NARPAA E-Class Module 8 - ABA Applied Behavior Analysis

8/6/2019 NARPAA E-Class Module 8 - ABA Applied Behavior Analysis

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MODULE EIGHT

ABA

APPLIED BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS

www.narpaa.org


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APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS TRAINING

As a result of completion of this module, the participant willbe able to:

Define applied behavior analysis.

List the core characteristics of ABA. List the 5 steps or components of Discrete Trial

Teaching.


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APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS TRAINING

As a result of completion of this module, theparticipant will be able to:

Define Discriminative Stimulus. Identify each kind of and define the variations of

prompts.

Identify examples of shaping and chaining

Recall the meaning of and identify examples of

task analysis.


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APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a scientificfield of study devoted to understanding andimproving human behavior.


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ABA

ABA focuses on socially significant behavior;

Behavior (anything a person does) is changed based

upon environmental contingencies; Behaviors are observable, quantifiable occurrences;

ABA strategies are systematic; and

ABA requires data-driven analysis.


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Applied behavior analysis is used in business, industry,education, medicine, and psychology. The principles ofABA are utilized to impact weight loss, improved readingscores, tobacco smoking, occupational safety, increased

production, etc. Educating students with autism isanother area where ABA is used and has been proveneffective. A variety of strategies under the ABA umbrellaare used to teach skills to students with autism. Theseinclude: discrete trial instruction, prompting, shaping,

chaining, reinforcement, generalization, and maintenanceof skills.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology


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ABA STRATEGIES

STRATEGIES Discrete trial instruction Prompting Shaping Chaining Reinforcement Generalization Maintenance of skills.


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DISCRETE TRIAL TEACHING

Five Components of Discrete Trial Teaching

Discriminative Stimulus

Prompting

Response

Consequence

Inter-Trial Interval Measurement


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Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

The SD is the cue, verbal or visual, that is used by theinstructor to elicit a behavior. SDs follow the rule ofthe three Cs: clear, concise, and consistent.


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RULE OF THE THREE CS

Clear: All SDs must be presented in an unambiguous manner(clear).

Concise: Due to the language comprehension deficits noted inmany students with autism, SDs must be concise, that is,limited to the key words of the instruction. This is often referredto as telegraphic speech. For example, when teaching theconcept of discrimination between bigand little, the instructorwould present the student with two objects: one small, one big.The appropriate SD would be touch big or touch little asopposed to I want you to touch the object which is bigger.Concise SDs allow a student with autism to process theimportant information of the direction.

Consistent: Once an SD is selected during the teaching phase,the SD remains the same. SDs are not varied until the student isready to generalize the skill.


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PROMPTING

The second component of discrete trialteaching is the prompt. Prompts are usedafter the SD, and they are designed to ensure

that the student produces the desiredresponse. Prompts assist the student withautism to build a connection between the SDand the desired response, which then resultsin the student consistently receivingreinforcement. There are four types ofprompting used in discrete trial teaching.


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PHYSICAL PROMPTING

Physical prompting occurs when the instructor

actually manipulates the students body to

respond correctly. For example, the student

is given the SD Touch nose. The studentdoes not have the skill in his/her repertoire,so the instructor physically takes the childs

finger and places it on his/her nose. Physical

prompting is the most instructor-involvedtype of prompt.


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GESTURAL PROMPTING

Gestural prompting occurs when the instructorcues the desired response with a bodymovement such as pointing. An example of a

gestural prompt would include the teachingscenario of the instructor presenting twoobjects on a table to the student. The studentis then given the SD touchobject, and the

instructor points to the correct object.


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POSITIONAL PROMPTING

Positional prompting is built into thepositioning of the materials, so that thestudent chooses the correct item almost by

default. For example, the student is presentedwith two objects on the table. The instructorgives the SD touch object and slides thecorrect object on the table so that it is closest

to the student.


