National Report of Indonesia on the Formulation of a … · 2006. 8. 24. · 2.10. estimated...

U N E P / S C S / N a t i o n a l R e p o r t 3 - I n d o n e s i aU N E P / S C S / N a t i o n a l R e p o r t 3 - I n d o n e s i a

National Report of Indonesia on theNational Report of Indonesia on theFormulation of a TransboundaryFormulation of a Transboundary

Diagnostic Analysis and PreliminaryDiagnostic Analysis and PreliminaryFramework of a Strategic ActionFramework of a Strategic Action

Programme for the South China SeaProgramme for the South China Sea

INDONESIA

National Report for the Formulation of aTransboundary Diagnostic Analysis and

Preliminary Framework of a Strategic Action Programmefor the South China Sea

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................................1

1.1 AIM OF THE NATIONAL REPORT ...........................................................................................................................11.2 MAJOR WATER-RELATED ENVIRONMENT PROBLEMS.......................................................................................31.3 COUNTRY BACKGROUND.........................................................................................................................................31.4 GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS USED IN THE ANALYSIS...............................................................................................13

2. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF MAJOR WATER-RELATED CONCERNS AND PRINCIPAL ..............ISSUES13

2.1 POLLUTION ..............................................................................................................................................................132.1.1 Sources of pollution ................................................................................................................................... 142.1.2 Pollution hot spots ..................................................................................................................................... 672.1.3 Sensitive and high risk areas ................................................................................................................... 67

2.2 FRESHWATER SHORTAGE AND DEGRADATION OF ITS QUALITY.....ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.2.2.1 Surface water............................................................................................................................................... 722.2.2 Groundwater................................................................................................................................................ 89

2.3 EXPLOITATION OF LIVING AQUATIC RESOURCES.............................................................................................952.3.1 Living freshwater resources...................................................................................................................... 952.3.2 Living marine resources ............................................................................................................................ 99

2.4 MODIFICATION OF AQUATIC HABITATS..........................................................................................................1282.4.1 Freshwater .................................................................................................................................................1282.4.2 Marine.........................................................................................................................................................1292.4.3 Critical habitats, ecosystems and species of transboundary importance......................................130

3. ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC COSTS OF THE IDENTIFIED WATER-RELATED PRINCIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES...........................................................................................................130

3.1 FORESTRY AND WILD-LIFE MANAGEMENT .........................................................................................................1313.2 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT ..................................................................................................................................1333.3 AGRICULTURE AND AGRO-FORESTRY...............................................................................................................1343.4 COASTAL SYSTEMS AND WETLANDS ....................................................................................................................139

4. ANALYSIS OF THE ROOT CAUSES OF THE IDENTIFIED WATER-RELATED ISSUES ......................143

5. CONSTRAINTS TO ACTION...............................................................................................................................146

5.1 FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS ON DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................................1465.2 RAPID POPULATION GROWTH IN COASTAL AREAS........................................................................................1475.3 LACK OF POLICY IMPLEMENTATION................................................................................................................1475.4 COASTAL POVERTY..............................................................................................................................................1475.5 LACK OF AWARENESS OF THE STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES FOR

SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT .......................................................................................................1475.6 LACK OF POLITICAL WILL TO APPLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES IN MARINE

RESOURCE ...................................................................................................................................................... UTILIZATION149

5.7 LACK OF RECOGNITION OF LOCAL RIGHTS AND INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE , COMMUNITY-BASED

PARTICIPATION, AND EMPOWERMENT TO LOCAL GOVERNMENT .............................................................1495.8 LACK OF INTEGRATED APPROACHES IN COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT ................1495.9 LACK OF CAPABLE HUMAN RESOURCES............................................................................................................1495.10 LACK OF INFORMATION AS A BASIS FOR RATIONAL AND OPTIMAL MARINE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

150

6. ONGOING AND PLANNED ACTIVITIES RELEVANT TO THE IDENTIFIED ENVIRONMENTALISSUES ..................................................................................................................................................................................150

6.1 NATIONAL PROGRAMMES AND ACTIONS FOR LAND-BASED AND SEA-BASED POLLUTION CONTROL .1506.1.1 Environmental impact assessments .......................................................................................................1506.1.2 PROKASIH (Clean River Programme) .................................................................................................1516.1.3 Small-scale industries impact control ..................................................................................................1516.1.4 Environmental damage control .............................................................................................................1516.1.5 Marine and coastal pollution control ..................................................................................................1516.1.6 Hazardous waste management...............................................................................................................1516.1.7 Clean City Programme (ADIPURA) ......................................................................................................1526.1.8 Cleaner production development ..........................................................................................................1526.1.9 Implementation of coastal spatial layout and land use plans .........................................................1526.1.10 Establishment of national coastal water quality standards.............................................................152

6.2 SHIPPING AND MARINE PORT ACTIVITY..........................................................................................................1546.3 INDUSTRY AND HYDROCARBON POLLUTION ..................................................................................................1546.4 FISHERIES AND OVER-FISHING.............................................................................................................................1546.5 CORAL MINING AND DEGRADATION OF CRITICAL HABITATS......................................................................1566.6 AQUACULTURE AND OTHER OFFSHORE ACTIVITIES .....................................................................................1566.7 COASTAL FORESTRY AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION ......................................................................1566.8 COASTAL AGRICULTURE AND CONVERSION OF CRITICAL HABITATS.........................................................1576.9 INDUSTRY AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE................................................................................................................1576.10 TOURISM AND DESTRUCTION OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS..............................................................................1576.11 TRANSPORTATION, TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND UNCOORDINATED ACTIVITIES ..................................1586.12 COASTAL COMMUNITIES AND INADEQUATE PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE ..............................................158

7. SPECIFIC ACTION PROPOSED FOR EACH IDENTIFIED ISSUE................................................................159

7.1 Pollution ..........................................................................................................................................................1597.2 Freshwater shortage......................................................................................................................................1597.3 Over-exploitation of living aquatic resources..........................................................................................1597.4 Habitat modification .....................................................................................................................................159

8. IMPLICATIONS OF THE PROPOSED ACTION BY SECTOR......................................................................162

8.1 FINANCIAL ASPECTS AND POLICY DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................1628.2 SHIPPING AND PORTS...........................................................................................................................................1638.3 OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT .............................................................................................................................1638.4 FISHERIES................................................................................................................................................................1638.5 CORAL MINING ......................................................................................................................................................1648.6 AQUACULTURE .....................................................................................................................................................1648.7 COASTAL FORESTRY.............................................................................................................................................1658.8 COASTAL AGRICULTURE .....................................................................................................................................1658.9 INDUSTRY ...............................................................................................................................................................1658.10 TOURISM...................................................................................................................................................................1658.11 TRANSPORTATION AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS ...........................................................................................1668.12 COASTAL COMMUNITIES......................................................................................................................................166

9. REFERENCE AND SOURCES OF DATA AND INFORMATION USED IN THE ANALYSIS

10. ANNEXES

11. FIGURES

1. 1990 POPULATION DENSITY2.a. FEBRUARY CURRENTS AND WINDS2.b. AUGUST CURRENTS AND WINDS3. ESTIMATED INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION LOAD BY WATERSHED, 19904. MAP OF PRODUCING AND EXPLORED TERTIARY AGE BASINS AROUND SUMATERA ISLAND

(SALM AND HALIM, 1984)5. AREAS OF HIGH DEGRADATION/VULNERABILITY BY WATERSHED, 19906. CEMP HIGH PRIORITY ZONES7. VISITOR ARRIVALS TO INDONESIA, 1980-1991 AND PREDICTIONS TO YEAR 20008. CORAL REEFS9. MANGROVES

12. TABLES

1.1 SUBREGION IN INDONESIA (WESTERN INDONESIA) THAT INTERACT WITH THE SOUTHCHINA SEA

1.2. LIST OF PROVINCES AND RIVERS UNDER THE JURISDICTION OF PROKASIH1.3. NATIONAL INDONESIAN COORDINATING AND LINE AGENCIES AND THEIR ROLES

RELATING TO THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT2.1. DEMOGRAPHY2.2. PHYSICAL SETTING AND POPULATION CHARACTERISTIC, 19942.3. ECONOMY 1995-19962.4. LIST OF TOP 10 EXPORT COMMODITIES OF THE COUNTRY2.5. LIST OF TOP 7 IMPORT COMMODITIES OF THE COUNTRY2.6. INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION2.7. POLLUTION TRANSPORT-RIVERS, 19962.8. POLLUTION LOAD FROM COMMUNITY WASTE2.9. PERCENTAGE OF WASTE COMPOSITION IN JAKARTA AND BANDUNG DURING 1988-19892.10. ESTIMATED COASTAL WASTE LOADS, 19902.11. ESTIMATED COASTAL AGRICULTURAL WASTE LOADS, 19902.12. ESTIMATED COASTAL INDUSTRY WASTE LOADS, 19902.13. COMPOSITION OF SOLID WASTES IN JAVA AND SUMATERA2.14. INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION FROM NON-COASTAL INSTALLATIONS (DISCHARGE INTO RIVERS

AND CANALS)2.15. THE AMOUNT OF POLLUTION LOAD IN JAVA-2.16. ESTIMATION OF WASTE WATER COMPOSITION BY SOME INDUSTRIES2.17. AGRICULTURAL SOURCE2.18. THE COMPARISON OF SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND EROSION INTENSITY OF SOME RIVERS

IN JAVA AND SUMATERA, 19822.19. MAXIMUM/MUD CONCENTRATION AT THE UPPER RIVER BASIN OF SOME RIVERS IN JAVA2.20. IRRIGATION AREA AND THE SURFACE WATER USAGE IN JAVA2.21. WATER USAGE BY SETTLEMENTS IN JAVA, 19872.22. FORESTRY2.23. HEAVY METALS LOADING INTO JAKARTA BAY2.24. RECORDED INCIDENTS OF MARINE POLLUTION

2.25. POLLUTION LEVEL CLASSIFICATION2.26. LOCATIONS POLLUTED BY ORGANIC MATTERS AND POLLUTION

2.27. ORGANIC POLLUTION LEVELS AT SOME RIVERS STREAMS2.28. PESTICIDE CONSUMPTION IN INDONESIA2.29. WASTE TREATMENTS (PERCENT STATUS)2.30. DOMESTIC POLLUTION2.31. NUMBER OF BOATS/SHIPS BY TYPES AND REGISTERED PLACE/CITY UNDER THE ISM CODE2.32. PORTS AND HARBOURS2.33. VOLUME AND VALUE OF EXPORT OF OIL, NATURAL GAS, AND THEIR DERIVATES FROM

INDONESIA2.34. CRUDE OIL PRODUCTION BY COMPANY IN RIAU PROVINCE2.35. PRINCIPAL TYPES OF OCEANIC MINERALS2.36. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON MARINE POLLUTION2.37. OIL SPILLS AND OTHER DISASTERS2.38.A MINERAL/PETROLEUM EXTRACTION PLATFORMS2.38.B OTHER TYPES OF PRODUCTION2.39.A MARINE DUMPING2.39.B MARINE DUMPING (ROUTINE MAINTENANCE DREDGING IN SELECTED PORTS)2.40. AIRBORNE EMISSION2.41. POLLUTION TRANSPORT-ATMOSPHERIC PRECIPITATION2.42. HOTSPOTS LOCATIONS2.43. RIVERS’ YEARLY AND MONTHLY MEAN DISCHARGES2.44. PRIORITIES BASED ON CARRYING CAPACITY AND WATER SUPPLY IN JABOTABEK AREA2.45. ESTIMATED COASTAL INDUSTRIAL, DOMESTIC AND AGRICULTURAL WASTE LOADS,

1990A. INDUSTRYB. DOMESTICC. AGRICULTURE

2.46. RELATIVE BALANCE OF INDUSTRIAL NET POLLUTION LOADS IN CISADANE RIVER2.47. BALANCE OF DOMESTIC POLLUTION LOADS FOR BOD IN CISADANE RIVER BASIN2.48. TOILET FACILITIES, 19922.49. MORBIDITY AND CASE FATALITY RATE OF DIARRHEA2.50. TOURISM2.51. LIST OF TOURIST AND RECREATIONAL AREAS IN THE EAST COAST OF SUMATERA IN

MALACCA STRAITS2.52. THE USE OF CLEAN WATER EXTRACTION FOR DAILY NEEDS2.53. AREA OF MAJOR FOREST TYPES BY BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGION2.54. UTILIZATION OF LIVING MARINE RESOURCES2.55. THE NUMBER OF FISHING BOATS, FISHERY ESTABLISHMENTS, MARINE FISHING UNITS BY

GEAR AND FISHERMEN IN THE EAST COAST PROVINCES OF ACEH, NORTH SUMATERAAND RIAU

2.56. BRACKISHWATER POND FISHERIES IN THE PROVINCES OF SUMATERA BORDERING THEMALACCA STRAITS

2.57. POTENTIAL AREA FOR DEVELOPMENT AND POTENTIAL PRODUCTION OFMARINECULTURE ALONG THE EAST COAST OF SUMATERA IN MALACCA STRAITS.

2.58. ESTIMATED STANDING STOCKS AND MAXIMUM SUSTAINABLE YIELD (MSY) FORFISHERY STOCKS IN THE INDONESIAN PORTION OF THE MALACCA STRAITS, 1980

2.59. CORAL REEFS2.60. SEAGRASS2.61. MANGROVE

2.62. THE LOSS IN PEAT SWAMP AREAS IN SUMATERA2.63. COMMERCIAL AND SUBSISTENCE USES OF MANGROVE FOREST RESOURCES IN NORTH

SUMATERA2.64. ENDANGERED SPECIES PROTECTED BY LAW IN INDONESIA3.1. SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION3.2. SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF PUBLIC HEALTH3.3. SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF INFRASTRUCTURE3.4. WETLANDS IN INDONESIA

4.1. INDONESIA CAUSAL CHAIN ANALYSIS7.1. LAWS AMD REGULATIONS REALTED TO ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Indonesia National ReportPage 1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 AIM OF THE NATIONAL REPORT

The aim of this national report is to identify the pollution and degradation of the environment inIndonesia as a whole, with examples from concrete locations and activities to justify the action plan forthe sustainable development of Indonesia's marine and coastal resources.

It was previously agreed that this work would be conducted by reviewing existing orsecondary data and information. The results showed that the transboundary diagnostic analysis (TDA)and strategic action programme (SAP) are justified for the western part of the country which is closelyrelated to the South China Sea (as seen in table 1.1 : SubregionS in Indonesia (Western Indonesia)that interact with the South China Sea).


Table 1.1 Subregions in Indonesia (Western Indonesia) that interact with the South China Sea.

Subregion Provinces in thesubregion

Major Cities Names of watershedareas/rivers

Total area ofwatershed (Km2)

Total area ofsubregion (Km2)

Total population of thesubregion/year (1994)

KarimataStrait andJava Sea

1). Riau includedBatam

2). Bangka-Belitungand SouthSumatera

3). Jakarta & WestJava

4). East Java

5). South Kalimantan

6). West Kalimantan

1). Tanjung Pinang

2). Pangkal Pinang &Palembang

3). JakartaMetropolitan City

4). Surabaya

5). Banjarmasin

6). Pontianak

1). Islands

2). Islands &Musi river and others

3). Ciliwung-Cisadane

4). Brantas river

5). Barito river

6). Kapuas river

1). -

2). -9131

3). 2241

4). 12000

5). 32000

6). 5000

1). 94.561

2). 103.688

3). 46.890

4). 47.921

5). 37.660

6). 146.760

1). 3.647.469 (population growth: 2.1%)


3). 47.546.918 (population growth:1.8%)

4). 34.757.634 (population growth:1.4%)



Source: Physical Setting and Population Characteristics (BPS-Central Bureau of Statistics of Indonesia, 1994 and 1997)3. Physical Oceanography

References used for Physical Oceanography are among others:(1). "Physical Conditions of the Indonesian Waters" by Henk Uktolseya in: Helen T. Yap, Martin Bohle-Carbonell, Edgardo D. Gomez- "Oceanography and

Marine Pollution: an ASEAN-EC Perspective"-Proceedings of the ASEAN EC Seminar/Workshop on Marine Sciences, Manila, Philippines, 12-16 April 1987.Marine Science Institute, 1990.

(2). Wyrtki, K. 1961. "Physical Oceanography of the South East Asian Waters. Naga Report, Vol.2: Scientific Result on Marine Investigation in the South ChinaSea and the Gulf of Thailand, 1959-1961. La Jolla: Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Uniiversity of California, 195 p. + 44 pl.

(3). Atlas Oseanologi Perainar Indonesia dan Sekitarnya (Oceanological Atlas of Indonesian and adjacent Waters). Vol.1. Aprilani Soegiarto and Sujatno Birowo-LON-LIPI, Jakarta, 1975.


1.2 MAJOR WATER-RELATED ENVIRONMENT PROBLEMS

The major water-related environmental problemsin Indonesia consist of both land-basedsources of pollution and marine- or sea-based sources of pollution. Land-based sources of pollutionconsist mainly of: domestic wastes, industrial wastes, agriculture, mining and sediments; whereasmarine pollution sources are: vessel-borne, land-based, dumping and mining activities at sea.

Land-based sources of pollution

Land-based pollution in Indonesia is mainly caused by:

(a) Domestic / solid waste;(b) Agricultural waste;(c) Mining waste;(d) Sediment run-off;(e) Nutrient run-off;(f) Radioactive substances;(g) Heavy metals;(h) Hydrocarbons.

Sea-based sources of marine pollution

In general the sea-based sources of marine pollution in Indonesia are:

(a) Oil spills caused by ships (operational discharges; deballasting; tank cleaning; bilge water andsewage; discharges from small vessels and accidents) have a serious effect on theenvironment;

(b) Anti-fouling paint used by vessels;(c) Off-shore activities resulting in pollution (oil and gas exploration and production; mining;

agriculture; and dredging).

1.3 COUNTRY BACKGROUND

Geographically Indonesia, the world's largest archipelago, is located between two continents,Asia and Australia, and two big oceans, the Pacific and Indian Oceans, exactly between the 940 and1410 and between 60 North latitude and 11 South latitude. It consists of more than 17,000 islands.Indonesia is the fifth largest country in the world. It has a total territory of about 7.7 million kilometresof which the total land area is about 1.93 million kilometres. The Indonesian archipelago straddles theequator from Irian Jaya in the east to Sumatera on the west with a total distance of more than 5,000kilometres. It has more than 81,000 kilometres of coastline endowed with highly diverse and richnatural resources. Indonesian islands vary in size from coral islets which are uninhabited to the largeislands of Sumatera and Kalimantan. Some of the largest islands (Sumatera, Java, Kalimantan,Sulawesi and Irian Jaya) are bigger in area than most of the neighbouring countries (see figure 1 :1990 Population Density by Watershed).



Indonesian territorial waters make up about two thirds of the entire territory. Indonesianwaters may be divided into four parts, the shallow Sunda shelf in the west, the Sahul shelf in the east,the deep ocean in the south, and the deep seas, straits and channels in between. Nearly all types ofmarine topographical features are found beneath Indonesian waters, including shallow continentalshelves, deep sea basins, troughs, trenches, continental slopes, and volcanic and coral islands.Numerous large and small islands divide the waters into different seas connected by many channels,passages and straits. For centuries, millions of the Indonesian people have derived their livelihood fromthe sea, with the availability of a number of commercially productive but vulnerable marineecosystems. A few examples of Indonesian marine resources are fish, crustaceans, molluscs andseaweed, while non-living ones include minerals and hydrocarbon resources in the shallower parts ofthe sea. The seas are also used for inter- island, regional and international trade and communications,recreation and tourism.

