7 (24.4) 0.216
Activity 89.1 (18.2) 85.0 (18.8) 0.241
Recreation 90.1 (20.3) 81.2 (30.2) 0.346
Appearance 88.0 (20.9) 85.0 (22.0) 0.441
Speech 78.7 (26.1) 76.7 (24.4) 0.596