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VERBAL PROMPTING

Verbal prompting uses words or parts of wordsto elicit the correct response. Verbal promptsare only used when the desired response is a

verbal one. For example, the student ispresented with an object and given the SDwhat is it? The instructor labels the object,and the student repeats the response.


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PROMPT FADING

Prompt fading: Prompting is teaching, and it is criticalthat the goal is for the student to respondindependently, without any prompting. Therefore,prompt fading is a method of gradually decreasingthe types of prompts required to elicit the correctresponse. It is the students responding that dictateshow and when prompts can be faded. For example,the student is being taught to imitate the gross motormovement clap hands. The SD do this is given,followed by the clap handsmovement. The student is

responding with physical prompting and, as theinstructor is teaching a new sessions, the studentbegins to move his/her hands in a clapping motion,then stops. The instructor then gestures with his/herhands (without touching the student) to clap hands.


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RESPONSE

The third component of discrete trial teaching

is the students response, which can be

correct or incorrect. Errorless learning

ensures that the students response isalways correct. Errorless responses areachieved through effective prompting andprompt fading. Ensuring that the student

always responds correctly preventsconfusion.


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CONSEQUENCE

The fourth component of discrete trial teaching is theconsequence. The consequence to a correctresponse is immediate reinforcement, pairedconsistently with behavior-specific praise. It isimportant that the consequence of a correctresponse is clear, so that the student begins tobecome aware of what response is desired. If aprompt is misread and the students response is

incorrect, the instructor simply neutrally ignores theincorrect response and the teaching interaction, andinitiates a new discrete trial.


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INTER-TRIAL INTERVAL/MEASUREMENT

The fifth component of discrete trial teaching is theinter-trial interval/measurement. An inter-trial intervalis a clear pause before the next trial is initiated. It isduring this pause that data collection is recordedduring formal teaching sessions. The instructorrecords the students response and what type of

prompt was required. Even if data is not collectedduring this time, the inter-trial interval provides the

student with a brief period of time to increase theclarity of what behavior is being taught.


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DISCRETE TRIAL TEACHING

Discrete trial can be taught in formal teachingsessions and incidentally throughout the day.Typically, in formal teaching sessions,

discrete trial teaching is presented inrepetitive trials, giving the student manyopportunities to respond and receivereinforcement. The predictability of the

repetitive discrete trial maximizes a studentslearning.


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INCIDENTAL TEACHING

Incidental teaching, which is unplanned spontaneousteaching, can occur at any time throughout the day.Incidental teaching opportunities extend teaching beyondformal instruction periods. An example of an incidentalteaching scenario would include an instructor and astudent walking down the hall. The instructor points to thered balloon on the bulletin board, gives the SD What

color is this? The student responds red; the instructor

praises the student for the correct response, pauses, andthen continues to walk down the hall.


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SHAPING

Shaping is a teaching strategy where closer andcloser approximations of the target behavior arereinforced. Shaping increases the students

opportunities for success and reinforcement.


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SHAPING

The target behavior is verbally labeling an apple.The instructor presents the SD what is this?The student produces an ah sound (the first

syllable of the word) and the instructorimmediately models the word apple andreinforces the student for the approximation. Forsubsequent responses to be reinforced, thestudent must then minimally produce the ah(first syllable) or ap (which is a closerapproximation of the word).


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CHAINING

Chaining strategiesare utilized when teachingcomplex skills. Chaining begins by breaking acomplex skill into simple components or steps.

The steps are then taught to independence, andthen linked together into a sequence of chain.There are two types of chaining: forwardchaining and backward chaining.


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FORWARD CHAINING

Forward chainingstarts by teaching a skill at the beginningof a sequence, and then progressing forward to the nextstep. Forward chaining can be an effective strategy whenthe first steps of the task, such as tooth brushing, areeasily acquired. The first two steps of tooth brushing aregetting the toothbrush and getting the toothpaste.Forward chaining is also effective when the student hassome of the initial steps in his/her repertoire. An example

of forward chaining is illustrated in the following scenario.