Many development activities, both within and outside the coastal zone, have taken placewithout due regard to environmental considerations. In addition, a strong sectoral approach thatdominated development practices in the country during the first long-term development plan, hasbrought about a variety of cross-sectional impacts. As a result, the sustainable capacity of manycoastal ecosystems, particularly mangroves, coral reefs and estuaries, has been threatened or hasdeteriorated from land-based sources of pollution.


Figure 1. 1990 Population Density by Watershed


Climate

In Indonesia, the seasonal weather changes are determined by the two great opposingmonsoons which converge along the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The ITCZ migratesnorth and south with the sun heralding the change from one monsoon to another. From Decemberthrough March, when the ITCZ is farthest south, air from the northern hemisphere flows steadily mostof the time. During the transitional period in April, the ITCZ moves northward across Indonesia withnorth-east and south-west monsoons prevailing over various regions. From May to October the ITCZusually lies north of Indonesia and air from the southern hemisphere predominates. This is known asthe south-west monsoon. The other transitional period occurs in November when the ITCZ movessouthward across Indonesia. In some localities this passage may occur as late as December or asearly as October.

Tides

The tides within the Indonesian waters are co-oscillating tides of the Pacific and IndianOceans. Diurnal tides predominate in the China and Java Seas, and mixed tides in the easternarchipelago.

The four most important partial tides, M2, S2, K1 and O1, give a relatively complete picture ofthe tidal pattern at a station, so that their representation seems to be sufficient for general information.M2, S2, K1, and O1 are the symbols of the tidal component where:

M2 is the principal lunar semi-diurnal tideS2 is the principal solar semi-diurnal tideK1 is the principal solar diurnal tideO1 is the principal lunar diurnal tide

General surface current

The development of a strong circulation within the south-east Asian waters is favoured bytheir geographical situation. The area formed by the China Sea, the passages between Sumatera andBorneo, the Java Sea, the Flores Sea and the Banda Sea lies with its axis exactly in the main winddirection of both monsoons.

The waters between Sumatera and Kalimantan situated just below the equator from a north-south connection between the China and Java Seas and the monsoons blow here in a northerly andsoutherly direction. The area formed by the Java, Flores and Banda Seas, extending from west to east,lies again in the direction favouring a strong circulation in the whole region during both monsoons.Moreover this circulation is favoured by the great constancy of the winds, even if they are relativelyweak. This is important for the development of a stationary system of currents (see figures 2a :February Currents and Winds and 2b : August Currents and Winds).


Figure 2a. Currents in Ocean around Indo Northerly


Figure 2b. Currents in Ocean around Indo Southerly


The Environmental Management Act No. 29 of 1986 and renewal Act No.51 of 1993 includesthe AMDAL (environmental impact analysis) systems, and are closely related to the problemsidentified in this national report. In the late 1990s, the Environmental Management Agency(BAPEDAL) was established to monitor, coordinate and enforce environmental legislation.BAPEDAL is responsible for the 1989 Clean Streams Programme (PROKASIH), air pollutionprogrammes, domestic wastes, hazardous wastes and coastal pollution. PROKASIH is the foundationfor local and regional government enforcement actions regarding industrial effluents in the mostindustrialized provinces. The programme focuses on decreasing the volume of major pollutants andindustrial wastes entering more than twenty large Indonesian rivers (see Table 1.2. as Related toPROKASIH).

Table 1.2. List of provinces and rivers related to the South China Sea under thejurisdiction of PROKASIH

No Province Rivers

1 Riau Siak River 2 Lampung a. Way Pangubuan

b. Way Seputihc. Way Pegadungand. Way Terusane. Way Sekampungf. Way Tulang Bawang

3 South Sumatera Musi:- Keramasan- Ogan- Komering

4 West Java a. Ciliwungb. Citarumc. Cisadaned. Cileungsi

5 DKI Jakarta a. Ciliwungb. Cipinangc. Mookervart

6 Central Java a. Kali Garangb. Bengawan Solo River Kali Premulung Kali Paluh Kali Anyar Kali Pepe and Jenes Kali Ngringo Kali Pengo Kali Sroyo Main Bengawan Solo

7 East Java a. Brantas:- Kali Lesti- Kali Porong


- Kali Brantas- Kali Surabaya- Kali Magetan

b. Bengawan Solo Hilir8 South Kalimantan a. Barito River

b. Martapura River9 West Kalimantan Kapuas River

The coastal zone of Indonesia is rich in estuarial beaches, mangroves, coral reefs, seagrassand algae beds and many small island ecosystems. Each of these marine ecosystems, with itsassociated habitats, supports a wealth of marine resources that are not well explored and documented.The coastal zone of Indonesia is represented by various types of beaches and shores which are homesto different varieties of living communities creating a richness in species diversity.

Beaches

As the boundary between land and sea, beaches show a tight location of communities that aresources of productivity. They constitute a distinct system that is an important component of theIndonesian coastal zone.

Beaches in Indonesia consist of the following:

(a) Step rocky beach in Sumatera, Java, Bali and northern Irian Jaya;(b) Sloping and flat beach in state areas;(c) Beach with sand dunes in West Sumatera, South Java and northern Madura;(d) Beach with ridges in Java, Sumatera, Banda arc and part of Sulawesi;(e) Straight coastline of a flat coastal plain, which is controlled under an active geological

process, in part of Sumatera and the southern coast of Java-Bali to Flores;(f) Rough coastline where sea erosion and abrasion is dominant;(g) Erosional beach in areas where the cliffs are built from limestone and other dense

rock;(h) Prograding beach, on shallow soft substratum followed by prograding of mangroves

that in turn protect the prograding coast.

From the bio-cover point of view, the following can be observed:

(a) Mangrove: this bio-cover needs a flat, though narrow, intertidal zone, close to theriver mouth, predominantly found in West Sumatera, Irian Jaya, Kalimantan andSulawesi.

(b) Coral reefs: a global centre for species diversity which have approximately 70genera of hard coral comprising more than 350 species, and which occur in thevicinity of the eastern Indonesian Seas, consisting of:

- Fringing coral reef;- Mangrove upon fringing reef.

(c) Seagrass beds: south-east Asian waters host 7 genera of 20 species of seagrass, the


most highly diverse seagrass flora of the world (Bleakley and Wells 1995).(d) Delta: the substratum always seems to be below the water level even during the

lowest tide.(e) Estuary: a high tidal range induces a very strong current along the channel of the

delta or river mouth. The substratum of mangrove is always under water level but adeep incise in the river valley can be developed from uplift or lowering of the sealevel.

(f) Dry coastal zone: this occurs in the south-east of the Indonesian archipelago fromSumbawa to Tanimbar where total annual rainfall varies from 500 to 1500 mm/year.

(g) Wetland: this occurs along the east coast of Sumatera, the western south coast ofKalimantan and the south coast of Irian Jaya.

Table 1.3. shows the national coordinating line agencies and their roles relating to themanagement and development of the coastal environment.

Table 1.3. National Indonesian Coordinating and Line Agencies and their Roles Relating tothe Coastal Environment.

Coordinating Agency/Committee RoleMinistry of State of Environment (LH)/EnvironmentalImpact Management Agency (Bapedat)

National coordination of marine and coastal managementand policy developing, Bapedal manages the AMDAL. (Environmental Impact Assessment) process.

National Development Planning Board (BAPPENAS) Drafts, coordinates, and Implements national 5-yeardevelopment plans (REPELITA)

Department of Home Affairs/Directorate General ofRegional Development (BANGDA)

Regional development policy, planning and coordinationfrom the national perspective.

Ministry of State for Science andTechnology/Technology Assessment and ApplicationBoard (BPPT)

Natural resource Inventory, evaluation, and technologycoordination.

National Coordinating Agency for Surveys and Mapping(BAKOSURTANAL)

Land (including coastline) mapping; receives data fromother agencies such as DISHIDROS.

Indonesian Institute of Science (LIPI)/research andDevelopment Center for Oceanology

Marine research, data coordination, and scientific adviceto other agencies.

Coordinating Committee for National Sea BedJurisdiction (PANKORWILNAS)

National marine boundaries, jurisdiction, and Law of theSea issues.

Coordinating Board for Marine Security(BAKORKAMLA)

Security issues, such as piracy, foreign fishinginstrusion, pollution, and smuggling.

Line Agency RoleDepartment of Agriculture/Directorate General ofFisheries.

Management, development, and administration offisheries and aquaculture.

Department of Forestry/Directorate of General of ForestProtection and nature Conservation (PHPA)

Marine conservation; mangrove harvest management;marine protected area planning and management.

Department of Communications/Directorate general ofSea Communications

Responsible for ports, shipping, navigational aids, andsafety, lead agency for marine emergency preparednessand response (e.g., oil spills).

Department of Mining and Energy/Directorate Generalfor Oil and Gas

Regulates oil and gas exploration and production overthe sea bed and oil Industry environmental safety.

Department of Education and Culture/Universities Marine science education and research.

Department of Security and Defence/naval Programme Security in territorial waters, hydrographic data, and


and Oceanographic Service nautical chart production.

Department of Industry Administers industrial development and wastemanagement.

Department of Public Works Coastal engineering, infrastructure, and erosion control.

Department of Tourism, Post and Telecommunications Marine tourism development and management.

Actually Table 1.3. as seen above was meant to clarify the Management and Development of theCoastal Environment.

1.4 GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS USED IN THE ANALYSIS

The geographic divisions relating to the South China Sea will be given in table 1.3. : NationalIndonesian Coordinating and Line Agencies and their Roles Relating to the CoastalEnvironment. In addition, locations and places will be mentioned if they are used by the inter-agencyteam as examples in the justification of activities.

Other supporting data and information will be given in terms of:

(a) Maps (not scaled or pictured);(b) Pictures;(c) Tables;(d) Lists and matrixes;(e) Others where clarification is needed.

2. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF MAJOR WATER-RELATED CONCERNS ANDPRINCIPAL ISSUES

2.1 POLLUTION

Based on the identification of 22 high priority zones in Indonesia, 10 high priority zones or highpriority areas adjoining the South China Sea have been chosen. These zones are pollution hot spots orvulnerable sites needing further analysis for their impact on fisheries, biodiversity, tourism value and public health. The high priority zones are as follows:

(a) Batam and Riau archipelago including Bangka; (b) The area surrounding South Sumatera;(c) Jakarta and its surroundings, including Jakarta Bay;(d) Surabaya and its surroundings (East Java);(e) South Kalimantan including Banjarmasin and its surroundings;(f) West Kalimantan including Pontianak and its surroundings.

In addition, based on the matrices for determining pollution hot spots and sensitive andhigh-risk areas, the water-related principal environmental issues were divided in three groups, namely:

1. Water-related issues/problems with transboundary consequences which border thethree coastal States of Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore;

2. Generic water-related issues/problems with transboundary causes but with a single


country impact in the form of land-based sources of pollution;3. Generic water-related issues/problems with transboundary causes but with a single

country impact in the form of sea-based sources of pollution.

The analysis clearly shows that in general the causes of pollution and its impacts were due toinappropriate technology, the absence of environmentally sound technology, human failures, financialconstraints, and economic and legal instruments.

2.1.1 Sources of pollution

2.1.1.1 Rivers

A large proportion of Indonesia's export earnings has been generated through the exploitationof its vast forest resources. A side effect of the forestry resources is that it represents a highlysignificant carbon-based component in the nation's economy. Furthermore, Petrich (1993) hasdetermined that almost 80 per cent of Indonesia's carbon emissions come from land conversion. Landconversion can include forestry clear-cutting with long intervals before any reforestation is attempted,land-clearing for both large- and small-scale farming operations, and mangrove conservation totambak facilities.

It appears inevitable that land erosion will increase in many areas as the need for wood andnew farm land increases. Although the sedimentation that results from most land conversions can bemitigated through appropriate techniques, the following steps should be taken:

(a) Establishing sound land use techniques and practices which reduce excessivesediment run-off to water courses and estuaries;

(b) Establishing control and preventive measures on coastal erosion and siltation causedby anthropogenic factors (land use, coastal mining, construction techniques andpractices);

(c) Introducing watershed management practices to prevent, control or reducedegradation to marine and coastal environments;

(d) Establishing criteria for best environmental practices in dumping dredge materials andin dredging operations;

(e) Establishing and improving the monitoring of both sedimentation and siltation in themarine and coastal environments.

2.1.1.2 Coastal cities and coastal population

Indonesia's natural resource base supports a population of over 190 million people. Thecountry's total area averages approximately 1.0 hectare of land and 3.0 hectares of sea per person. However, the population is unevenly distributed; 61 per cent of the population (107 million) live on Javaand Bali which together account for only 7 per cent of the land area. Population density on Java isabout 860 persons per square kilometre and on Bali, 520. Kalimantan and Irian Jaya are the leastpopulated areas with population densities of less than 20. (See table 2.1 : Demography)


Table 2.1. Demography

Subregion TOTAL Population( x 1000 )

Population growth (%)Fertility(1996)

Mortality(1996)

Migration (1996)( x 1000 )

1971 1980 1990 1995 1996 1971-80 1980-90 1990-95 1995-96 Incoming Outgoing

1. Riau & Batam

1,642-

2,aw8-

3,304-

3,900-

4,081176

3.11-

4.30-

3.338-

-

-654.31432,664

--

--

--

2. South Sumatera & Bangka - Belitung

3,441--

4,630--

6,313--

7,208--

7,247570.8203.6

3.32--

3.15--

2.69--

1.03--

4,379,029336,500116,915

181,613 14,140

4,931

271.67,8175,530

---

3. Jakarta & West Java

4,57921,624

6,50327,454

8,25935,384

9,11339,207

9,34139,404

3.932.66

2.422.57

1.992.07

2.091.81

203,13022,318,653

45,845945,805

3,442.43,615

-1,891

4. East Java Surabaya

25,517-

29,189-

32,504-

33,844-

34,1242,562

1.49-

1.08-

0.81-

0.49-

17,669,80011,101

2,702,60015,306

826-

-

5. South Kalimantan- Banjarmasin

1,669-

2,065-

2,597-

2,893-

2,970546

2.16-

2.32-

2.18-

--

1,680,043258,526

--

--

--

6. West Kalimantan- Pontianak

2,020-

2,486-

3,229-

3,636-

3,744462

2.31-

2.65-

2.40-

--

2,206,291202,826

27,30041.0

248.2-

--

Source : Central Bureau of Statistics (1996)


Approximately 41 million people, or 22 per cent of the population, live on or near the coast. Half this number lives in coastal villages, dependent upon local natural resources. However, thecoastline of Indonesia is now dotted with larger urban coastal communities (such as Jakarta, Surabaya,Semarang, Medan, Ujung Pandang dan Ambon) with a much broader range of economic activity.

The population is currently growing at about 1.8 per cent a year so by the end of the centuryIndonesia will have a total population of about 215 million. Efforts to settle less populated areas andimprove access are continuing and will undoubtedly attract investment to those regions (see table 2.2. :Physical Setting and Population Characteristics, 1994 ) and also table 2.1 above.

Table 2.2. Physical Setting and Population Characteristics, 1994

Province Area(km2)

Estimatedpopulation(persons)

Population growth(percent)

Population density(persons/km2)

WESTERN INDONESIARiauSouth SumateraDKI JakartaWest JavaEast Java

EASTERN INDONESIAWest KalimantanSouth Kalimantan

94,561103,688

59046,30047,921

146,76037,660

3,647,4696,997,3509,038,34038,508,57834,757,634

3,616,0962,804,223

2.12.21.91.71.4

2.31.6

38.667.5

15,319.2831.7725.3

24.674.5

WESTERN INDONESIAEASTERN INDONESIA

611,2281,308,089

159,731,31135,690,778

1.71.9

261.327.3

INDONESIA 1,919,317 195,422,089 1.8 101.8

Source: BPS (1994).

The national resource base has supported an impressive economic performance over the pasttwo decades. At the beginning of the 1970s, with a per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of lessthan $60, Indonesia was one of the poorest countries in the world. Since then, real GDP increased atan average annual rate of over 5 per cent. During Repelita V (1989 to 1994) real GDP grew at anaverage of 6.6 per cent a year. Combined with a declining population growth, this amounted to about$670 per capita in 1992. Indonesia is now classified as a lower middle-income country (see table 2.3. :Economy (1995-1996)).


Table 2.3. Economy (1995-1996)Value (109 rupiah)

Subregion Total GDP GDPAgriculture

sector

GDP industry sector GDP service sector GDP other sectors

Manufac-turing

Non oil andgas

services private mining andquarrying

electircitygas andwatersupply

Construc-tion

hotels andrestaurants

transport andcommunication

financial,ouwnershipand business

1. Riau and Batam

21,296,441-

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

2. Bangka-Belitung and South Sumatera

-14,567,235

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

3. Jakarta and West Java

69,846,95978,333,011

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

4. East Java 66,212,568 - - - - - - - - - - -

5. South Kalimantan

6,139,355 - - - - - - - - - - -

6. West Kalimantan 7,138,914 - - - - - - - - - - -

7. INDONESIA 454,514,100 88,040.8 135,580.9 121,386.6 46,299.4 16,546.5 45,915.7 6,593.7 42,024.8 88,877.8 40,606.2 44,374.4

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (1996)Note :

- : No data


Apart from oil and gas, economic success has been derived from the fertile soils of Java and Sumatera, the extensive commercial forestry resourcesof Sumatera and Kalimantan and the diverse fishery resources of the surrounding seas. Agriculture, forestry and fisheries account for over 36 per cent ofnon-oil export earnings. Furthermore, the GDP was also related to export and improt comodities (as seen in table 2.4 : Export Comodities and 2.5 : ImportComodities).

Table 2.4. List of the top 10 export commodities of the country (Indonesia)

Commodities Total production(1996)

Export (1996) Value (US $) Major countries of destination

1. Natural gas 3,150,992,000 M ton 29,343,600 M ton 4,493,900,000 Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hongkong.

2. Crude oil 538,733,000 Barrels 48,994,100 M ton 7,227,900,000 Japan, USA, Singapore, South Korea.

3. Prawn 3,554,169 M ton 97,835,800 M ton 1,008,972,000 Japan, Hongkong, Singapore, Malaysia, UK, Holland, France,Belgium

4. Coal 53,342,943 M ton 4,909,803.2 M ton 3,595,387,000 Japan, Hongkong, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia,Saudi Arabia, USA, UK, Holland, Germany

5. Processed Wood (Duplex, Triplex, Multiplex)

4,854,663 M ton 803,923 M ton No data Japan, USA, Singapore

6. Nickel ore 2,569,692 M ton 2,513,394 M ton No data USA, Japan, UK

7. Pb-concentrate 1,869,729 M ton 1,881,442.2 ton 1,807,508,300 Japan, South Korea, Thailand, Singapore, Hongkong

8. Rubber 1,434,300 M ton 1,323,800 M ton 1,918,000,000 Japan, Singapore, USA, Belgium, UK, France, Holland,Germany, Italy, Poland.

9. Palm oil 1,672,000 M ton 1,265,000 M ton 825,400,000 Japan, France, Pakistan, Kenya, USA, Canada, UK, Holland,Germany, Italy.

10. Bauxite 899,035 M ton 803,923 M ton No data Japan, USA, Singapore

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (1997)


Table 2.5. List of top 7 import commodities of the country (Indonesia).

Commodities Total volume imported(1996)

Value (US $) Major countries of origin

1. Rice 2,149,758 M ton 766,316 Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, Philippines, Myanmar, USA.

2. Fertilizers 1,111,400 M ton 214,900,000 Japan, South Korea, Singapore, USA, Belgium.

3. Cement 2,041,616,1 M ton 121,867,900 Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Singapore, Philippines,Malaysia, Australia, USA, Germany.