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FORWARD CHAINING

The target behavior is setting the table. The student is giventhe SD set table and is prompted through the first step,

which is placing the placemats on the table. Once thestudent is prompted through the first step, he/she is

reinforced and the instructor completes the rest of thetable setting. Once the student is independent with thefirst step (placemats on the table), the next step is addedto the chain. The student would be given the SD set

table. The student would place the placemats on thetable, and then the plates. This would continue until allsteps were mastered.


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BACKWARD CHAINING

Inbackward chainingthe steps of the task areidentified and then taught in reverse order, sothat the last step is taught first. The advantage ofbackward chaining is that it allows the student tocomplete the task, strengthening the relationshipbetween task completion and reinforcement.Backward chaining also provides the studentwith concrete, visual cues that can assist in skillacquisition. An example of backward chaining isnoted in the following scenario.


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REINFORCEMENT

Effective use of reinforcement is important forensuring the success of students with autism.Positive reinforcement is utilized to motivate the

student to continue to perform and respond withthe desired response. Reinforcement is any actthat increases the likelihood that a behavior willoccur again. Primary and secondary reinforcers

are utilized when teaching students with autism.


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PRIMARY REINFORCERS

Primary reinforcersare unconditioned, natural,life-sustaining factors such as food, drinks andwarmth. Examples of primary reinforcers used

for teaching students with autism can includegrapes, pretzels, candy, juice, water, etc.


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SECONDARY REINFORCERS

Secondary reinforcersare conditioned, learnedreinforcers. Social reinforcers include praise, asmile, a handshake, a hug, high 5s. Token

reinforcersare points, coins, chips, etc., that areredeemable for other, tangible reinforcers.Activity reinforcers include playing a game,listening to music, taking a break.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Token_economyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Token_economyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Token_economyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Token_economy


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EFFECTIVE REINFORCEMENT

Effective reinforcement is unique to each studentwith autism. Reinforcement is dynamic in that itcan change based upon simple environmental

factors.


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EFFECTIVE REINFORCEMENT

Example: Pretzels are clearly identified as an effective reinforcer for

a student; that is, data has shown that when the studentis given a piece of a pretzel for a correct response,his/her correct responses increase.

The student has just had a big lunch that included a bagof pretzels. During the teaching session directly followinglunch, pretzels may not be a true reinforcer. It is alsoimportant that in the early stages of teaching a studentwith autism the tangible reward be given to the student

immediately followed by social reinforcer (praise). Theconsistent pairing of the tangible reward with the socialpraise increases the likelihood that social praise will havethe reinforcement qualities of the tangible reinforcer.


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GENERALIZATION AND MAINTENANCE

Skill acquisition taught through discrete trial teaching informal teaching sessions is only the beginning of thelearning process for students with autism. In order for askill to be truly mastered, the student must be able to

perform the skill with varying materials, in varioussettings, and with different instructors. Generalization isthis process of transforming a skill from a formal teachingsession to real-life usage. Consistently applying a

learned skill in varying contexts ensures that the studenttruly owns the skill


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Generalization is systematically taught once thestudent has mastered the skill in teachingsessions. Typically, generalization begins by

varying the materials being presented to thestudent. For example, once the student masterscolor identification with one specific set of colorcards in a formal teaching session, the instructor

uses a variety of colored items.


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The next level of generalization includes having thestudent perform the skill across various people.Typically, this is achieved by scheduling variousinstructors during the teaching session to presentthe skill. The next level of generalization issetting; that is, the student is exposed to the skillthroughout the day in various locations. Once astudent has generalized the skill, it is important

that the skill is maintained, that is, it lasts overtime.


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The student is taught to expressively identifynumbers 1 through 10. This skill has beengeneralized. The maintenance procedure would

be reduced tangible reinforcers to intermittentpraise. Number identification would then beincluded in the next skill sequence, which wouldbe counting out objects.


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TASK ANALYSIS

Most students with autism learn best when tasksare presented to them in simple, clear steps.Task analysis allows the instructor to clearly

identify targeted steps of a skill acquisitionprogram. Task analysis is the process ofbreaking down a task into a series of small, clearsteps. When task-analyzing a skill, it is important

that each step only requires one response.


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TASK ANALYSIS

An example of a task-analyzed skill is illustrated in thefollowing sequence of teaching hand washing.

Turn on water. Wet hands.

Retrieve soap. Lather hands. Replace soap. Place hands under water. Turn off water. Retrieve towel. Dry hands. Dispose of towel.


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BASELINE DATA

Baselineestablishes a pre-treatment level of responding. Abaseline is achieved by presenting the SD of a targetedprogram, without any prompting. An example of abaseline is illustrated in the following scenario.


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BASELINE DATA

The targeted behavior is touching the letter A in afield of three. The student is presented with three

letter cards and given the SD touch A. Thestudents response is recorded. This is re-presented 5-10 times. The number of correctresponses is then averaged.


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DATA COLLECTION

Data collectionis a hallmark of Applied BehavioralAnalysis. Data collection needs to be objective, andclearly quantifies progress or lack of progress. Data isused to monitor progress, and to ensure thattroubleshooting occurs when a student is not makingprogress. Data collection also identifies trends andlearning styles of a student.


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BEHAVIOR REDUCTION TECHNIQUES

Many students with autism present behaviors thatlimit their opportunity to learn and function, as

well as access to the community. Whenattempting to reduce maladaptive behaviors, it isimportant that well-established procedures andguidelines are utilized to make decisions on how

to most effectively manage a behavior.


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DETERMINATION OF NEED

The first step in developing behavior reduction proceduresis to determine the need to treat a specific behavior. Notall unacceptable behaviors need to be treated. Todetermine whether maladaptive behavior needs to be

treated, three questions are asked. Is the behavior harmful to the student or to others?

Does the behavior interfere with the students work orlearning?

Does the behavior restrict the students access tohis/her community?


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If the answer to each of these three questions is no, then aformal behavior reduction program is not developed. Ifthe answer to any of the questions is yes, further

analysis of the behavior begins. Developing a clearobjective definition of the targeted behavior is essentialfor further analysis. The operational definition of thebehavior must be objective and complete, allowinginstructors to assess the behavior in a consistent

manner.


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The next step to further determining the need to treat is tocollect baseline data on the targeted behavior.Typically, baseline data is measured through a

frequency countthe actual number of times thebehavior occurs and duration datahow long thebehavior occurs. Baseline data is often recorded alongwith an ABC (Antecedent Behavior Consequence)analysis. ABC analysis identifies events that

immediately precede and immediately follow thetargeted behavior.


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An example of an ABC analysis is illustrated in the following scenario.The targeted behavior is tantrum behavior. Staff are recording thefrequency and duration of the tantrum, and then recording eventsthat immediately precede and immediately follow the behavior. Thebehaviors occur at different times of the day, lasting an average offive minutes. The antecedent to the first occurrence of the behaviorwas the student being asked to finish his math worksheet; theevent that followed the tantrum was the student being asked toleave the classroom. For the second occurrence, the antecedentwas the student being instructed to write his answer on the board,and was followed by the student being told to sit back down in his

seat. The antecedent to the third occurrence was the student beingtold to take out his spelling room, and was followed by the studentbeing given the assignment for homework.


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Once the baseline data and ABC analysis has beenrecorded for a sufficient period of time, it is analyzed todetermine if the frequency and/or severity of thebehavior justifies further intervention.


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If data indicates that intervention is necessary, the processcontinues and any possible physical or medicalcausation is investigated. Medical consideration is oftengiven to a maladaptive behavior if it is a new behaviorthat is atypical of the student. In addition, a review ofthe medical implications for self-injury and aggressionmay be necessary. Investigating whether the behavioris the result of side effects of medication is important. Ifa medical causation is identified, appropriate medical

treatment should be attained. If no medical conditionsare identified, environmental conditions are analyzed.