4. Crude petroleum 19,484,900 M ton 3,595,500,000 Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia,Australia, USA, UK, Holland, Peoples Republic of China, Irak, Iran.

5. Iron and steel tubes 330,200 M ton 545,400,000 Japan, Hongkong, Singapore, India, Australia, USA, UK, France,Holland, Germany, Italy.

6. Motor vihicles 33,432 unit 597,300,000 Japan, Singapore, Australia, USA, UK, France, Germany, Italy.

7. Mechenery for specialindustry

446,600 M ton 4,471,400,000 Japan, Hongkong, Singapore, USA, UK, Holland, Germany, Australia,Italy, Belgium, Yugoslavia, Cekoslovakia.

Source : Central Bureau of Statistics (1997)


Marine related activities currently account for about 20 per cent of total GDP (or about $25.5billion in 1992) and 19 per cent of non-oil and gas GDP. The coastal and offshore shelf accounts for17 per cent of foreign exchange earnings (principally oil and gas, fishery products and tourism). Inaddition, international and domestic shipping in this area play a vital role in the transportation of tradedgoods.

The coastal zone is by far the most economically active part of the marine estate, accountingfor over 80 per cent of all marine related activities. This environment contains a high concentration ofhuman settlements, ranging from major ports to coastal villages. Together these communities provideemployment for about 16 million people or 24 per cent of the national labour force.

The ease of access and strategic location of Indonesia's shallow seas has led to intensive usefor fishing, hydrocarbon exploration, and shipping. In total, they account for about 15 per cent ofmarine related activities. The further development of shallow sea resources seems likely to focusupon oil and gas, and mineral exploitation.

2.1.1.3 Industrial pollution from coastal installations

The wide range of natural resources in Indonesia gives it a strong potential manufacturingindustry base. Industrial zones have been established in Java, Sumatera, southern and easternKalimantan, and in Sulawesi. All major industrial centres are located on or near the coast. Thecountry's two major manufacturing centres and ports are Jakarta and Surabaya, both in Java. Java isthe base for 75 per cent of Indonesia's manufacturing activity.

Outside Java, manufacturing is mainly related to exploitation and processing of local resourcessuch as oil and gas, forestry, paper and pulp, and food products. The major centres in Sumatera are onthe Straits of Malacca, in East Kalimantan and in South Sulawesi. Industrial activity on the easterncoast of Kalimantan is mostly linked to the oil industry. The petrochemical industry is also a majoractivity on the north-eastern coast of Sumatera (see table 2.6. : Industrial Polution).


Table 2.6. Industrial pollution

Subregion, numberof

coastalinstallations

BODloading

(ton/day)

Total Nloading

Total Ploading

Oil/

hydrocarbonloading

Heavy metals (1989-1991(mg/l)

Other(COD)

(ton/day)

Cd Cr Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Zn

1. Riau-Batam - - - - - - - - - - - - -

2. Bangka-Belitungand South Sumatera

- - - - 0.00 0.05 0.01 1.81 0.15 0.02 0.9 0.05 -


42.0-

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

116.0

4. East Java - - - - 0.03 0.09 0.04 3.73 0.24 0.17 0.15 0.20 -

5. South Kalimantan - - - - 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.27 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.14 -

6. West Kalimantan - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Source: Environmental Quality (1992).

Note:- : No data.

New industrial developments are being discouraged from locating within the existing centres of Jakarta and Surabaya. The preference is for locating


along the coastline near cities. Although this relieves some future pollution pressures on the rivers in these areas, these pressures will now be transferred tothe coastal zone which is, in general, less well understood and monitored (see figure 3 and table 2.7. : Poluttion transport-rivers).

Table 2.7. Pollution transport-rivers (1996)

Subregion Number of rivers,streams, canals,

etc and total waterdischarge

(ton)

BOD(1996)(ton)

Total N(ton)

Total P(ton)

Suspended solids(ton)

Oil(ton)

Other pollutants(COD)(ton)

1. Riau and Batam

- - - - - - -

2. Bangka-Belitung and South

Sumatera- - - - - - -

3. Jakarta West Java

8,125,998.02,553,010,400.0

4,201,955.01,865,920.9

63,234.8128,251.6

--

3,852,780.61,343,814.9

53,110.3103,564.2

4,136,625.81,440,582.2

4. East Java 512.079,998.0 1,710,839.7 823,526.0 - 17,171,795.1 1,393,304.0 1,710,839.7

5. South Kalimantan - - - - - - -

6. West Kalimantan - - - - - - -

Source: Environmental Statistics of Indonesia (1997).

Note:- : No data.


Figure 3. Estimated Industrial Pollution Load by Watershed, 1990


2.1.1.4 Discharge from upland and lowland based activities, by sector

Land-based pollution in Indonesia is mainly caused by domestic wastes, industrial wastes,agricultural wastes (pesticides and fertilizers), mining wastes and sediments.

Domestic wastes

The high rate of urbanization, occurring mainly near the coast, is indirectly a source ofdomestic waste (sewage, sullage and solid waste). All wastes are directly thrown into the marine andcoastal environment. Traditionally, rivers and canals are considered "waste baskets". Various forms ofwaste materials are directly thrown away into rivers, canals and ducts which are ultimately transportedto estuarine and marine waters (see table 2.7. : Pollution transport-rivers ).

All domestic waste along the Indonesian coast is discharged untreated into the sea. There isno sewage treatment system in Indonesia and there is a problem to human health through theconcentration of bacteria and human disease pathogens by filter feeding bivalves (see table 2.8. :Pollution Load from Community Waste and 2.9. : Percentage of Waste Composition in Jakartaand Bandung during 1989-1989).

Table 2.8. Pollution Load From Community waste

Parameter Pollution Load (Gram/Capita/day)BOD 25COD 57Nitrogen:NH3 — N 1.,83NO2 — N 0,006NO3 — N 0,97Organik -- N 8,3Total — N 11,1Total – P 1,1Detergent 0,63Fenol 0,006Coli 14 x 10

Source : Public Works 1980


Table 2.9. Percentage of Waste Composition in Jakarta and Bandung during 1988 – 1989

Waste DKI Jakarta West JavaOrganic 73,99 73,35Paper 8,28 9,74Plastic 5,44 8,56Netrat 2,08 0,54Rubber 0,56 -Wood 3,77 -Fabric 3,16 1,32Glass 1,77 1,32Other 0,95 6,14

Source : Central Bureau of Statistics, 1989

Domestic sewage treatment

There is no written record concerning the start-up of waste treatment in Indonesia. Up to the1970s, cities had no waste treatment. Almost all wastes were discharged directly to the rivers.Therefore, water pollution problems built up rapidly, particularly in rivers passing through humansettlements. At present, only a few cities have sewage treatment facilities, including Jakarta, Surabaya,Semarang and Bandung in Java and Medan and Batam in Sumatera. The sixth Five-year DevelopmentPlan (1994 to 1999) proposes that most cities be provided with wastewater treatment facilities. Somenew established cities will be started with that, e.g. Lippo Karawaci in West Java and Lippo Surabayain East Java.

Sewage/ domestic waste

At present there is no single sewage treatment system in the Indonesian archipelago. Allwastes are literally dumped into the environment. Organic wastes create problems when the capacityof the aquatic system to deal with them is exceeded and acute problems of eutrophication and oxygendepletion can arise (Knox 1979). Sewage pollution also poses a problem to human health through theconcentration of bacteria and human disease pathogens such as typhoid viruses by filter-feedingbivalves which are used as food. Although primarily concentrated on the islands of Java, Bali andMadura, it is estimated that approximately 25 per cent of Indonesia's population can be found living in54 major urban centres. Most of this urbanization is occurring along the coast and the treatment ofsewage in these centres is minimal to non-existent, except perhaps in some of the newer developments(see table 2.10. : Estimated Coastal Waste Loads, 1990).


Table 2.10. Estimated Coastal Domestic Waste Loads, 1990

Province Population1 Estimated Nitrogen Loading2

Persons Thousand tonnesHigh Loadings

West JavaJakartaEast JavaSouth Sumatra

35,381,6828,227,74632,487,7446,311,958

116,76027,152107,21020829

Medium LoadingsRiauWest KalimantanSouth Kalimantan

3,278,8073,228,0732,596,647

10,82010,6538,569

Low LoadingsINDONESIA 179,247,783 591,518

Notes:1 BPS (1994)2 Estimated by CEMP Project Team. A factor of 2 kg/year was applied to the population total.

Solid wastes

Surveys carried out in various cities in Java indicate that 60 to 80 per cent of solid waste iscollected and either recycled or transported to dump sites or incinerators. The management of solidwastes in cities outside Java is less controlled because of a lack of facilities and infrastructure (seefurther tables 2.11 : Estimated Coastal Agriculture Waste Loads; 2.12 :Estimated Coastal IndustryWaste Loads ; 2.13 : Composition of Solid Waste from Jakarta, Bandung, Semarang andPakanbaru).

Table 2.11. Estimated Coastal Agricultural Waste Loads, 1990

Province Area of paddy1 AverageFertilizer applied

Total fertilizerapplied

Nitrogencontent2

Thousand hectares Kg/ha Thousand tonnes Thousand tonnesHigh Loadings


2,1331,589454

4044047205

861.7642.093.1

373.4278.240.3

Medium LoadingsSouth KalimantanRiauWest Kalimantan

355147288

9620596

34.130.127.6

14.813.112.0

Low LoadingsINDONESIA 10,502 303 3,182.1 1,378.8

Notes:1 BPS (1994)2 Estimated by CEMP Project Team. Fertilizer ia assumed to contain 43.3 percent nitrogen..Table 2.12. Estimated Coastal Industry Waste Load, 1990


Province Production of1 Medium andLarge Manufacturing

Industries

Relative Industrial Pollution2

Total

$US thousands 1987 RIPFHigh Loadings

West JavaJakartaEast JavaSouth SumatraRiau

3,488,3682,484,6792,481,374320,399324,068

1,781,456821,8641,169,109166,469156,723

Medium LoadingsWest KalimantanSouth Kalimantan

200,944222,334

77,66075,759

Low Loadings

INDONESIA 13,632,019 6,034,251Notes:1 Derived from the World Bank Industrial Pollution Projection Database (1994)2 Estimated by CEMP Project Team. For a definition of the relative Industrial Pollution Factor (RIPF), see the text.

Table 2.13. Shows the composition of solid waste from Jakarta, Bandung, Semarang and Pekanbaru (Riau).

Composition of Solid Wastes in Java and Sumatra (Biro Pusat Statistik, 1995)Type of Waste Jakarta

1994/1995Bandung, Capital

of West Java1994/1995

Semarang, Capitalof Central java,

1993/1994

Pekan Baru,Capital of Riau,

1992/1993Organic/Plant origin 73.92 63.56 68.14 79.93Papers 10.18 10.42 5.95 5.98Plastics 7.86 9.76 14.15 5.00Metals 2.04 0.95 5.07 3.00Rubber/Imitation 0.55 0.14 - 0.50Woods 0.98 3.60 0.56 2.00Fabrics 1.57 1.70 2.97 0.50Glass 1.75 1.45 0.16 1.20Others 1.15 8.16 - 1.89


Waste management facilities and services

Industrial wastes

Indonesia is a newly industrializing economy and industrial development has been going on infull force. Industrial wastes as outflows from factories and other industrial activities enter the marineaquatic environment directly or through rivers, canals, and drains without any treatment. Wastes fromtapioca (cassava meal) producing industries have threatened the fishery resources in public waters,whereas in central Java, these industries have destroyed shrimp farms in brackishwater ponds. Somechemicals in western Java and central Java have also caused pollution to public water supply sources.Pollution caused by industrial wastes in the JABOTABEK (Jakarta, Bogor, Tangerang and Bekasi)area, especially from the metal industries, has increased the heavy metal contents of the Jakarta Baywaters (See table 2.14 : Industrial pollution from non-coastal installations). In some locations, themercury and cadmium contents tend to exceed their upper limits of pollution level. Sugarfactories in some locations in central Java during the milling season throw their wastes into publicwaters, resulting in the pollution of river waters, freshwater ponds and brackishwater ponds in thoseareas.

Table 2.14. Industrial pollution from non-coastal installation (discharge into rivers andcanals)

Subregion, number ofnon-coastalinstallations

BOD loading(kg/day)

Total Nloading

Total PLoadin

g

Oil/hydrocarbo

nloading

Heavymetal

s

Other (COD)(kg/day)

1. Riau-Batam (Sink-river) 9,759.30 - - - - 57,328.20

2. Bangka-Belitung andSouth Sumatera

(Musi river) - - - - - -


--

--

--

--

--

--

4. East Java (Brantas river) Surabaya

5,759.593,429.57

--

--

--

--

10,757.494,498.73

5. South Kalimantan (Barito river) 494.61 - - - - 1,117.01

6. West Kalimantan - - - - - -Source : Environmental Impact Management Agency (Bapedal)-Prokasih (Clean River Program), 1997

Note : - : No data


Industrial development in Indonesia is happening rapidly and waste from the factories is going intodrainage systems and hence the sea without treatment. Waste from tapioca producing factories havethreatened fishery resources and have destroyed shrimp farms in Central Java. Some chemicalindustries in West and Central Java have caused pollution to public water supplies. Polluting wastesfrom the heavily industrial area around Jakarta has increases heavy metal concentrations beyondacceptable levels. Sugar factories in Central Java discharge waste during the milling season during themilling season and pollute rivers and other water bodies (See tables 2.15: The amount of PollutionLoad in Java; and 2.16 : Estimation of waste water composition by some industry).

Table 2.15 The amount of Pollution Load in Java

River Location Industry Settlement(tonn/day)

% of IndustrialWaste from Total

amountWest Java:CisadaneBanjir CSunterBekasiCitarumCimanukCitanduy

TangerangPejomponganPulogadungCileungsiJatiluhurTomoCikawung

75.004.001.953.4042.0014.0029.00

62.008.704.6011.2068.007.0040.00

55313023386742

Middle JavaSerayuProgo

BanyumasSentolo

21.005.00

41.0031.00

3414

East JavaSoloSurabayaBrantas

BabatTawangsariMojokerto

41.0018.004.00

41.0018.004.00

642875

Rate 46Source : Word Bank Report No. 7822-IND : Indonesia Forest, Land and Water; Issues in SustainableDevelopment UNDP, June 1989

From another point of view, several Mining Activities that can pollute the water Resources are asfollows:A) Sedimentation, due to surface erosian at the Mining Area, cover layer, tailing and oreB) Waste water from the Mining Area, which is sometimes acidicC) Tailing waste from the processing FactoryD) Oil waste from the shops


Table 2.16. Estimation of Waste Water Composition by some Industry

Type of Industry Waste Estimation of Pollution matters- Metallic Industry

Steel industrySteel Printing industry

Metallic Factory

- Suspended matter, oil, sulphur, heavy metal, carbonate and soda- Cianide, NaOH, Cl2, Cu, Cr, F, Pb, Na, Zn, suspended matter, Ca

(Oil)2, H2SO4, NaCO3, etc.- Sulphuric Acid, Cianide, metal, etc.

- Chemical IndustryChemical material IndustryPaper Industry (dependingon the processing method)Petro-Chemical IndustryGas IndustrySoap IndustryAlcohollic Industry

- Organic Chemical matter & anorganic chemical matter- Cellulose, Fiber, Ligninate, Soda, Na2S paper, H2SO4, NaHCO3,

etc.- Ammonia, Soda, Sulphuric Acid, Arsenate, etc.- Phenol, Amonia, Cianide- NaOH, gliserine, organic acid- Alcohol, Carbihydrate

- Textile IndustryDying/Finishing

Batic

- NaOH, Na2CO3, detergen, coloring material, alcohol, organic matter,etc.

- Nila, FeSO4, CaO, Tawas, NaOH, Na2CO3, organic mattes, etc.- Food Industry

Sugar Industry

Milk FactoryDrinks

- Suspended matter, glucose, sugar waste, CaCO3, Ca-Ocsalate,Phosphate, SiO2, Ca, etc.

- Organic matter (proteine, fat, lactose, etc.)- Suspended matter, proteine, oil & grease, etc.

- Pharmacy - Organic and Anorganic/chemical matters- Skin or Skin-Base - Suspebded matter, proteine, CaCO3, Ca(OH)2, CaSO4, NaS, Tanine

Acid, Coloring matter, H2SO4, Cr. etc.- Agro Tapioka Industry - Organic matter, Cianide

Source : R & D Public Works, 1974

Agricultural waste

Agricultural wastes containing pesticides and fertilizer residues of high toxicity have beenfound to pollute some water systems, especially in areas of intensive agriculture in northern Sumatera,western Sumatera, western Java, central Java, eastern Java, and southern Sulawesi.

In an effort to increase agricultural yields, herbicides and pesticides have been over-used. Thepersistence of these organic pollutants is of great concern and their entry into food webs is made morealarming by their accumulation in organisms and their ability to amplify other deleterious effects (seetable 2.17 : Agriculture Source).


Table 2.17. Agricultural source

Subregion Rice field(ha)

(1992-1996)

Otherseasonalcrops (ha)(wood land)

Plantations(ha)

(agricultureestate)

Number of each poultry and livestock farms and annual production ( x 1,000 ) Aquaculture area (ha)

duck chicken pig sheep horse buffalo cow Dyke Waterpond

1. Riau and Batam

219,233 211,044 1,504,228 262.9 164,079 319.0 209.3 - 46.0 126.6 32,546 3,574


516,482 1,561,725 1,698,093 1,424.0 21,702 207.2 635.1 2.0 119.7 488.9 17,398 37,554


3,6301,152,753

206212,900

-385,057

26.93,923.1

868280,132

8.553.6

8.05,833.4

0.312.9

0.5491.0

4.8333.1

10036,212

17030,853

4. East Java 1,147,539 54,409 167,498 2,867.8 94,437 54.4 3,593.9 30.0 135.5 348.2 51,914 2,012

5. South Kalimantan 487,148 241,165 305,478 3,116.3 12,038 11.1 76.3 2.3 47.7 166.7 17,777 4,706

6. West Kalimantan 476,856 650,363 1,700,968 368.6 19,411 616.1 103.7 - 7.3 154.2 486 7,730

INDONESIA 8,484,687 9,555,010 13,853,746 30,441.0 982,194 8,299.0 210,478.2 616.3 3,145.8 1,212.2 422,564 182,156

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics and Department of Agriculture, 1996.



2.17. (continue)

Subregion Total fertilizer (chemical)usedper ha (1994)

(Kg)

Total pesticide(insecticide) used

per ha in 1990-1994 (Kg)

Other agrochemicalsper ha

in 1990-1994 (Kg)

BOD fromagriculture/aqua culture

(ton/year)

1. Riau and Batam - - - -


- - - -


-946.39

--

--

--

4. East Java 1,132.03 - - -

5. South Kalimantan - - - -

6. West Kalimantan - - - -

7. Kalimantan 266.22 - - -

8. Java 3,916.94 - - -

9. Sumatera 819.62 - - -

10. INDONESIA 5,557,07 7.17 1.57 -

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics and Department of Agriculture, 1996.Note: - : No dataExcluding the Provinces of DKI Jakarta, Timor Timur, Maluku and Irian Jaya.


Mining waste

Waste arising from mining operations has caused the pollution of some coastal and marinewaters. The rinsing (cleaning) process of bauxite mining in Bintan Island, Riau Province, has causedsome pollution to the surrounding waters. The rise in water effluent disposal in the marine environmenthas resulted in ecosystem destruction in some coastal areas, especially the mangrove forests, and hasreduced the depth of water bodies. In addition, dredging to reclaim the area has destroyed fishhabitats.

Tailings from mining operations also cause ecosystem destruction, especially mangroveforests. Sediment deposits and the resulting dredging have destroyed fish habitats.

Sediments

The main cause of sedimentation is soil erosion. The erosive process is increased by poorcultivation systems, deforestation and agricultural activities. Over-siltation due to poor cultivation anddeforestation is one of the worst forms of pollution of the aquatic environment in Indonesia. Dredgingand mining activities in coastal areas are also major causes of sedimentation. In Java, surface runoffsand soil erosion are the main causes of flooding in the lowland areas, resulting in the destruction ofirrigation systems and the loss of topsoil. In Sumatera and Kalimantan, erosion also occurs because ofdeforestation practices and logging industries (see tables 2.18 : The comparison of sedimenTransport and Erosi on Intersity of some rivers in Java and Sumatera and 2.19 : Maximum/Mudconcentration at the upper River Basin of some rivers in Java).


Table 2.18. The Comparison of Sediment Transport and Erosion Intensity of some rivers inJava and Sumatera – 1982

Rivers Seimenttransport

(ton/year/km2)

Erosion Intensity(mm/year)

Year

Java :Cimanuk- Cipelas- Cilutung- Cikeruh & CirangganCitanduy- Cimuntur- Cidolong- Cikawung- CiseelCitarum, Hulu Waduk Palumbon- Ciliwung- Cisanggarung

7.8004.88012.00011.2003.7403.0301.9103.4501.470933--

6,003,009,208,602,902,301,502,701,100,700,108,00

1948-6948-6948-6949-691973-7473-7473-7473-7473-74197419641964

Pemali-Comal Area:- Kabuyutan- Pemali- Cacaban- Rambut- Comal

-----

7,807,0023,000,427,00

19741974197419491974

Jratun Seluna Area:- Jragung- Tuntang- Serang- Lusi- Serayu- Progo- CyoSoloMadiunBrantas

-------2.2802.100957

2,102,502,501,001,600,701,701,801,600,50

19771977197719771964197119711952-711952-711951-78

Sumatera:WampuAsahanSekampung

333701.130

0,030,280,87

1939-781970-761973-76

Source : Public Works Statistics, VIIth edition, 1989


Table 2.19. Maximum/Mud concentration at the upper River Basin of some rivers in Java

1911 1932 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976Cilutung 1.150 2.750 - 8.900 10.100 30.500 36.500 - -Citanduy - 983 3.650 2.200 4.550 - - - -Cikawung - 300 2.600 1.250 5.510 1.510 2.230 4.220 -B.Solo - - 4.530 13.700 - - - 23.700 -Kali Konto - - - 95 222 738 600 8.400 5.000

Source : Marjono and Badrudin (1981), In Indonesia Forest, Land and water : Issues in Sustainable Development.

Sediment run-off

Soil erosion is increased by poor cultivation methods, deforestation and agricultural activities.In Java, surface run-off and soil erosion result in the destruction of irrigation systems and the loss oftopsoil. In Sumatera and Kalimantan erosion occurs because of deforestation. Once the rains start thisyear (1998) there will be extreme erosion of burnt forest soils and this will be washed into the marinehabitats (see tables 2.20 : Irigation Area and the Surface Water Usage in Java; 2.21. : WaterUsage by Settlements in Java; and also table 2.22. : Forestry).

Table 2.20. Irigation Area and the Surface Water Usage in Java

Location Irrigation Area Size Water Usage (Million M3)West Java (Including Jakarta) 951.500 22.400Central Java 873.300 10.300East Java 956.700 18.300TOTAL 2781.500 59.300

Source : Public Works

Table 2.21. Water Usage by Settlements in Java (1987)

Location Urban Ruralm3/det Juta m3 m3/det Juta m3

West Java 4.67 147.6 5.8 183.0DKI Jakarta 6.75 213.4 0.79 24.0Central Java 4.00 128.2 5.29 167.2East Java 6.24 197.2 6.33 202.1TOTAL 21.66 686.4 18.18 574.3

Source : Publics Work


Table 2.22. Forestry

Subregion Land forest (ha) andrate of loss (1990 and

1996) (%)

Mangrove and wetlandforest (ha) rate of loss(1982 and 1993) (%)

Erosion rate(meter/year)

Timber production (1994/1995)(m3)

Mangrove Wetland Log Sawn wood Plywood

1. Riau-Batam 29.19 (-) 19.90 (+) 242.78 - - - -


-0

-(+) 100.00

-(-) 77.89

--

--

--

--

3. Jakarta West Java 0 (-) 100.00 (-) 90.38 - - - -

4. East Java 0 (-) 100.00 (-) 90.40 - - - -

5. South Kalimantan 0.1 (+) 82.00 (-) 78.02 - - - -

6. West Kalimantan 0 (+) 385.75 (-) 34.90 - - - -

INDONESIA - - - - 24,027,277 1,729,898 4,449,242

Source: 1. Central Bureau of Statis tics: Environmental Statistics (1995 and 1997)2. Department of Forestry, Republic of Indonesia together with FAO/UNDP (1982) using data from 1970's3. National Forest-Inventory, INTAG, Department of Forestry, Republic of Indonesia using Landsat data from early and mid-1980's

Note : (-) : loss(+) : growth- : No data


Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)

This source of pollution to the marine and coastal environment is perhaps one of the moreinsidious as well as one of the most difficult to effectively reduce and eliminate. In an effort toincrease agricultural yields from a finite land resource, the use of herbicides and pesticides have beeninstrumental in increasing harvest yields. In spite of their effectiveness, it is their persistence that is ofthe greatest concern. Depending on regional geology, these organic pollutants can enter the marinecoastal environment as part of riverine effluent or as part of groundwater intrusion. Upon havingentered the marine environment, the incorporation of POPs in the food chain results in both bio-accumulation and bio-amplification processes. Their ultimate impacts can be measured in thereduction of growth rates, reproductive capacity and survival of all marine life. The impact on humanhealth as well as the economic repercussions on the reduced marketability of various fisheries isobvious.

Radioactive substances

At present, radioactive waste discharges are a minor problem, but they are likely to increase inthe future.

Other impacts result from sand and tin mining and the mining of coral rock. Only the latterwill be discussed here. Other impacts such as the effects of logging, swamp forest clearing foragriculture, mangrove forest clearing for brackishwater fish pond construction and changes to thewater regime with resulting salinization will be discussed below.

Heavy metals

The pollution caused by oil has received considerable attention by various internationalconventions to which Indonesia has been a signatory and will therefore not receive specific attentionhere. The problem of heavy metals, especially from industrialized and mining centres, is in need of animmediate government response. Studies show that heavy metal contamination in the sea near Jakartais large and it is thought that this applies to other centres of industry in Indonesia (see table 2.23 :Heavy metal loading into Jakarta Bay).

Table 2.23. Heavy metal loading into Jakarta Bay (adapted from Koe & Aziz, 1994

RIVER AsKg/hr

CdKg/hr

CrKg/hr

CuKg/hr

HgKg/hr

NiKg/hr

PbKg/hr

ZnKg/hr

Cisadane 0.00 0.00 4.17 0.00 34.70 18.10 23.30 10,340.00Angke 0.00 0.00 6.67 0.00 139.00 34.80 118.00 2,026.00Grogol 0.00 0.00 2.77 6.40 4.80 0.00 9.00 110.30Krubut 19.00 0.00 191.00 15.60 10.30 6.50 197.00 8,605.00Ciliwung 26.10 0.00 62.20 0.00 56.60 0.00 151.00 790.00Sunter 0.00 0.00 0.49 67.40 62.20 0.00 36.10 3,069.00Cakung 0.35 0.00 3.80 0.00 26.50 0.00 39.00 828.00Bekasi 0.00 0.00 32.90 47.40 11.90 0.00 140.00 10,742.00Cikarung 0.00 0.00 21.00 54.00 25.80 94.60 43.50 6,473.00TOTAL 45.45 0.00 325 190.8 371.80 154.00 756.90 42,983.30


Oil (Hydrocarbons)

Oil production and petrochemical industries are growing rapidly. Concern about oil pollutionhas increased since a large oil spill killed hundreds of hectares of mangrove in 1975, but little is knownabout land-based oil pollution reaching the sea.

Production of petroleum in Indonesia is increasing rapidly. In 1976 it was about 1.5 millionbarrels per day (bpd), and by 1980 this was expected to reach 2.5 million bpd. An increasingpercentage is coming from offshore fields; production from this source rose from zero in 1970 to morethan 30 per cent in 1977 (Soegiarto 1979). Concurrent with the increase in oil production, thepetrochemical industries are also mushrooming. Generally they still discharge their effluent in nearbyrivers, lakes, or estuaries. The volume of oil transported through Indonesian waters tripled between1969 and 1980. Measured hydrocarbon concentrations in Indonesian waters range from 3 to 200 ppm.

Concern about oil pollution in Indonesia seas has increased greatly since early 1975 when the273,000-ton tanker, Showa Maru, was grounded in the Straits of Malacca and spilled some 7,000 tonsof Middle East crude into Indonesian waters. One major effect of this oil spill was the death ofhundreds of hectares of mangrove forest off Dumai which showed little sign of recovery after two anda half years (Soegiarto and Polunin 1982). Other recorded incidents can be seen in table 2.24 :Recorded Incidents of Marine Pollution).

Table 2.24. Recorded Incidents of Marine Pollution

Date Type of Pollutant Environment Location ReferencesSep-72 Oil, tarball Water, sand Nirwana, Anyer

Besar Kelor andSakit Island

Sutamihardja et al.(1982)

Jan-75 Crude oil spill (super tankerSHOWA MARU of Japan)3,600 tons oil

Water, shellfish Buffalo Rock(Singapore Straits)

Coutrier (1976)

Oct-80 Heavy metals (Pb, Cd) Water, shellfish Angke Estuary Hutagalung &Razak (1982)

1982 Heavy metals (Pb, Cr, Cd) Shrimp, finfish Kepulauan Seribu(Untung Jawa,Lancang, Pari,Tidung, Karang,Beras Pramuka,Kelapa, PutriIsland); JakartaBay (MuaraKarang, Angke,Pasar Ikan)

Surtipanti (1981 –1987)

Heavy metals (Hg) Water, sediment Cisadane River Surtipanti &Suwirna

Heavy metals (Zn) Sediment Angke Surtipanti &Suwirna


1987 Crude oil spill (tanker StoltAvance of Liberia), 15 tonsoil

Water Malacca Straits Soeharto (1988)

Crude oil spill (tanker El Haniof Liberia), 3000 tons

Water Malacca Straits Soeharto (1988)

1989 Oil residue (tarball) Sand Trikora Beach(Bintan Island,Sumatra)

Suara karya Daily(28/12/1989)

Pesticides from cocoaplantation in Sarawak

Mussel Nunukan Island(causing death ofsome inhabitants)

Reutergardth(pers. Comm.)

May-89 Poisonous waster fromSingapore

Buried in sand Tanjung Uban,Riau

Suara PembaruanDaily (18/12/1988)

Oct-92 Crude oil spill (TankerNagasaki Spirit), 10.000 tons

water Perak Island,Malacca Straits

Kompas Daily(5/10/1992)

Sources : as noted

Nutrients

Fertilizer productivity and use increased nine-fold from 110,000 tons in 1974/75 to 981,000 tons1977 (Soemarwoto 1977). Some of this is leached into coastal waters where its effect is combinedwith that of the nutrients in domestic wastes Efforts to improve crop yield has resulted in an excessivereliance on nutrients. Similar to POPs, they enter the marine and coastal environment throughgroundwater intrusion and surface run-off. Urban and industrial centres are also important nutrientpoint sources into the aquatic environment. The tropical marine ecosystem has essentially evolved in anutrient poor environment. Ecosystems, such as coral reefs, have adapted their requirements foressential nutrients through an extremely efficient internal recycling mechanism. The increasedavailability of nutrients does not result in enhanced productivity for the coral reef. Instead, nutrients aretaken up by phytoplankton resulting in algal blooms that reduce the light penetration required for coralzooxanthella photosynthesis. Some of the blooms produced are a result of nutrient enrichment that maybe of the toxic red tide variety (ASEAN-Canada 1992). With the bulk of primary production nowtaking place in the water column, there is a concomitant change in the trophic structure of the benthiccommunity. These changes include shifts from animal to plant communities. The accretion whichoccurs in some Javanese deltas has been measured in tens of metres per year (M. Smith, personalcommunication, CEMP).

Nutrient run-off

The following section addresses some considerations that may be incorporated in possibleapproaches to some specific source categories and contaminants. The source categories may vary inimportance from region to region within the country and must therefore be evaluated based onenvironmental and economic priority and on the capacity to address the pollution source (see tables2.25 : Pollution Level Classification; 2.26 : Locations polluted by organic matters and pollution;2.27 : Organic pollution level at some rivers streams; and 2.28 : Pesticide comsumption inIndonesia).


Table 2.25 Pollution Level Classification

ClassificationParameter Lowest Level Low Level Medium Level High Level

BOD (mg/l) <1 1-3 3-6 >6COD (mg/l) <5 5-10 10-25 >15Ot (mg/l) >6 5-6 3-5 <3Amonium (mg/l) <0,1 0,1-0,15 0,25-0,50 >0,50Bacteri Colli(MPN/100 m.)

<103 103-104 104-106 >106

Table 2.26. Locations polluted by organic matters & Pollution

Location BOD COD ClassificationP. JawaS. Cisadane-Tangerang 5,1 11 MediumS. Ciliwung-Manggarai 8,9 16 HeavyS. Ciliwung-Jl. Gajah mada 36 40 HeavyS. Sunter Jl. Yos Sudarso 33 100 HeavyS. Cikaranggelam-karang sinon 5,6 19 HeavyS. Citarum-Nanjung 6,4 17 HeavyS. Caitarum-Bd. Curuk 8,8 15 HeavyK. Garang-Kota Semarang 6,2 29 HeavyK. Solo-Curuk 6,8 33 HeavyK. Surabaya-Tawangsari 7,4 18 HeavyK. Surabaya-Wonokromo 11 25 HeavyK. Surabaya-Gubeng 14 29 HeavyP. SumatraKr. Aceh-Banda Aceh 5,5 27 MediumS. Deli-medan 7,9 27 HeavyS. Lepan-Pangkalan Brandan 9,0 37 HeavyS. Musi-P. Kemarau 7,0 27 HeavyW. Pangubuan-Terbengi Besar 42 80 HeavyS. Asahan-Tj.Balai 5,6 25 HeavyP. BaliTk. Mati 12 29 HeavyTk. Badung-Denpasar 7,3 33 HeavyP. SulawesiS. Tondano 9,7 42 Heavy



Table 2.27. Organic Pollution Level at some River Streams (1989) by the R & D division ofPublic Work

BOD5 20 CODRiverMax. Min Max. Min

Level pollution

S. Ciliwung-Manggarai 16 5 28 11 HeavySal. Mookervaart 25 13 52 18 HeavyS. Sunter 66 3,8 28 12 HeavyBj. Kanal-Pejompongan 9,2 3,8 24 13 HeavyS. Citarum-Nanjung 17 11 32 15 HeavyS. Citarum-Tanjungpura 2,8 1,7 25 3,1 HeavyCirata 2,3 0,7 9,2 3,4 MediumS. Cisadane-Bd. Ps. Baru 29 1,1 14 6,1 MediumK. Bekasi-Intake PDAM 4 1,4 19 2,4 HeavyK. Bekasi-Hilir Kota 48 2,4 99 12 HeavyK. Ciliwung-Depok 2,6 2,1 18 16 MediumB. solo-Kemiri 12 3,7 45,5 17,5 HeavyK. Garang-Intake PDAM 6 1,5 33,6 6,2 HeavyK. Garang-Hilir PDAM 6,2 1,1 20,6 5,4 HeavyK. Brantas-Mojokerto 7,4 1,6 63 5 HeavyK. Solo-Babat 2,5 8,2 57 30 HeavyK. Surabaya-Intake PDAM 25 8,2 55,5 18 HeavyS. Mahakam-Intake PDAM 6,6 2 24,4 14 HeavyS. Karang Mumus Jemb. H-Samarinda

9,8 5 36 16,3 Heavy

S. Deli-Medan 17,4 5,2 49 15 HeavyS. Asahan-Sigura-gura 2,5 2 15,2 10,6 MediumS. Samayang-Langkat 26 11,2 120 40 HeavyS. Merbau 4,8 3,1 19 15 HeavyS. Musi 0,7 0,2 17 15 MediumW.Pangubuan-Terbangi Besar 53 3,9 14 12 HeavyW. Seputih-Bn.Sugih 7,2 4,9 13 12 Heavy


Table 2.28. Pesticide Consumption in Indonesia (Thousand of Kilogram or Litres) byUSAID, 1987

Year Product Import Consumpution % Difference peryear

% DifferenceSince 1978

1978 9.128 4.272 13.400 - -1979 20.812 3.389 23.201 80,6 80,61980 25.671 6.139 31.810 31,4 137,41981 33.576 1.237 34.813 9,4 159,81982 42.369 2.886 45.255 30,0 237,8

Source : National resources and Environmental Management in Indonesia : an Overview USAID

As with sediments, nutrients enter the marine environment through run-off from farmland.Aside of all above mentioned stories, some waste treatments are currently taken care by some citiesas seen in table 2.29 : Waste treatments (present status).


Table 2.29. Waste treatments (present status)

Subregion Number andnames of citieswith wastewater

treatment facilitiescapacity(m3/day)

Number andnames of citieswith solid waste

treatment facilities(ton/year)

Number andnames of cities

with central sewertreatment

facilities/capacity

Solid waste goesto landfills

(ton/year) andlocation of major

landfills

Number ofindustrial

wastewatertreatment

facilities andcapacity of each

Other types ofwaste treatment

facilities

1. Riau dan Batam - - - - - -2. Bangka-Belitung and South Sumatera (Palembang) 7,200 - - - - -3. Jakarta West Java (Bandung) 741,448 - - - - -4. East Java (Surabaya) 600 - - - - -5. South Kalimantan (Banjarmasin) 42,768 - - - - -6. West Kalimantan (Pontianak) 30 - - - - -

Source : Environmental Impact Management Agency (Bapedal)-Adipura (Clean City Award), 1998.

Note :- : No dat


Litter

Perhaps the most pervasive and immediately visible problem in Indonesian coastal and marinewaters is that of litter and plastic. The principle reasons for this situation probably stem from generallyinadequate waste disposal programmes in major urban centres and the habit of the general public inusing waterways as a convenient disposal site. For example, in Jakarta city alone, it is estimated that860,000 tons of garbage is left uncollected each year (Koe and Aziz 1994). A significant portion of theuncollected trash makes its way to the coastal waters of Jakarta and is subsequently carried to otherlandfalls. A short walk around Pulau Laki of the Jakarta Bay very dramatically illustrates the extent ofthe problem. Aside from the aesthetic detraction, litter and plastics also negatively impact on thevarious biological components of the coastal and marine environments (see table 2.30. : Domesticpollution)


Table 2.30. Domestic pollution (1994)

Subregion(Population)

BOD(ton)

Total N (ton) Total P (ton) Solid waste(SS) (ton)

Toriver/canal

Direct tothe sea

To river/canal Direct tothe sea

Toriver/canal

Direct to thesea

To river/canal Direct to thesea

1. Riau-Batam - - - - - - - -


- - - - - - - -


539,821,568-

--

24,402,893-

--

2,957,926-

--

147,896,320-

--

4. East Java 161,785 175,095 27,102 83,741 3,286 10,151 845,059 776,538

5. South Kalimantan - - - - - - - -

6. West Kalimantan - - - - - - - -

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (1994)

Note :- : No data


Ships and sea-based sources of pollution

(a) Operational discharges

Finn and others (1979) reported on oil pollution from tankers in the Straits of Malacca,referring to all discharges which occur as a result of normal ship operations. It was noted by the sameauthors that the most significant deballasting occurs in the South China Sea prior to entry into theStraits by tankers on the return leg of their trip between Japan (and other destinations) and the MiddleEast. It was pointed out that deballasting in the South China Sea, at the eastern end of the Straits, haspollution effects owing to the water circulation patterns.