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ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

When assessing a maladaptive behavior, it is important toexamine the students total environment. Is the

environment too noisy? Too crowded? Too distracting?Too hot? Too cold? If adjusting any of these areasresults in a decrease in the behavior, then furtheranalysis is not required.


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ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

A secondary environmental consideration is assessingwhether the student demonstrated the ability toappropriately control his environment. That is, does thestudent have choice-making skills? Can he/shecommunicate wants and needs, or tell someone thatthey do not want to do something? If it is determinedthat environmental conditions are not a factor inmaintaining the maladaptive behavior, an analysis ofcurricular conditions is initiated.


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CURRICULAR CONDITIONS

This component of assessment looks at what the student is actuallydoing, that is, the students curriculum or goals and objectives. Thefirst question asked is whether a particular assignment or taskprecipitates the behavior. If the answer is yes, then it is important to

identify why. Further questions are then asked: Is the skill setrequired to complete an assignment absent from the studentsrepertoire? Is the assignment or task too difficult for the student? Isthe assignment or task too boring for the student? If the answer toany of these questions is yes, the assignment/task should beadjusted accordingly.


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TREATMENT OF BEHAVIOR

Once analysis of a challenging behavior has beencompleted, and the function has been determined,

several initial strategies should be implemented.


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All behavior serves a function for the individual with Autism.It is therefore essential that the function of thechallenging behavior be determined so that alternate,

appropriate strategies to replace the behavior can bedetermined. For example, if it is assessed that anindividual is engaging in a challenging behavior to gainattention, it is essential that he/she be taughtappropriate means to gain an adults attention.


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If the purpose of the behavior is to escape from a situationor task, it is important that the individual be taught howto appropriately escape a situation, such as by asking

for a break or asking for help. If the function of thebehavior is communication-related frustration, it isobviously essential that the individual be taught how toappropriately and effectively communicate wants, needsand dislikes.


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ALTERNATE APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR

In addition to teaching alternate appropriate behavior,positive reinforcement should also be utilized toincrease the appropriate response. When utilizing

positive reinforcement to decrease a challengingbehavior, the behavior is ignored and any and allappropriate attempts to communicate the function of thebehavior appropriately are reinforced with tangible andsocial reinforcers. An example of the use of alternateteaching and reinforcement is illustrated in the followingscenario.


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ALTERNATE APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR

It has been determined that an individuals pounding on hisdesk with his fist serves the function of communicationfrustration. The individual is taught to say phrases suchas This is too hard, I need a break or I need help.Each time the instructor observes the individual sayingone of these phrases or refraining from pounding thedesk, the individual is given a tangible reward and isenthusiastically praised. If the individual pounds thedesk, the instructor ignores that behavior, prompts theindividual to use an appropriate strategy, and thenreinforces the use of the alternate strategy.


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TOKEN ECONOMY

Immediate reinforcement of desired responses is critical for individualswith Autism who are performing at a learning readiness stage. Itshould be the goal of all instructors to establish an environment that

is rich in reinforcement and also teach the individual with Autism todelay their need for immediate reinforcement. To that end, tokeneconomies are quite successful.


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TOKEN ECONOMY

There are three aspects of a token economy.

A clearly defined behavior that is targeted to bereinforced.

A tangible symbol of the reward to come, which is usedas the item to exchange.

The backup reinforcer.


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CLEARLY DEFINED BEHAVIOR TO BE

REINFORCED

It is important that all adults working with the individual with Autismcreate a clear, reliable definition of the targeted behavior to bereinforced. This will ensure consistency in implementation of the

token economy, and will also allow the individual with Autism to beclear about what behaviors are expected and reinforced.