(b) Tank cleaning

The walls of the tank vessel contain oil. The amount of residual varies between 1 per cent and0.1 per cent of the total cargo and acts as an impediment to drainage. The most economical solution isto clean the tank with seawater and discharge the waste directly into the sea.

(c ) Bilge water and sludge

For cargo and container vessels, routine operational discharges, such as the disposal of oilybilge water and sludge (from the purification of heavy duty fuel oil), as well as ballast water, add to themarine oil pollution problem. It is estimated that 0.5 per cent of all oil transported over the sea ends upin the sea and almost three quarters of that comes from the routine operation of ships (Ramayah 1994).

(d) Discharges from small vessels

Discharges from small fishing boats, although low in volume individually, collectively representa large input.

(e) Anti-fouling paints

Over the years, anti-fouling paints containing active compounds, such as lead, bitumen, arsenicand mercurial compounds and DDT, have been used on ships. Many of these products have, however,been withdrawn from use because of their high toxicity. Today, anti-fouling paints are mainly based ontributyltin (TBT) and to a lesser extent on copper systems. These paints come in two basic types,namely: TBT Free Association Paints and Copolymer Paints.

2.1.1.5 Ports and harbours - maritime transport

In many port areas sanitary sewage, directed storm waters and industrial effluent isdischarged into local waters. The result is a deposition of organic-rich fine-grained sediments withinport areas and approach channels. Dredging of sediments is undertaken to maintain navigational depthand permit construction of various shoreline structures, such as wharves, or to obtain fill andconstruction materials. Through dredging and disposal of dredged materials considerable pollution ofthe marine environment may result.


Port and harbour development

Maritime incidents and accidents resulting in oil spills may have substantial temporary or long-term impacts, ecological or economic or both. During the past decade the world has becomeincreasingly conscious of threats to the marine environment. In particular a number of large oil spills inthe past have sparked awareness of the need to regulate the prevention of and response to oil spills ona worldwide basis.

Indonesia has about 300 registered ports scattered throughout the archipelago. Most ofIndonesia's ports serve international transportation needs. Six major ports for export and import thathave been turned into full container ports, are Tanjung Priok in Jakarta, Tanjung Perak in Surabaya,Ujung Pandang in southern Sulawesi, Belawan in northern Sumatra, Dumai in Riau and Lhokseumawein Aceh. Another port, Kabil in Batam Island, Riau archipelago, is also being expanded to serve as amajor cargo port (see tables 2.31. : Number of boats/ships by types and registered palce/cityunder the ISM Code; and 2.32. : Ports and Harbours).


Table 2.31 Number of boats/ships by types and registered place/city under the ISM Code (International Safety Management Code)

Registered place/city Number of ships and type Ownership Registered per 1 July 1998

1. Jakarta 47 (Ferry)39 (Cargo)177 (Oil tanker)14 (Others)

Directorate General of Land TranportDirectorate General of Sea Communication

Pertamina (State Oil Enterprise)Private Company

2. Batam 3 (Ferry) Directorate General of Sea Communication

3. Surabaya 25 (Ferry)16 (Others)

Directorate General of Land TranportPrivate Company

4. Eastern Indonesia 13 (Ferry) Directorate General of Land Tranport

Registered place/city Number of ships and type Ownership Registered per 1 July1999

1. Jakarta 11 (Oil tanker) Pertamina (State Oil Enterprise) and otherprivate companies

2. Palembang 1 (Palm oil tanker) Private company

3. Surabaya 1 (Palm oil tanker) Private company

4. Eastern Indonesia 1 (tanker) Private company



1. Jakarta 2 (Cargo)10 (Cargo)

Directorate General of Sea CommunicationPrivate company

2. Palembang 4 (Cargo) Private company


1. Jakarta 44 (Ferry)13 (Cargo)

Directorate General of Land TransportDirectorate General of Sea Communication

2. Surabaya 8 (Ferry)13 (Cargo)

Directorate General of Land TransportDirectorate General of Sea Communication

3. Eastern Indonesia 6 (Cargo) Directorate General of Sea Communication


1. Jakarta 50 (Oil supply boats)7 (Oil supply boats)

Pertamina (State Oil Enterprise)Private company

Note :International Safety Management Code (ISM Code) as according to IMO Resolution Number A.741 (18)-1993 for Safety Navigation and Pollution Prevention

Source : Directorate General of Sea Communication (1998).Table 2.32. Ports and harbours


Subregion Number of vesselscalls per year (1997)

Major cargo type (oil, fish, solid waste)Volume of cargo transfer per year (1997) (ton/year)

oil (1997)(Barrels per day)

loading

fish (1997) Solid waste (1994)(meter

3/day)

unloading

unloading(incoming)

loading(outgoing)

unloading (ton) loading (ton)

1. Riau-Batam : - Pakanbaru port - Dumai harbour

1,410 (F) + 4,915 (D) = 6,3251,976 (F) + 3,021 (D) = 4,997

S. Pakning = 50,000110,000

1-

7,805-

--

1,153,9411,621,660

798,52217,426,207

2. Bangka-Belitung and South Sumatera: - Palembang harbour - Tanjung pinang port

1,112 (F) + 3,357 (D) = 4,46919,545 (F) + 29,169 (D) = 48,614

123,000-

--

5,968-

18.9-

902,1211,384,984

3,411,631633,764

3. Jakarta and West Java: - Tanjung priok harbour - West Java

4,917 (F) + 9,853 (D) = 14,770

-

-

Balongan = 125,000

9,544

11

968

-

85.7

-

10,390,224

-

3,268,266

-

4. East Java : - Tanjung perak harbour

2,212 (F) + 11,763 (D) = 13,975 Cepu = 3,800 21,688 68 53.1 10,924,833 5,689,838

5. South Kalimantan : - Port of Banjarmasin 920 (F) + 6,566 (D) = 7,486 - 946 204 - 3,649,485 2,062,394

6. West Kalimantan : - Port of Pontianak 708 (F) + 2,354 (D) = 3,062 - - - - 1,212,346 415,948

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics and Directorate General of Sea-Communication (1997) Note : - : No data


Ports are key links in the sea communications system. Scattered across the country are some300 registered ports, most of which serve internal transportation needs. The majority of exports andimports go through four major ports : Jakarta, Surabaya, Belawan, and Ujung Pandang. Sixteen portscan accommodate ocean-going ships and more than 100 serve inter-island shipping vessels. Jakartahas the largest port for general cargo. Dumai in Sumatera, where the large oil fields are located,handles the largest volume of exports. Cilacap on the south coast of Java, handles oil from the MiddleEast.

Additional container facilities are rapidly being developed. Further containerization offers asignificant opportunity to improve cargo handling efficiency and to reduce the costs of internal andexternal commerce. Tanjung Priok, Jakarta's largest general cargo port, has a container terminal andtwo five-ton capacity cranes, each capable of handling 20 containers per hour. Container traffic hasincreased by an average of 45 per cent annually at the port over the past five years. Containerfacilities for feeder vessels will soon be operating at Belawan in northern Sumatera, Tanjung Perak inSurabaya, Palembang in southern Sumatera and Pangkal Pinang in the Riau archipelago.

2.1.1.6 Seabed exploration and exploitation

(a) Offshore activities

Oil and gas exploration and production

On the eastern coast of Sumatra, the only company producing oil offshore is Hudbay OilMalacca Straits Ltd. (HOMSL), their production having reached 40,000 barrels per day. The Hudbayconcession, called the Lalang Field, is situated in the Lalang Strait, which lies between mainlandSumatera and Pulau Rupat. The field consists of several offshore wells. To serve the field, fiveplatforms have been constructed, one is a production platform and another is a platform for livingquarters. In addition to these platforms, the field has a mooring tower to which a storage barge ortanker is moored. Submarine pipelines connect the relevant wells and the production and storage sitesin the exploration phase (Coutrier 1988).

The potential for pollution discharge from such offshore operations is primarily from the drillingeffluent, such as enormous volumes of high concentration saltwater. These fluids may also containtraces of heavy metals and gases that are normally being flared. In addition, domestic wastewater andgarbage are also generated. Information on the platform discharges to the Straits is not readilyavailable.

Large reserves of oil exist, both onshore and offshore. In January 1985, estimated recoverableoil reserves stood at approximately 8.65 billion barrels (two per cent of the world's total), andrecoverable reserves of natural gas at the equivalent of 14.5 billion barrels of crude oil. Indonesia is amember of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), and is the largest exporter ofoil in Asia. Indonesia also has large reserves of natural gas and is now one of the world's leadingproducers and exporters of liquified natural gas (LNG). Despite the slump in world petroleum prices,oil and gas operations are expected to continue to provide the major export and leading economicactivity for some time.


Over one third of national oil production presently occurs in offshore areas (especially the JavaSea and Makassar Strait) and another large proportion occurs in coastal areas. Offshore exploratorydrilling is becoming more common. Oil fields tend to be small in size requiring the continuousdevelopment of new fields to maintain national production levels. Important exploitation areas includethe South Java Sea, the Straits of Malacca, the South China Sea around Natuna Island, westernKalimantan, Makassar Strait, and southern Sulawesi.

(b) Crude oil production

Indonesia is one of Asia's major oil producers, ranking second after China and fourteenthglobally. Indonesia is also Asia's biggest oil exporter. Oil and gas production provide almost two thirdsof Indonesia's tax revenues and are a major source of foreign exchange (Burbridge and others 1988).

Indonesia is endowed with petroleum hydrocarbon resources, onshore as well offshore, spreadwidely throughout the archipelago. At present, 60 petroleum basins have been recognized in Indonesia.Among them, 14 are already producing, 7 have been drilled and proven productive, 15 are in anexplorative drilling process and 24 have still not been drilled. Seventy-three per cent of the basins arelocated offshore. Many of them are still untouched because of their location in deep water. Most ofthese basins also produce natural gas. Figure 4 shows the basin locations in and around Sumatra.

Figure 4 Oil Basins around Sumatra


In the critical period of 1970 to 1990, oil financed and fueled Indonesia's economicdevelopment. Oil revenue contributed over 80 per cent of the national revenue. With the growth of thenon-oil sectors, the oil industry now contributes a substantial, but much lower, 25 per cent of thenational revenue (Rasyid 1995). The current OPEC quota for Indonesia is 1.33 million barrels of crudeoil per day for export, with prices ranging from US$ 15.0 to US$ 19.0 per barrel, depending on theinternational market price and the types of oil.

The existing oil and gas operations are sources of employment and local business opportunitiesfor Indonesians in engineering, rig work, supply boat operation, shore-based and warehouse work, oilfield supply and contingency planning. They also serve as a leading sector for technology, dataprocessing, sensitivity mapping and oil spill counter-measures. The development of support basefacilities and service industries is a major stimulus to coastal community development of ports andindustrial facilities, including refineries and petrochemical plants (see table 2.33 : Volume and Value ofExport of Oil, Natural Gas, and Their Devirates from Indonesia).

Table 2.33. Volume and Value of Export of Oil, Natural Gas, and Their Derivatives from Indonesia, 1990-1994 (Direktorat Jenderal Minyak dan Gas Bumi,

1995).

Year Crude Oil LNG(MMBTU)

RefinedProducts

Condensate Total

A. Volume (millions of barrels)1990 248.4 1,064.9 56.1 40.0 1,373.41991 295.5 1,161.2 56.5 35.0 1,548.21992 258.6 1,218.6 64.6 34.4 1,576.21993 248.8 1,246.8 58.6 34.5 1,588.71994 289.3 1,368.2 63.2 34.7 1,755.4B. Value (billion US$)1990 5.43 4.02 1.26 0.89 11.601991 5.68 4.05 0.99 0.70 11.491992 4.73 4.10 1.06 0.68 10.571993 4.18 3.94 0.90 0.61 9.631994 4.50 3.85 0.90 0.59 9.84

Offshore petroleum operations lead to many related support activities in marine and coastalareas, including shipping (supplying drill rigs and offshore installations), onshore infrastructure andsupport services. Most of the crude oil produced from offshore wells is transported through submergedpipelines to storage barges or land terminals. Oil is then pumped from these facilities to offshore singlebuoy mooring terminals where it is loaded onto tankers.

The current national production in Indonesia is about 1.5 million barrels per day. In Sumatra,the production fields are mostly located in Riau Province, including its offshore fields. Table 2.34shows the level of production in Riau between 1989 and 1993. Production from the Riau oil fields ofMina and Duri represent about 60 per cent of all the Indonesian oil production. Oil companies in otherprovinces bordering the Malacca Straits are ASAMERA in Aceh and PERTAMINA in northernSumatra. They produce much smaller volumes of oil than those located in Riau Province.


Table 2.34. Crude Oil Production (millions of barrels) by Company in riau Province, 1989-1993 (Statistical Office of Riau Province, 1995).

Company 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993PT.CALTEX 202.07 204.50 197.38 208.83 295.75C & T (CPP + MFK) 1.43 1.46 1.42 1.52 1.02C & T (C. Sumatra-KK) 24.70 4.71 23.57 24.65 233.61HUDBAY OIL (Malacca St.) 20.14 25.11 29.84 38.88 21.27CONOCO (Natuna) 3.07 2.82 2.46 2.35 11.03MARATHON (Kakap) 4.70 5.85 6.93 9.03 28.46PT STANVAC 8.01 9.97 11.82 15.38 0.53Total 264.12 254.42 273.42 300.64 591.67

(c) Oil refineries

The total oil refining capacity by the refineries located along the Malacca Straits as of 1January 1995 was estimated to be 1.54 million barrels per day. Among the three littoral States,Singapore has the highest refining capacity, about 72.43 per cent of the total refining capacity by therefineries along the Malacca Straits. Malaysia has 16.72 per cent and Indonesia 11.30 per cent.

The demand for refined petroleum products in the Asia-Pacific region is expected to increaseby around 14.25 per cent during the period 1993 to 1997 and the supply from the region's refineries ispredicted to increase by around 15.07 per cent over the same period. This will probably lead to theimport requirements increasing by around 7.41 per cent during the period (Bamber 1995). Assumingthat the oil imports from areas outside Asia remain at the current level, the refining capacity must beincreased either by expansion of old facilities or by building new refineries. There are numerous plansfor increasing the refining capacity in the region and, if these plans were to materialize, it would addanother 6 million barrels per day to Asia's refining capacity by the year 2000. However, the lack offinancing could limit expansion of the refining capacity in the region, especially in those countrieswhere the refineries are operated by the private sector. In the next four to five years, half of theworld's new oil refining capacity could be build in Asia (Bamber 1995).

(d) Mining

Offshore mining is carried out for construction aggregates, precious metals, ferrous metals andpolymetallic nodules and crusts (table 2.35 : Principal types of Oceanic Minerals).


Table 2.35. Principal types of oceanic mineralsPrincipal Types of Oceanic Minerals

Type of Deposit Materials of Elements Main Geological SettingConstruction aggregates Pebbles and quartz Coast and coantinental shelfIndustrial materials Phosphorite, sulfur, aragonite,

shells, and silica sandCoast and nearshore submarineplateau

Precious metals/minerals Gold, platinum, tin, diamond rareearth elements, zirconium,titanium, chromium, scheelite, andothers.

Coast and nearshore

Ferrous and non-ferrous metals Iron, copper, manganese, lead,zinc, and others

Fracture zones and spreadingcenters

Polymetallic nodules and crusts Manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel,titanum, molybdenum, and others

Deep sea

All three nations (Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore) are involved to some extent in offshoremining, especially sand and gravel. Offshore mining of tin is occurring in Malaysia and Indonesia, aswell as several other metals and non-metals (Chansang 1984; Burbridge and others 1988). The extentof mining activities and their precise impact on the marine environment requires further assessment.

Apart from the obvious problem of direct destruction of habitat, a major problem is turbidity.Turbid plumes are created when mechanical and hydraulic dredges are used. The turbid plumes canextend up to 1,500 to 2,000 feet from the dredging site. The mothering of fish habitats and coral andbottom dwelling organisms can occur.

(e) Aquaculture

Aquaculture is a valuable and fast growing marine industry within the Malacca Straits. Theindustry is not only sensitive to the problems of pollution, but is also a polluter of the marineenvironment (Chua and others 1989). The extent of the impact of pollution depends on the nature ofaquaculture, its precise location and upon the technologies that are being applied.

In general, the biggest pollution problem is the effluent that is generated as a result ofaquaculture operations. The effluent tends to contain high levels of nutrient and organic materials thatreduce the water quality of the surrounding waters (Chua and others 1989; Pillai 1993). Other potentialproblems occur as a result of the use of chemicals and the inadvertent discharge of chemical residuals.The chemicals used in aquaculture farms include antibiotics, disinfectants and biocides. Recent data(1995) from the Direktorat Jenderal Perikanan show that 81,695 kg of fertilizer and 816 kg ofpesticides were used in the brackishwater ponds in Aceh and northern Sumatra (1993).

(f) Dredging

High sediment loads can result from both land and marine based activities. As a result of thehigh silt loadings, harbours and ports need to be periodically dredged to ensure the safe passage of thelarger vessels. Dredging leads to the re-suspension of sediments which can have deleterious effects onthe benthic organisms and consequently reduce the primary production capacities in the area.Prevention and management of sea-based sources of pollution


International conventions

International Maritime Organization (IMO) Conventions on Marine Pollution: The main IMOconvention on marine pollution is the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution fromShips, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 1973/78). MARPOL covers all thetechnical aspects of pollution from ships, except for the disposal of waste and other matter by dumpingwhich is regulated under the London Convention. MARPOL applies to all types of ships, but not topollution arising from the exploration and exploitation of seabed mineral resources. Indonesia, Malaysiaand Singapore have ratified Annex I and II of MARPOL 1973/78. (See table 2.36 : InternationalConventions on Marine Pollution) Below is a list of the international conventions relating to marinepollution ratified by Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore.

Table 2.36. International Conventions on Marine Pollution

Conventions Indonesia Malaysia SingaporeUNCLOS 82 • • • MARPOL

Annex I/II • • • Annex III • Annex IVAnnex V •

London ConventionConvention 72Amend 78

InterventionConvention 69Protocol 76

CLCConvention 69 • • • Protocol 76 • Protocol 92

FUNDConvention 71 • • Protocol 76Protocol 92

COLREG 72 • • • SALVAGE 89OPRC 90 • BASEL 89 • • • • = Ratified


International conventions on liability and compensation for oil pollution from tankers:

At present, there are two international regimes through which compensation for clean-upcosts and damage are available for persistent oil (crude oil, fuel oil, heavy diesel oil and lubricating oil)namely:

(a) International Conventions on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969(CLC) with its 1976 and 1992 protocols;

(b) International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund forCompensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1971 (Fund) with its 1976 and 1992protocols.

The CLC and the Fund are international conventions adopted under the auspices of IMO andthey apply only in those countries which have ratified the conventions.

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) contains various articlesdealing with the prevention of pollution from ships and platforms, in relationship to disasters as could beseen in table 2.37 and 2.38.


Table 2.37. Oil spills and other marine disasters during 1995-1997.In Indonesia total marine accident occurred:(a). 10 - 15 per month (during west moonson) and(b). 5 - 10 per month (during other periods of the year), while causing oil spills will be seen as here-under:

Subregion Date ofoccurrence

Type of ship Location Total oil spilled

1. Riau and Batam

17 - 8 - 19961 - 11 - 199610 - 12 - 1996

TankerTankerTanker

Natuna WatersNorth of RiauEast Sumatra

350 Kl (Marine Fuel oil = MFO)1000 Kl (LSWR)

4080 ton (CPO = Crude Palm Oil)


15 - 10 - 1997 Tanker Singapore Strait 25000 ton (MFO)

3. Jakarta West Java 4 - 12 - 1995

25 - 2- 1997TankerBarge

Indramayu Waters, North Coast ofJava

Banten, North Coast of Java

Palm Oil2400 Kl (MFO)

4. East Java

5. South Kalimantan

6. West Kalimantan

Table 2.38A. Mineral/petroleum extraction platforms


Number of planforms at present -

Number of planforms in year 2003 -

Total crude oil production (present) 1994 = 1.61 Million Barrels/day

Total crude oil production (2003) 2005 = 1.065 Million Barrels/day

Natural gas production (present) 1994 = 2.942 Billion Standard Cubic Feet (BCF)

Natural gas production (2003) 1999 = 3.200 BCF

Other type of production, specify (present) Coal, 1994 = 30 Million Tons

Other type of production, specify (2003) Coal, 2000 = 45 Million Tons

Source: Embassy of the United States of America, Jakarta: "Petroleum Report Indonesia 1995".

Note:- : No data.


Table 2.38B. (Other Types of Production)

Producer Location Capacity (T/Y)

Urea Ammonia

Pupuk Sriwijaya Palembang, South Sumatera 2,280,000 1,500,000

Pupuk Kaltim Bontang, East Kalimantan 1,841,000 1,320,000

Pupuk Kujang Cikampek, West Java 570,000 396,000

ASEAN Fertilizer Aceh, Sumatera 684,000 380,000

Pupuk Muda Iskandar Muda Aceh 656,000 396,000

Petrokimia Gresik Gresik, East Java 462,000 446,000

Source: Embassy of the United States of America, Jakarta: "Petroleum Report Indonesia 1995".


2.1.1.7 Marine dumping

Marine dumping, directly or indirectly to the sea, has been experienced in Indonesia and hasbeen one of the more important sources of marine pollution causing the following problems, notnecessarily in order of importance:

- domestic sewage - dredge spoils- sewage sludge - oil spills and offshore production- industrial wastes - radio-active wastes- solid wastes - heat and temperature pollution- shipboard wastes - sediments from over-land run-off- pesticides and herbicides - anti-fouling paint

(See table 2.39A. : Marine Dumping; and 2.39B : Marine dumping (Routine MaintenanceDregding in Selected Ports)).


Table 2.39A. Marine Dumping

Subregion Dump sites Past 10 years Next 5 years Type of materials Volume (m3)

1. Riau and Batam

2. Bangka-Belitung: - (Surrounding waters) South Sumatera: - Palembang (estuary) - Bengkulu (sorrounding waters)

v

1996-19971996-1997

v Sand after tin mining

Corally sand, muddy sandsand, gravelly sand

2,300,0001,100,000

3. Jakarta West Java: - Cirebon (Java sea) - Tegal (Java sea) - Batang (Java sea)

1996-19971996-19971996-1997

sand, sandy mudsand, sandy mud

sand, sandy mud, mud

250,00075,00080,000

4. East Java: - Surabaya (Java sea) 1996-1997 sandy mud, mud 700,000

5. South Kalimantan: - Banjarmasin (sorrounding waters) 1996-1997 mud, sandy mud 2,500,000

6. West Kalimantan: - Pontianak (sorrounding waters) 1996-1997 mud, sandy mud 1,700,000


Table 2.39B. Marine Dumping (Routine Maintenence Dredging in Selected Ports)

SubregionDump sites

Ports AccessChannel(m3/year)

Ports Basin(m3/year)

Dump sites

1. Riau and Batam

Dumai 10,000 Surrounding waters

2. Bangka-Belitung and South Sumatera Palembang 2,400,000 350,000 Along river sids and estuary


Tanjung Priok 100,000 300,000 Surrounding waters (Java sea)

4. East Java Tanjung Perak 200,000 150,000 North Coast of East Java (Java sea)

5. South Kalimantan Banjarmasin - - -

6. West Kalimantan Pontianak - - -

Source: Directorate General of Sea Communication (1998)Note:

- : No data


In Indonesia, the management of ocean dumping has been considered recently because of theissue of toxic chemical industrial wastes from other countries (Europe and Africa) who were lookingfor dumping locations in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

Criteria and procedures need to be established, while potential possible sites are identified, forinstance:

(a) No dumping in the territorial waters up to 12 miles;(b) Only according to the existing rules and regulations of Indonesia; while the deeper

parts (more than 2000 metres) in the Pacific and Indian Ocean south of Java could be alternatives tobe investigated.

2.1.1.8 Atmospheric inputs to the aquatic environment

Less is known on this matter, except for some issues such as the falling down of someatmospheric materials on land or into the aquatic environment, for example, space objects (see tables 2.40 : Airbone Emission; and 2.41 : Pollution transport-atmospheric precipitation).


Table 2.40. Airborne Emission

Subregion Coalconsumption

(ton/year)

Oil consumption(1993)

( x 1000 ton)

Number ofvehicles(1996)

Forest fire/slash and burn(ha)

Volcano and frequency oferuption (past 50 years)

1986 1987 1988 1994 1997 Volcano Last eruptionyear

1. Riau and Batam

--

--

304,239-

-1,078

12-

--

-575

--

--

--


--

--

-856,844

--

-7,438

-390

-15,430

--

--

--


--

--

3,397,7481,243,076

--

-930

-289

6,61478,579

--

-Tangkuban Perahu,

Gede,Krakatau.

-199019901992

4. East Java - - 2,591,890 - 80 2,593 95,364 - Kelud,Arjuno,Raung,Semeru.

1990199119911994

5. South Kalimantan - - 352,523 - 1,188 - 6,218 - - -

6. West Kalimantan - - 205,115 4,589 50 745 5,881 - - -

INDONESIA - 33,580 14,886,102 - - - 161,798 263,992 - -

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, 1995 and 1997.Note: : No data


Table 2.41. Pollution transport-atmospheric precipitation (mg/l x mm3 x km2)

Subregion Total rainfall(mm3)

SO42+ Cl H+

(pH)Ca2+ Mg2+ NH4

+ Others(unit/year)

1. Riau-Batam (Pekanbaru) 1,719 185,729,355 89,151,173,370 307,021,995 46,507,545 541,485 172,493,055

2. Bangka-Belitung and South Sumatera (Palembang) 1,867.9 132,322,036 1,072,828,365 313,349,564 292,429,085 300,078,135 141,605,499

3. Jakarta West Java (Bandung)

999858

192,472,472155,195,040

5,074,274,2754,779,560

167,381,061,085139,489,356

37,899,579,58574,053,980

83,288,08813,153,140

22,781,741,7206,486,480

4. East Java (Surabaya) 941 251,294,050 46,174,870 165,860,660 22,593,410 4,281,550 25,096,471

5. South Kalimantan (Banjarmasin) 1,644 196,096,320 83,030,221 313,823,160 82,454,820 19,678,680 41,256,181

6. West Kalimantan (Pontianak) 2,550

278,103,000 86,037 437,592,750 9,996,000 238,297,500 91,302,750

Source: National Meteorogical Agency (1997)

Note:- : No data.


2.1.2 Pollution hot spots

As mentioned previously, the Clean Streams Programme or Clean River Programme (PROKASIH) in Indonesia is the foundation for local and regional government enforcement actionsregarding industrial effluent in the most industrialized provinces. It could be mentioned here thatperhaps all of the rivers beyond this programme could be described as pollution hot spots. (see the listof provinces and rivers under the jurisdiction of PROKASIH). This also means that the surroundingareas on land, including the estuaries and tributaries of rivers, will be included as pollution hot spots.The pollution hot spots and destruction areas for Indonesia can also be seen in the pictures showingsensitive and high risk areas in figure 5.

2.1.3 Sensitive and high risk areas

As an alternative to assessing the current and future conditions of all of Indonesia's coastlinein detail, the national inventory of coastal degradation focuses on 22 selected high priority zones. Figure5 shows critical watersheds and coastlines in Indonesia with high coastal resource values that areeither (a) currently degraded from industrial or domestic pollution; or (b) at risk of degradation in thenear future. This map shows both the highly degraded areas in Java, Sumatera, and West Kalimantanas well as the less degraded but highly vulnerable areas in northern and eastern Sulawesi, Maluku,Nusa Tenggara Timur, and Irian Jaya. These areas represent the highest priorities for coastalrehabilitation and protection. Except for some subtle increases in levels, projections to the year 2020show a similar distribution of degradation and vulnerability.


Figure 5. Areas of High Degradation/Vulnerability by Watershed, 1990


nformation from these maps and additional analysis of the national conditions contributed to theidentification of 22 high priority zones. The locations of these are shown in figure 6.

The main report presents selected background information, much at the Kabupaten level andin the geographic information systems (GIS) database, on the economic, environmental, social, andinstitutional conditions in each of the 22 candidate high priority zones. The information is used tocomparatively assess the priorities for intervention, determine the cost-effectiveness of intervention foreach high priority zone and subsequently to select the eight final high priority areas (see table 2.42 :Hotspots locations).

The economic-cum-environmental screening approach was developed to assess the areas totake into account a wide variety of factors and to provide a rapid assessment of the cost effectivenessof intervention. The assessment of each site is based on:

(a) The valuation of current economic production activities (that is, current value);

(b) The future non-degraded value of coastal resources (that is, if rehabilitated, protectedor developed);

(c) The future degraded value of coastal resources (that is, if planned developmentactivities are implemented without intervention);

(d) Estimated cost of the intervention (that is, attaining the non-degraded value).


Table 2.42. Hotspots locations

Subregion Freshwater Marine water

1. Riau and Batam

Dumai river water, BOD = 17.7 - 48.0 mg/l Batam (Pulau Nipah), CN = 0.02184 - 0.02496 mg/l


Siburik river, NO3 = 1.38 - 2.14 mg/lLahat river, BOD = 3.0 - 35.0 mg/l

Tanjung Pandan (Belitung), Cd = 0.005 - 0.017 mg/lPalembang Harbour, BOD = 4 - 78 mg/l


Japat river, BOD = 13.5 - 15.0 mg/l Jakarta Bay, Hg = 0.000132 - 0.000200 mg/l

4. East Java Kali Mas river, BOD = 15.6 - 47.0 mg/l Strait of Madura: BOD = 48 - 91 mg/lPhenol = 0.05 - 1.00 mg/l

5. South Kalimantan - Pulau Laut, NO2-N = 0.03 mg/l

6. West Kalimantan - Pontianak Harbour, BOD = 13.5 - 15.0 mg/l

Source: EIA Studies (1997)

Note:- : No data.


Figure 6 High Priority Zones


2.2 FRESHWATER SHORTAGE AND DEGRADATION OF ITS QUALITY

2.2.1 Surface water

2.2.1.1 Sources of surface water and current status

These are the results of a study of surface water in the West Java-Jakarta region, and otherinformation from Indonesia as a whole.

The JABOTABEK area located in the Ciliwung-Cisadane watershed or river-basin iscovered by 10 rivers flowing to the sea. The yearly mean debit and monthly mean debit or dischargecan be seen below:

Table 2.43. Rivers’ yearly and monthly mean discharges

River Yearly mean discharge(m3/sec)

Monthly mean discharge(m3/sec)

Cilontar * 11.09 5.30 (VII)

Cisadane 57.70 27.60 (VII)

Kali Angke 55.30 25.56 (VII)

Kali Grogol Not available Not available

Kali Krukut 8,61 4.31 (V)

Kali Ciliwung 19.56 10.20 (VII)

Kali Sunter 3.25 1.90 (VII)

Kali Cakung Not available Not available

Kali Bekasi * 13.45 4.39 (VII)

Cikarang 8.98 2.61 (VII)

Cibeet * 16.79 4.88 (VII)

Total 194.73 87.26

* = estimation from river basin size


The river waters that could be used directly are:

(a) Jakarta : Kali Angke, Kali Grogol, Ciliwung Hilir, Kali Krukut and kaliSunter

(b) Bogor : Ciliwung Hulu and Cisadane Hulu(c) Tangerang : Cilontar, Cisadane Hilir(d) Bekasi : Kali Bekasi, Cikarang, Cibet (Citarum tributary)

It could seen from the hydrometric calculation (based on the river discharge) that thequantity of river discharges in the area is high enough, while hydrologically a surplus of watercould be found in the Jakarta and Bogor region. The surface water has a high potential ratehere, but the water quality is very poor because of industrial pollution. Subsequently "watertreatment" will be necessary to uplift the quality for clean water consumption.

For the JABOTABEK area, the priority for river water consumption is still anexpensive alternative "per unit volume clean water" in comparison to groundwater.Consequently river water consumption will be very costly.

2.2.1.2 Demand for its use (by sector)

Some points that could be put forward in this regard are:

(a) The domestic need for water supply is growing rapidly in accordance with thedevelopment rate, especially in the region of Bekasi and Tangerang for theyear 2010;

(b) The same applies to the industrial water supply for Bekasi and Tangerang forthe year 2010

(c) The land for agriculture will be decreasing so that surplus in water will beincreasing especially in surface water.

In general the demand for surface water is greater than the supply of water resources,especially by sectors that are still competing for their demand. Meanwhile the Government and localgovernment are trying to implement the principles of sustainable development and environmentalmanagement to overcome the problems in water supply.

2.2.1.3 Impact areas for shortage or low quality surface water

Based on the evaluation on the carrying capacity of water in the JABOTABEK area and the"land-based" water supply for different sectors, two priorities could be put forward in terms of landexistence based on the water resources carrying capacity, as shown below:


Table 2.44. Aspect priorities based on carrying capasity and water supply in Jabotabek area

Region Priority I Priority II

Jakarta Settlement Industry, Tourism

Bogor Agriculture, Industry, Settlement, Tourism

Tourism, Industry, Settlement

Tangerang Settlement Industry, Settlement,Agriculture, Tourism

Bekasi Settlement Industry, Settlement

One of the major concerns in the Jabotabek area is flood control for Jakarta City. This isaccomplished by intercepting the rivers flowing towards Jakarta in flood diversion canals and divertingthem towards the east and the west of the City. A second point of focus is the irrigation of paddyfields which requires the diversion of river water from the four main rivers as mentioned before. Theinventory refers to data from the Hydrology Year Book of the Research Institute for Water ResourcesDevelopment (RIWRD), and it is expected that sufficient data on monthly flows and daily flows canbe made available when calculations of volumes of sediments, nutrients, and pollutants need to bemade.

With respect to industrial pollution sources, an inventory was made of all industries within theCisadane River basin. After analysis, it appeared that among the 84 industries listed there were 56industries that could potentially pollute the river. Using a rapid assessment methodology similar to thatof the World Health Organization (WHO), the BOD, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), SuspendedSolids (SS), toxicity, ammonia, organic nitrogen, phosphate, organic phosphorous, coliform, andhydrocarbon loads for each of those industries were calculated. The net industrial pollution loads werecorrected with a specific abatement coefficient to take into account any purification processes usedbefore the effluents were discharged into the river basin (see tables 2.45 : Estimated CoastalIndustrial, Domestic, and Agricultural Waste Loads; 2.45A : Estimated Coastal Industry WasteLoads; 2.45B : Estimated Coastal Domestic Waste Loads; and 2.45C : Estimated CoastalAgricultural Waste Loads).


Table 2.45. Estimated Coastal Industrial, Domestic, and Agricultural Waste Loads, 1990

Industrial Domestic Agricultural

Province RelativeIndustrialPollution1

Total

Province EstimatedNitrogenContent2

Province EstimatedNitrogenContent3

RIPF thousandtonnes

thousandtonnes

High loading High loading High loading

West JavaJakartaEast JavaSouth SumateraRiau

1,781,456821,8641,169,109166,469156,723

West JavaJakartaEast JavaSouth Sumatera

70,76316,45564,97512,624

West JavaEast JavaSouth Sumatera

373.4278.240.3

Medium loading Medium loading Medium loading

West KalimantanSouth Kalimantan

77,66075,759

RiauWest KalimantanSouthKalimantan

6,5586,4565,193

South KalimantanRiauWest Kalimantan

14.813.112.0

Low loading Low loading Low loading

Jakarta 1.4

INDONESIA 6,034,251 INDONESIA 358,496 INDONESIA 1,378.8

Notes:1. Derived from the World Bank Industrial Pollution Projection Database (1994) and estimated by the

CEMP Project Team. For a definition of the Relative Industrial Pollution Factor (RIPF), see text.2. Derived from BPS (1994) and Estimated by CEMP Project Team. A factor of 2 kg/year was applied to the

population total.3. Derived from BPS (1994) and Estimated by CEMP Project Team. Fertilizer is assumed to contain 43.3

percent nitrogen.


Table 2.45A. Estimated Coastal Industry Waste Loads, 1990

Province Production of 1 Medium andLarge ManufacturingIndustries

Relative Industrial Pollution2

Total

$US thousands1987 RIPF

High Loadings

West JavaJakartaEast JavaSouth SumatraRiau

3,488,3682,484,6792,481,374320,399324,068

1,781,456821,864

1,169,109166,469156,723

Medium Loadings


200,944222,334

77,66075,759

Low loadings

INDONESIA 13,632,019 6,034,251

Notes:1. Derived from the World Bank Industrial Pollution Projection Database (1994).2. Estimated by CEMP Project Team. For a definition of the Relative Industrial Pollution Factor (RIPF), see thetext.


Table 2.45 B. Estimated Coastal Domestic Waste Loads, 1990

Province Population1 Estimated Nitrogen Loading2

persons thousand tonnes

High Loadings


35,381,6828,227,74632,487,7446,311,958

116,76027,152107,21020,829

Medium Loadings

RiauWest KalimantanSouth Kalimantan

3,278,8073,228,0732,596,647

10,82010,6538,569

Low loadings

INDONESIA 179,247,783 591,518

Notes:1. BPS (1994).2. Estimated by CEMP Project Team. A factor of 2 kg/year was applied to the population total.


Table 2.45C. Estimated Coastal Agricultural Waste Loads, 1990

Province Area of paddy1 Averagefertilizerapplied

Total fertilizerapplied

Nitrogencontent2

thousand hectares kg/ha thousand tonnes thousand tonnes

High Loadings

West JavaEast JavaSouth Sumatra

2,1331,589454

404404205

861.7642.093.1

373.4278.240.3

Medium Loadings

South KalimantanRiauWest Kalimantan

355147288

9620596

34.130.127.6

14.813.112.0

Low loadings

INDONESIA 10,502 303 3,182.1 1,378.8

Notes:1. BPS (1994).2. Estimated by CEMP Project Team. Fertilizer ia assumed to contain 43.3 percent nitrogen.