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TANGIBLE SYMBOL

The tangible symbol is the actual token that would be delivered to theindividual upon occurrence of the targeted behavior to bereinforced. Some examples of tokens are: tally marks, stamps,

coupons, poker chips, holes punched in a card. It is important thatthe tokens that are selected are durable, easy to carry, and safe(not able to be swallowed by a young child). Whenever possible,the individual with Autism should have his tokens with him at alltimes as a reminder of the reward to come. When selecting atoken, it is important not to make the token itself too highly desired,

as that may be distracting to the individual. For example, if anindividual with Autism is highly reinforced by trains, then trainstamps may actually be distracting, as the individual may spend histime looking at the stamp and talking about it. Therefore it isimportant to make the token somewhat neutral.


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BACKUP REINFORCER

It is important that the backup reinforcer clearly impacts behaviorchange; that is, it does increase the likelihood that a behavior willoccur again. When possible in the residential environment, the use

of naturally occurring events or activities can help the tokeneconomy to be integrated into the environment, such as a specificclassroom job, being the teachers assistant or messenger. Thebackup reinforcer may also be a special privilege in the residentialenvironment, such as a homework pass or being the class reader.What is most important is that the reinforcement does change

behavior in a positive manner. If a naturally occurring event oractivity can not be targeted as the reinforcement, then it is essentialthat a tangible reward that has been proven effective be madeavailable to the individual with Autism.


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BRIDGING THE GAP

Since token economies bridge the gap between the targeted behaviorand the delivery of the backup reinforcer, it is important that, whenthe token economy is first implemented, the length of time between

the desired behavior and the trade-in to the backup reinforcer isshort. The amount of tokens required to trade-in for the backupreinforcer should also be low initially, to increase the efficacy of theprogram. Once the individual with Autism has bought into the tokeneconomy, the length of time between the desired behavior and thetrade-in can be increased, and the number of tokens required to

earn the backup reward can be increased. A menu of backupreinforcers can also be created, and the value of each token can bedecreased.


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RESTRICTIVE PROCEDURES

Many challenging behaviors exhibited by individuals with Autism can bereduced or eliminated by positive strategies alone. There are,however, some challenging behaviors that may require the use of

restrictive procedures. Agency, state, and government regulationsmust be adhered to by all direct care service providers.Implementing restrictive procedures without formal protocols isunethical. It is essential that all behavior plans that includerestrictive procedures must also include positive strategies such asa reinforcement system or alternate teaching program. All behavior

plans must be monitored for efficacy via objective data collection.


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EXTINCTION

Extinction a procedure in which reinforcement of apreviously reinforced behavior is discontinued.

Example: An individual with Autism engages in ayelling behavior which has been determined tofunction for attention. The staff are engaging withthe individual as usual, but they are ignoring the

yelling behavior.


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RESPONSE COST

Response Cost a procedure in which the loss of aspecific amount of reinforcement occurssubsequent to the occurrence of a targeted

behavior.

Example: An individual with Autism earns tokens forperiods of appropriate working. This person looses

already earned tokens for refusal to work.


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TIME OUT

Time-Out the withdrawal of the opportunity to earnpositive reinforcement for a specific time period;contingent upon the occurrence of a targeted

behavior.

Example: An individual with Autism engages in anattention getting behavior such as yelling or hitting

the individual will be directed to a specified areaand all opportunities for reinforcement arewithdrawn.


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SIMPLE CORRECTION

Simple Correction subsequent to the occurrence of atargeted behavior, the environment is returned to itsprevious state

Example: An individual with Autism intentionallyspills his/her milk. The staff have the person cleanup the spill.


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OVER CORRECTION

Simple Correction subsequent to the occurrence of atargeted behavior, the environment is returned to itsprevious state

Example: An individual with Autism intentionallyspills his/her milk. The staff have the person cleanup the spill.


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OVER CORRECTION

Positive practice overcorrection - subsequent to theoccurrence of a targeted behavior, an appropriatebehavior is practiced.

Example: The individual with Autism intentionallywrites on his/her table. The staff requires thisperson to write his/her name on paper 50 times.

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NARPAA E-Class Module 8 - ABA Applied Behavior Analysis

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