For the determination of domestic and agricultural sources of pollutants, the parametersassessed were: BOD, COD, ammonia, Total Suspended Solids (TSS), and coliform. The magnitude ofthe net pollution loads is based on the number of people that discharge directly or indirectly into theriver, the per capita pollution production ratios, and reduction coefficients with respect to retention andpartial sedimentation in drains, wastewater treatment facilities, or other mechanisms. In order to arriveat reliable data, a validation study was carried out to calibrate the production ratios per capita in urbansettings as well as in rural areas. For the urban settlements, a survey was carried out to determine thepenetration of septic tanks and pit-latrines. Using the data from those surveys, the total balance ofdomestic pollution loads, as BOD, in the Cisadane River basin can be calculated. It appears that forthe Cisadane River basin domestic pollution accounts for approximately 70 per cent of the total BODload and industrial pollution for only 30 per cent of the load. With respect to pollution loads due toagricultural activities (i.e., the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, the application of manure, andthe wastes from stockbreeding), no data on these loads were reported in the inventory (See furthertables 2.46 : Relative balance of industrial net pollution loads in Cisadane River; and 2.47 :Balance of domestic pollution loads for BOD in Cisadane river basin).


Table 2.46 Relative balance of industrial net pollution loads in the Cisadane River

Sub-basin BODLoadskg/day

%CODloads

kg/day

%Toxicloads

kg/day

%SS

LoadsKg/day

%

SerpongTangerangBogorOthers

3,528 784 219 24

77.417.3 4.8 0.5

6,4311,451 302 44

78.1 17.6 3.7 0.6

19,650 9,721 10 0

66.933.0 0.1 0.1

3,4751,449 61 53

69.028.7 1.2 1.2

Total 4,555 100 8,228 100 29,381 100 5,038 100

Table 2.47 Balance of domestic pollution loads for BOD in the Cisadane River basin

Main cities Settlement1 Population1990

Raw BODloads

(kg/day)

%raw

Net BODloads

%Net

Tangerang

Total Serpong

Total Bogor

TotalRural

SP P SP + P SP P SP + P SP P SP + P R

9,364 126,285 135,649 5,009 3,102 8,111 15,317 83,006 98,323 1,502,000

281 5,552 5,833 150 140 290 460 3,813 4,273 34,877

0.6 12.3 12.9 0.3 0.3 0.6 1.0 8.4 9.4 77.1

46 3,866 3,912 26 116 142 96 3,241 3,337 3,679

0.4 34.9 35.3 0.2 1.0 1.2 0.9 29.3 30.2 33.3

T O T A L 100

The impact of the unhealthy practices in the area surrounding Jakarta are detailed in tables2.48 (Toilet Facilities) and 2.49 (Morbidity and Case Fatality Rate (CFR) of Diarrhea) below.


Table 2.48. Toilet Facilities, 1992

Province With septic tank or sewer Without septic tank orsewer

Total

Households % Households % Households

WESTERN INDONESIA RiauSouth SumatraDKI JakartaWest JavaEast Java

EASTERN INDONESIA


203,346282,3431,475,7902,060,2521,595,683

115,194117,063

28,521,482,224,920,0

17,319,0

511,2931,039,005319,2166,225,4916,370,781

551,505499,446

71.578.617.875.180.0

82.781.0

714,6391,321,3481,795,0068,285,7437,966,464

666,699616,509

WESTERN INDONESIAEASTERN INDONESIA

8,911,2301,505,761

36.027.9

24,726,2885,398,899

73.578.2

33,637,5186,904,660

INDONESIA 10,416,991 25.7 30,125,187 74.3 40,542,178

Source: BPS. 1992. Survei Sosial Ekonomi Nasional 1991/1992 (National Socio-Economic Survey).


Table 2.49. Morbidity and Case Fatality Rate (CFR) of Diarrhea (1985-1990)

Province Morbidity Rate (per 1,000) CFR (%)

1985 1986 1988 1989 1990 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

RiauSouth SumateraDKI JakartaWest JavaEast JavaWest KalimantanSouth Kalimantan

16.2222.8428.9518.5630.4917.8720.47

15.5023.2038.6028.5031.5014.7023.80

20.6822.9816.6841.6231.0817.0919.21

16.06--

39.8833.7021.8620.97

17.789.5018.6036.4934.308.2724.83

0.020.040.000.020.010.040.19

0.700.700.703.000.062.101.10

0.120.070.200.020.010.240.15

0.050.030.020.010.020.040.06

0.050.07

-0.000.000.020.09

0.080.10

-0.100.010.150.21

INDONESIA 22.28 24.05 26.50 26.34 29.42 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02

Source: BPS (1992).


Tourism activities

In 1969, the first year of REPELITA I, the number of foreign visitors entering Indonesia wasfew, accounting for only 90,000. By 1994 at the end of REPELITA V, Indonesia had welcomed over4 million visitors who collectively spent an estimated US$ 4.6 billion during their travels in thearchipelago. Tourism from SCS and non-SCS countries to Indonesia to this subregion related to SCScan be seen in table 2.50 (Tourism).

Table 2.50. Tourism (1996)

Subregion Number of visitors (per year) and average stay (days) Total numberof hotel rooms

From same country(domestic)

From SCS countries From non-SCS countries

Total averagestay(day)



1. Riau and Batam

--

--

--

--

--

--

13,587-


--

--

--

--

--

--

-4,724


--

--

--

--

--

--

23,79131,928

4. East Java - - - - - - 18,536

5. South Kalimantan - - - - - - 2,820

6. West Kalimantan - - - - - - 3,259

7. INDONESIA - - 2,628,374 2 2,406,098 2 214,110

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics (1996)Note : - : No data

On average, overseas tourists stay almost four days in Indonesia and spend approximatelyUS$900. Most of the spending was on accommodation, travel, tours, food and beverages,entertainment, purchase of goods and souvenirs and other services.

Indonesia has seen its position as a tourist destination grow from the eleventh most importantin Asia in 1985 to the sixth in 1994. The growth rate for tourism in Indonesia has been an impressive17.8 per cent (Nuryanti 1995). Tourism is currently Indonesia's most important non-oil based source offoreign revenue, after timber and textile industries. It is projected that tourism will overtake oil as theprincipal source of revenue in Indonesia within the next decade.


Indonesia has abundant resources for the development of coastal tourism including whitesandy beaches, coral reefs, islands etc. A number of beach and island resorts can be reachedrelatively easily from the main gateway cities of Jakarta, Surabaya, Denpasar, Medan and morerecently Batam (the last two being located in the Malacca Straits region). As a result of thededication and promotion since the 1990s of the "Visit Indonesia Decade", Indonesia has enjoyed agrowing number of tourism arrivals from overseas (figure 7). Medan has been the main western gatefor tourist flows into Indonesia. The overseas tourist arrivals have increased from 84,864 in 1984 to264,515 in 1994. In the same period, the domestic tourists also increased from 372,500 to 1,236,000visitors. Hotel rooms have increased from 10,531 in 1990 to 17,430 in 1994, distributed among 19 star-rated hotels and 114 non-star-rated hotels (Sekretariat Wilayah/Daerah Propinsi Sumatera Utara1995). Recently, tourist arrivals in Medan have been surpassed by Batam and Bintan Islands, partlybecause of their vicinity to Singapore and Johor.

Figure 7 Visitor Arrivals (in thousands) to Indonesia, 1980-1991 and Predictions to Year2000 (Jay, 1996)

Although visiting the coast is a common practice, the concept of coastal tourism is stillrelatively new to Indonesia. There are a variety of resorts that have been developed in many parts ofIndonesia. Originally, they catered especially to the domestic market, but gradually were improved inquality in order to attract overseas tourists as well.

Because of the high socio-economic potential for tourism, almost all provinces and regions inIndonesia are now developing or establishing coastal tourism.

The new areas being planned and developed for coastal tourism are based on the concept ofan integrated resort. Many of these projects are joint ventures between the Government and privatesector; some are fully private and a few are purely government-supported. In addition to distributingthe flow of tourists and spreading the economic benefits to other parts of the country, these newresorts are also a means of strengthening infrastructure and encouraging investment. Table 2.51


shows the tourist, recreation and resort areas on the east coast of Sumatera. They are in varyingdegrees of development and quality.

Table 2.51. List of Tourist and Recreational Areas in the East coast of Sumatra in theMalacca Straits (direktorat Bina Perjalanan Wisata, 1992-1993; DirektoratJenderat Pariwisata, 1995- 1996).

Province Object Location Mode ofTransportation

Type ofActivity

ProvidedFacilities

Aceh 1. Weh/Rubiah isl.Marine Park

2. Sabang Baymar. Park

3. Lhok Nga andLampuk Beach

4. Ujung BateeBeach

5. Ujung BlangBeach

6. Ujung BadeBeach

7. Cermin Beach8. Kasih Beach9. Berhala Isl. And

Soreh Isl.Marine Park

10. Trikora Beach11. Tanjung Pinang

Beach12. Mapor Isl. And

Abang Isl.Marine Park

13. Bayan Isl.Marine Park

14. Terkulai Isl. AndSoreh Isl.Marine Park

15. Trikora Beach16. Tanjung Pinang

Beach17. Pasir Panjang

Beach18. Dendeng Isl.19. Nongsa Beach

23 km from Sabang

Sabang, Weh Isl.

17 km from BandaAceh40 km from BandaAceh10 km fromLhokseumawe17 km from BandaAceh5 km

Motor boat, ferryplane from B. Aceh

2,4,5,6,7


Riau Province Bintan Island: The development of an integrated resort, the Bintan BeachInternational Resort, is ongoing on a 23,000 hectare coastal area. The resort is the most complex onein South-East Asia, consisting of 20 hotels, 300 or more villas, one or more marinas, an agro-tourismpark, an amusement park and a natural reserve for ecological and adventure tourism (Wong 1995).The project is a joint venture investment by the Singaporean and Indonesian Governments, as well asprivate developers. The first phase of the project involved the construction of the requisiteinfrastructure, such as telephone lines, sewage treatment plants and a ferry terminal. The secondphase, which includes the construction of a golf course, has begun. It is estimated that it will take 20years to complete half of the project (Wong 1995). A regular ferry service between Singapore'sTanah Merah Terminal and Bintan Island was launched in mid-October 1995 which will help to furtherenhance tourism development.

Riau Province Batam Island: Batam Island was gazetted as a free trade zone for industrialdevelopment. Coastal tourism development started in the 1980s when several hotels and holidayresorts of an international standard were built to receive tourists, mainly from Singapore. Most thehotels and resorts are located around the Nongsa Beach area, the most popular tourist spot on theisland. With the improvement of the ferry service between Singapore and Batam Island in the late1980s, increasing numbers of tourists from Singapore arrived in Batam Island to spend their leisuretime, particularly during weekends and public holidays. Coastal tourism development in Batam Island,however, has slowed down in recent years because of the competing claims of Bintan Island.

Southern and western Kalimantan

Industrial waste in the rivers of Barito and Martapura identified by the Clean River Projecttakes the form of BOD and COD mainly from the rubber processing industry. Wastewater came to1689.2 thousands m3/year with BOD5 and COD reaching 237.38 thousand ton/year and 453.37thousand ton/year respectively. Apart from the rubber processing industries, the wood industrycontributed liquid wastes of around 244.72 thousand m3/year, with BOD5 around 63.953 thousandton/year and COD around 170.95 thousand ton/year. The glue industry contributed liquid waste in theamount of 21.269 thousand ton/year with BOD5 reaching around 4.9596 thousand ton/year and CODaround 13.22 thousand ton/year.

The fisheries processing industry contributed liquid wastes to the amount of 19.828 thousandm3/year with BOD5 reaching around 4.3986 thousand ton/year and COD around 8.5518 thousandton/year. In total, the cities of Banjarmasin and Barito Kuala along the Barito and Martapura Riverscontributed 1975 thousand ton/year of liquid wastes with BOD reaching around 310.60 thousandton/year and COD around 646.09 thousand ton/year. Sedimentation as a result of erosion from coalmining activities and pesticides from agriculture create turbidity and water quality change.

Waste control and the protection of the environment are anticipated through environmentalimpact assessments (EIAs) or through the AMDAL study processes and provincial rules andregulations.

In western Kalimantan the main issues and problems originate from industry, forestexploitation and unofficial mining. Dealing with industrial waste has the highest priority. Perhaps it willnot be too hard to overcome since it is found in specific areas, it is easy to monitor, the wastecharacter is relatively homogeneous, and law enforcement will be easy to handle.



The demand for river water for daily needs, industry, transportation, irrigation and recreation,is still high from the people, especially from the Kapuas River. However, this creates domestic wasteand reaches the marine waters of the western coast. Decreased river water quality is one of the mostsevere causes of water-related problems. 1992 saw the highest mortality rate from diseases causedby low water quality. Data on industrial waste from the Department of Public Works showed that 48industries had liquid waste, 48.89 per cent of which had a negative smell or odour.

Other information recorded for western Kalimantan concerns around 75 million m3 of saltwater intrusion.

Effective water resource reserves in 1994 in western Kalimantan came to about 327.3 x 109

m3 consisting of 289.3 x 109 m3 of surface water and 38 x 109 m3 of groundwater. The surface waterconsisted of 279,913.5 million m3 of river water, 2,560 million m3 of natural lake water, around 2.5million m3 of human lake water and around 4,358 million m3 of swamp water. River water is stillimportant for settlement, agriculture, and industry.

2.2.1.4 Causes of issues and problems including sectoral demands and market failures

The causes of these problems are similar to those of groundwater use, namely, that surfacewater supply needed by different sectors is not in line with the exploitation of that supply. As thepopulation growth is still high, even though there have been serious family planning activities, thedemand continues to rise. The primary issues in general for Indonesia are:

(a) Development in the country is focused on the industrial sector;(b) Consequently, industrial development will need natural resources support, in this case,

especially from water resources;(c) The need to support the earth summit results;(d) Increase of water demand for both quality as well as quantity because of population

growth, enlargement of settlements land, clearance of new lands, development ofindustrial zones, and development of coastal aquaculture.

The most devastating Indonesian example of large-scale pollution is Jakarta Bay where theinshore demersal fishing industry has been all but destroyed and the coral reefs, which had alreadysuffered from blasting and mining, have been completely destroyed. For example, one island, PulauAyer has sunk below sea level because of coral mining and pollution. Furthermore, thermal pollutionfrom two steam powered electrical generators operating in Jakarta Bay at Muara Karang and TanjungPriok has raised the ambient temperature of the bay.

A network of rivers that empty into Jakarta Bay run through some of the most denselypopulated and industrialized areas in Indonesia. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) marine pollution monitoring and training programme carried out the initialmonitoring of these rivers. Total PCB concentration in sediment samples measured 50 to 70 ppb at theSunter River mouth, 0.1 to 4.0 at the Ciliwung River mouth and up to 0.03 to 0.6 ppb 4 miles offshore,9 ppb at North Karang. Furthermore, in the North Karang River PCB concentrations in clams reached279 ppb and in mussels 264 ppb. The concentrations in green mussels from the bay reached 1.32 ppm(that is 1,320 ppb).


The State of Maryland in the United States of America allows the harvesting of shellfish witha PCB concentration of less than 0.03 ppb. These figures indicate that the inner reaches of JakartaBay are significantly polluted with PCBs, approaching the United States FDA action level of 2.0 ppm.

Bacterial and heavy metal content has made seafood consumption dangerous to health. Thefecal bacteria concentrations of 25,400 per 100 ml are 25 times the WHO recommended levels forrecreational areas and aquaculture. Coliform bacteria and fecal streptococcus levels were alsoextremely high at 122,000 and 15,000 per 100 ml respectively (Thayib and Razak 1988). The EuropeanUnion mandatory limit for bathing water is 10,000 per 100 ml for coliform bacteria and the guidelinesfor streptobacoccus is 100 per 100 ml.

If the marine water standards of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)were applied, heavy metal pollution from Jakarta Bay from lead and cadmium would be consideredespecially high. Mercury, copper and zinc concentrations would be close to the EPA permissible limits(Hg; 0.05 ppm Cd; and 0.1 ppm Zn) (Sutamihardja 1985).

Analysis of fish taken from Jakarta Bay found that out of 157 samples, 76 per cent were notfit for human consumption because of Cadmium contamination, 51 per cent because of copper, 44 percent because of lead, and 38 per cent because of mercury pollution (Wahyuningsih 1987). In Jakartafish markets, fish taken from unpolluted waters is often sold together with fish taken from pollutedwaters. It is impossible for consumers to know whether or not their food is safe.

Kepulauan Seribu is a chain of coral cays in the Java Sea approximately 40 kilometres fromJakarta. The historical data suggest that land run-off during the west monsoon season (November toMarch) is the main influence on the eutrophication of Jakarta Bay and the degradation of the coralreefs there.

Compared with other parts of the world that suffer from coastal eutrophication, the nutrientconcentrations in Jakarta Bay are extremely high (table W). This leads to increased primaryproductivity of the surface waters as measured in terms of chlorophyll-a concentrations. Harger(1992) has recently demonstrated that phytoplankton biomass distribution has undergone significantshifts; plankton blooms are now spreading further offshore. In 1988 blooms spread out to 5 kilometresoffshore from Tanjung Priok, the main harbour. By 1990 they had spread to 12 kilometres offshore.

Eutrophication is largely responsible for the collapse of Jakarta Bay's scleraction coralcommunities. The coral ecosystem is being ultimately replaced by heterotrophic invertebrate benthiccommunity, characteristic of muddy bottom environments. The once-thriving reefs of Jakarta Bay arenow functionally dead (Tomascik and others 1993). Bio-erosion is occurring on a massive scale. Inaddition to boring organisms there are abundant benthic mollusks and stingrays characteristic of thedeeper parts of the reef slope.

Coral mining has also contributed to the destruction of Jakarta's reef. In 1982, approximately840,000 m3 of coral was extracted from the reefs for construction (re-analysed data by Tomascik andothers 1993 from Ongkosongo and Sukarno 1986).


Although there has been a documented decrease in the productivity of the reef fishery, therehas been a compensating increase in the volume of production, although not in terms of value. In 1992,the total value of the reef fishery was estimated to be $90,000, which translates to approximately $450per fisher per year. About 80 per cent of the catch is Casio cuning and C. lunaris, both reef-associated fishes. Given the decrease in catch from 1969 to 1990 (Dinas Perikanan 1990), the fall inproduction represents a loss in reef fishery revenue of approximately NPV $800,000 at 1990 prices.

Many other coastal areas on Java show a high potential for degradation but they have notbeen sufficiently monitored to indicate the long-term impacts. For example, in western Java, theCilegon industrial complex contains the Krakatau Steel smelter together with steel processing,petrochemical, fertilizer and wood processing factories, as well as a service harbour. This area showsa high potential for coastal pollution.

In eastern Java, the levels of pollution in the Surabaya River are causing concern. The riverserves as a domestic and industrial water supply. Furthermore, it discharges into a coastal area that isimportant for fishery and aquaculture.

2.2.1.5 Impacts of global change

A determination of the effects on the coastal/deltaic river system from rising sea levels isnecessary as they may have serious impacts on the water resources management system, the rivermorphology and the flood plain, and on the future morphological development of deltaic systems.

The hydrological regime as it affects seasonal river discharge, flooding, sediment load, bedbehaviour, irrigation uses and drainage systems needs to be considered, as well as existing pollutionsource points and aggravated downstream effects.

2.2.1.6 Proposed interventions for sustainable rates of extraction

In anticipation of the water crisis, some recommendations could be reached as follows:

(a) Increase the water supply reserves from both river and rainwater;(b) Carry in from other rivers;(c) Use the technology of recycling;(d) Use the technology of separation or extraction of sweet water.

2.2.2 Groundwater

2.2.2.1 Groundwater aquifers and current status

Several activities on the use and development of groundwater in the country have shown anincreased relationship with people’s needs, both for home consumption and industry, including forirrigation. This increased use of groundwater, both by the Government as well as by the private sectorand the community is in line with the development of the country itself.

The Government has taken several opportunities to serve clean water consumption throughsurface water utilization and groundwater extraction. Supplies for industrial consumption were taken, ingeneral, from the surrounding areas, while for agricultural purposes the Government has provided them


through existing capabilities, both in rural and urban vicinities. However, in some parts of the countryclean water is hard to find.


The following table illustrates the use of clean water extraction for daily needs, almost 60 percent being taken from groundwater (see table 2.52).

Table 2.52. the use of clean water extraction for daily needs

Watersource

(%)

Bypipelines

Bypumps

Wells Springs Rivers Rain Others

Java &Madura

4.92 0.96 42.17 12.30 4.16 0.83 1.85

Outside Java &Madura

1.47 0.16 16.15 5.36 8.22 0.96 0.48

Total 6.39 1.12 58.32 17.66 12.38 1.79 2.33

Some profits gained from groundwater usage are, among others:

(a) The availability of groundwater through simple extraction methods;(b) Natural groundwater is, in general, healthy to use;(c) Aquifers are in their natural conditions and could be used anytime they are needed.

The daily need for water consumption differs from place to place and by different lifestyles. Ahigher lifestyle demands more water consumption. In Indonesia by the year 2000, the waterconsumption in urban areas has been projected as 200 l/day/person, while in the rural ones the value is60 l/day/person.

The groundwater aquifers and groundwater resources depend on several factors, such asclimate, natural situation, and local hydro-geology. Several investigations showed that the total amountsare higher in Java and Madura than on the other islands. The water resources can be seen in thehydrogeological maps of Indonesia of 1985 issued by the Directorate of Environmental Geology,Department for Mining. For water quality a scale of 1: 2.500.000 is used, while for water quantity thereference scale is 1:250.000 and for more detail, 1:100.000.

The average high/yearly rainfall in a tropical country with more than 3000 m value, with thelowest averaging 500 mm, could provide for a high value of water consumption to satisy the people’sneed. Furthermore, the high evapotranspiration rate of around 1.400 mm supports humidity andprovides better possibilities in the field of agriculture.

The main water resource aquifers for groundwater are available on rock formations in theform of rain water drainage or related water-flows. More than 75 per cent of Indonesia consists ofrocks from the Tertiary and Quaternary ages. Other areas in Indonesia which have more than 500volcanic mountains are covered by several levels of rocks as a result of eruptions. The best reservoirsfor groundwater, which have the potential for further development, can be found on the slopes and


lower areas of the mountains.


2.2.2.2 Demand for its use (by sector)

Water for drinking water consumption as related to healthy water for daily needs was lessfrequently mentioned by people in the rural areas since the technology is not yet available.

The development of groundwater by the Government for irrigation could provide irrigationwater for more than 28,000 hectares of agricultural land. Based on the irrigation design of 1.2 1/s foreach hectare, the development of groundwater for irrigation purposes could reach more than 34.0 m3per second. Even in the dry season the farmers in eastern and central Java often use this type ofwater system.

2.2.2.3 Impact areas of shortage or low quality groundwater

By using the extraction of groundwater for different purposes as mentioned above, thenegative aspects are as follows:

(a) The shallow groundwater (in the upper layers) will be easily polluted if theenvironmental health of the surroundings is not be taken into consideration; whilewater extracted from deeper levels will have more minerals mixed in it.

(b) Pumps will be needed for deeper layers, while near and in coastal areas salt-water

intrusion will easily take place if care is not taken.

Healthy drinking water supplied through a piping system could only be found in urban areassuch as: Medan, Jakarta, Bandung, Surabaya, Semarang, Ujung Pandang.

2.2.2.4 Causes of issues and problems including sectoral demands and market failures

Some problems arising from the development of groundwater usage are:

(a) The existence of groundwater that could be used;(b) The over-exploitation of groundwater in coastal areas.

As mentioned previously, the existence of groundwater in the aquifers in Java and Medura isthe most possible as they have already been investigated properly by the Government; while in theother areas investigations and further research should take place based on local conditions.

The over-exploitation of groundwater was due to: (a) a lowering of shallow water levels in theupper layers through the extraction of deeper level water to meet increased demand; (b) a lowering ofefficiency by using costly deep-well pumps; (c) the fact that groundwater is part of the hydrologicalsystem, and if over-exploitation occurs the basic river-flow could be lowered resulting in a change ofthe water flows system. This happened in eastern Java where development in the Nganjuk - Kedirivalleys had to be limited.


Development of groundwater in coastal areas, if not carefully conducted, can create severalproblems, such as saltwater intrusion which could stop the development of groundwater usage foragriculture and industry in the densely populated coastal areas. This has already occurred on thenorth coast of Lombok Island. Development of groundwater is easier in limestone areas such as inTuban and Madura (north coast of eastern Java).


In the delineation of coastal areas and flood plains potentially susceptible to erosion, inundationand flooding, the following aspects need to be considered: nearshore bathimetry, coastal morphologyand sediment transports, tide/wave regimes, coastal tectonics, natural coastal features, man-madecoastal structures, uses of the coastal resources, and river discharges, sediment and pollution loads.

To determine the extent of saltwater intrusion from the sea or downstream rivers into thecoastal surface and groundwater systems, knowledge is essential of general hydrology, differentialhead, soil and groundwater conditions (thickness and lithology of the young unconsolidated top layer,and the lithology of the underlying sediment), irrigation and drainage systems, seasonal river floodingand river bed behaviour (and changes caused by sea-level rise), and the use pattern of the availablewater resources.

2.2.2.6 Proposed interventions for sustainable rates of extraction

The use and development of groundwater extraction, except for private or industrial uses, willbe conducted by the Government. Compared with the use of drinking water, the development andusage of groundwater for irrigational purposes should take into consideration other related aspects, forexample, technical, socio-economic, agricultural as well as operational and maintenance, as follows:

(a) Pumping construction design

In general the pumping construction design will be set according to the aquifer and thepumping system will be adjusted. Different designs are as follows:

Aquifer type Well design

l. Low aquifer, less than 30 m handpumps2. Deep aquifer,more than 30 m mechanical pump needed3. Deeper aquifer, more than 100 m mechanical pump justified4. Pumping surface less than 9 m low pumping system

5. Pumping surface more than 9 m deep pumping system6. High debit pumping on each small risk could happen

lowering water unit among the pumping systems7. Low debit pumping on each high risk could happen

lowering water unit among the pumping systems,thus the location of wells andpumping technics should beconsidered

(b) Water distribution construction design

The development using PVC distribution piping system buried underground could be furtherenhanced, especially for groundwater irrigation purposes.


2.3 EXPLOITATION OF LIVING AQUATIC RESOURCES

2.3.1 Living freshwater resources

2.3.1.1 Status - productivity; catch levels; fishing pressure

Fisheries are extremely important to Indonesia in terms of both food production and incomegeneration. In 1991 Indonesia produced 3.4 million metric tons of fish and was the eighth largestproducer of fish in the world. About 76 per cent of this fish catch came from marine-capture fisheriesand 15 per cent from aquaculture. In terms of employment, fishing directly provides jobs to about 1.7million fishers in the marine sector, 500,000 in the inland-capture sector, and about 1.5 million in thefish culture sector. About 90 per cent of the marine fish is obtained in nearshore waters within or inclose association with coastal wetlands.

Freshwater open water fisheries produced 294,477 metric tons of fish in 1991. Of this, 50 percent was from Kalimantan and 30 per cent from Sumatera. Thus, 80 per cent of the freshwater catchwas from parts of Indonesia with extensive river systems and associated wetlands. In general, there islittle opportunity for an increase in the freshwater fish catch because most areas are fully exploited.There is a critical need for careful management of these fisheries and the habitats upon which theydepend. In some cases over-exploitation has already led to the disappearance of certain species offish from the wild such as belida fish from southern Sumatera and to the increased rarity of valuablefish such as Asian Arwana.

As industrial developments continue, the need for better pollution monitoring and preventionwill increase greatly. This is true both for the protection of the wetland environment and for theprotection of humans from contaminants in fish.

In 1991, there were about 54,000 hectares of freshwater ponds in Indonesia and 43 per cent ofthese were in western Java. These ponds provide high quality, fresh fish. Freshwater ponds dependon good quality water in good supply. The destruction of watershed vegetation, clearing of land fordevelopment, and domestic and industrial pollutants will continue to endanger the water sources forthese fish culture systems.

Raising fish in cages has become a widespread practice in Indonesia and its popularity willcontinue to increase. However, this culture method contributes less than 0.5 per cent to overall fishproduction. Nevertheless, because cages are placed in natural waters, they can have a significanteffect on many freshwater bodies, especially smaller rivers. In some cases both the fish themselvesand the food to feed them are taken from wild stocks. Conversely the quality of river water can havea profound effect of the survival and growth of the caged fish, and a single pollution episode or floodcan destroy the livelihood of thousands of small-scale fish culturists. The incidence of fish disease isoften high in fish cages, as these may often be over-stocked and the rate of water replenishment is lowin stagnant waters (for example, in dams or lakes).


2.3.1.2 Endangered/transboundary/migratory species

Although Indonesia has comprehensive legislation for habitat conservation and speciesprotection, many rare and migratory species are not yet protected. Discoveries of species new toscience are a regular occurrence - yet species not yet described have no protection.

Field biologists and hunters alike are conscious of a considerable and rapid decline of verymany common species of animal, most obviously birds, which may not be protected. Yet there arefew studies of these declines as scientists tend to concentrate on rare and endangered species. Thesedeclines are certain to be linked, firstly to habitat reduction and degradation and, secondly, to hunting. Inevitably, data gathering has often concentrated on specific project sites and this has sometimes led toa distorted overall picture of a species distribution. In addition to inadequate protection legislation, lawenforcement remains far from optimal.

In addition to existing species conservation action plans, conservation strategies must beprepared for:

- waterbirds- sea turtles- dugongs- freshwater turtles, tortoises and terrapins- freshwater dolphins- otters- crocodiles and species-specific action plans must be identified.

2.3.1.3 Major problems and issues

Water pollution has many causes. In remote parts of Indonesia, pollution wetlands andwaterways are much as they were decades ago, i.e., largely a matter of organic effluent from villagesand fields, in addition to some soil erosion from cultivated fields. With the advent of intensiveagricultural development, leading to a much increased use of pesticides and fertilizers, the nature ofrural pollutants has changed. Parallel to this, rapid industrial development, particularly on Java, but alsoin the large cities of other islands, such as Medan, Ujung Pandang and Palembang, has led to newtypes of pollution that have far more devastating effects than the fairly benign organic wastes. Rapidpopulation growth has contributed also and although river volumes remain largely unchanged, they nowoften service far greater numbers of people than a few decades ago.

Some forms of pollution are still largely organic in nature, such as effluent from pulp and paperfactories, tapioca production and from sugar mills, but many processes involve the use of potentiallytoxic chemical compounds. Tanneries and dyeing factories are notorious in parts of Java, while the oilindustry has created some, usually localized, problems in part of Sumatera (Duri) and at oil processingplants, such as those in Balikpapan and Palembang. In agriculture, it is common to find people stillusing outlawed chemicals, and even the notorious DDT is still marketed, especially in remote areas. The paper industry is a special case, whereby the chlorine bleaching method leads to the (unwanted)production of very toxic and carcinogenic dioxides. Certain metal producing plants, such as the nickelmine, produce amounts of sulphur dioxide (SO2), leading to acid rain with a pH of 4-5 as far as 30kilometres away.


2.3.1.4 Economic losses because of over-exploitation

Economic losses because of over-exploitation as seen in the analysis can be found in the formof over-fishing, destruction of mangroves, coral reefs, sea grasses, and other natural resources owingto pollution and natural disasters.

2.3.1.5 Causes including sectoral demands and failures and internal and external market demands

Some causes could be mentioned here, for instance during the last decade, the conversion ofmangrove forest for fish ponds has not taken into consideration the decreased demand for exportbecause of the low quality of the fishing products. Unregulated land-clearing for tourism, otherunauthorized activities, and an uncoordinated sectoral-wise system, including the issuing of permitswithout EIA studies, are some of the other causes of the water-related environmental problems.


Although warmer temperatures and carbon fertilization owing to global warming may increasebiomass in tropical areas, there is no definitive evidence that harvest levels or agricultural productivitywill also increase. Agriculture productivity in present-day drought areas may increase because of abetter potential for irrigation and more rainfall. On the other hand, agricultural production of both foodand non-food crops is likely to decline because of flooding, erosion, loss of arable land, and acceleratedevapotranspiration during the dry season. Shifts in precipitation patterns are likely to disrupt croppingin both rainfall and irrigated agricultural systems. The situation will be compounded by changesaffecting agricultural pests and disease.

Mean temperature and rainfall patterns are critical variables in the agricultural sector. Building upon the GIS model, a recent study suggests that rainfall would increase by 7 to 33 per cent inthe Citarum watershed, 8 to 50 per cent in the Brantas watershed, and 8 to 56 per cent in the Saddangwatershed, accompanied by slight temperature changes of 0.03 to 0.04o C throughout the archipelago. The additional rainfall would augment water supplies for irrigation by 30 per cent in the Citarumwatershed, 30 per cent in the Brantas watershed and 130 per cent in the Saddang watershed. Conversely, more rapid siltation is likely to reduce the lifetime of reservoirs and irrigation canals. Increased precipitation would also accelerate soil erosion; increases in rainfall of 14 per cent, 19 percent, and 40 per cent would cause increases in soil loss of 15 per cent, 18 per cent, and 40 per centrespectively. Consequently, soil fertility and land productivity, particularly in upland regions, woulddecline by 4 to 18 per cent in Citarum, 9 to 17 per cent in Brantas, and 10 to 27 per cent in Saddang.

The importance of agriculture to Indonesia's subsistence, culture and economy alone meritspreparations to cope with climate change. Rice is a staple food for most of the Indonesian people, andsince 1983 the country has been able to sustain its own rice needs, currently more than 20 millionmetric tons annually. The number of Indonesians at risk of hunger would be likely to increase becauseof lowered plant productivity. Furthermore, as two thirds of Indonesia's people are involved inagriculture, these physical changes could have devastating socio-economic impacts.


2.3.1.7 Proposed interventions

Indonesia has at least 47 distinct natural ecosystems (Sastrapradja and others 1989), rangingfrom the ice fields and alpine meadows of Irian Jaya to a wide variety of humid lowland forests, fromdeep lakes to shallow swamps, and from spectacular coral reefs to sea-grass beds and mangroveswamps (MoF/FAO 1991). These major types can be subdivided: for example, coral reefs intofringing, patch, barrier and atoll systems (Tomascik 1991); mangroves according to tidal flushingregimes (Silvius and others 1987; Soemodiharjo and others 1991); and peat swamps according to ageand peat depth (Whitmore 1984).

Terrestrial and wetland ecosystems have received the most attention in conservation reviews(BAPPENAS 1991). Reprot (1990) assigned habitats to 19 distinct forest types in terms of theirimplications for settlement as follows:

Table 2.53. Area of major forest types by biogeographic region

Area by region (kilometres2)

Forest type Sumatera Kalimantan Sulawesi NusaTenggara

CoastalTidalPeat swampFreshwater swampLowland rainforestHeathLimestone/UBLower MontaneUpper MontaneMonsoon

489 8,324 54,991 12,011120,734 493 4,824 28,015 3,341 13

704 9,856 49,301 7,582270,216 26,753 9,044 22,470 272 0

290 2,295 1,319 91857,362 79227,72618,907 2,903 181

124 292 0 195 6,969 0 2,387 1,149 5513,523

TOTAL 233,236 396,198 112,694 24,694

Source : ReProt (1990 in Dick, 1991).Notes : UB-ultrabasic substrate; Nusa Tenggara-NT East and West plus East Timor.

Indonesia is a very species-rich country, and although it occupies only 1.3 per cent of theworld's land area, it possesses about 17 per cent of the total number of species in the world. Precisenumbers are hard to obtain for most taxonomic groups, but at a minimum Indonesia can be said to haveabout 11 per cent of the world's known flowering plant species, 12 per cent of the world's mammals,15 per cent of all amphibians and reptiles, 17 per cent of all birds and at least 37 per cent of the world'sfish.

Therefore, the proposed interventions are:

(a) Increase and intensify the application of environmental assessments related toall developments affecting inland waters and wetlands so that both water andfish quality remain good;

(b) Institute and carry out a regular programme of monitoring water and fishquality to protect the environment and human health;

(c) Monitor and seek to improve techniques for assessing fish stock and fisheries


production;

(d) Critically examine the biology and ecology of fish species, including theecological relationship of each species to its habitat. Use this information todevelop management strategies and plans for groups of similar species insimilar habitats. Such management strategies should include protection ofaquatic environments;

(e) Determine the best methods for calculating optimal harvest rates offreshwater fishes from each habitat type (e.g. lakes, large rivers, floodplains,swamps);

(f) Undertake to determine the appropriate harvest of fish for each body offreshwater and regulate fisheries to produce sustainable yields from thesewaters for human use;

(g) Determine the necessary steps to assure that fish biodiversity is protected,both from the destruction of wetlands and from over-fishing. Implementstrategies to provide this protection;

(h) Clarify the role of national, regional and local governments and villageorganizations in the development and enforcement of regulations;

(i) Re-enforce and improve appropriate local fishery management systemswhere these already exist;

(j) Carry out studies on the use of fishery reserves in key areas as a means ofprotecting fisheries.

2.3.2 Living marine resources

2.3.2.1 Status - productivity, catch levels, fishing pressure

Marine fisheries can be viewed as being composed of two components: offshore fishery,which operates far from shore and nearshore fishery, which operates close to shore. In Indonesia thenearshore fishery accounts for about 90 per cent of marine fish production. In fact, only 4 per cent ofIndonesia's fishing fleet is comprised of boats greater than 5 gross tons, and two thirds of the fleet isnon-motorized and operates nearshore. It is important to recognize the close relationship between thisproductive nearshore fishery and local wetlands, especially mangroves. Of the many importantIndonesia fish and shellfish groups dependent on mangroves, the most well known include thecommercially important shrimps and prawns, the kakap family, and Milkfish. It is now well establishedthat for every hectare of mangrove cleared, there will be a direct loss of inshore fishery (see table 2.54: Utilization of living marine resources).


Table 2.54. Utilization of living marine resources

Subregion Pelagic fishcatch

(ton/year)

Pelagic fish MSY(ton/year)

Demersal fishcatch

(ton/year)

Demersal fish MSY Invertebrate catch(1991)

(ton/year)

InvertebrateMSY

Aquacultureproduction(Brackish pond-1991)

(ton/year)

1. Riau and Batam

- 108,000 (Coast ofMalacca Strait)

- 116,900 (Coast ofMalacca Strait)

46,730 - 224

2. Bangka-Belitung and South Sumatera -

137,000 (EastCoast ofSumatera)

-119,000 (East Coast ofSumatera) 6,518 -

73


--

125,000 (NorthCoast of Java)

--

94,700 (North Coastof Java)

3,39610,987

--

356,170

4. East Java - 125,000 (NorthCoast of Java)

- 94,700 (North Coastof Java)

12,504 - 79,346

5. South Kalimantan - 158,000 (EastCoast ofKalimantan)

- 83,300 (East Coast ofKalimantan)

9,962 - 807

6. West Kalimantan - 405,000 (Southand West Coast ofKalimantan)

- 67,200 (South andWest Coast ofKalimantan)

12,916 - 38

INDONESIA - 2,580,200 - 1,033,800 224,654 - 323,156

Source : 1. Directorate General of Fisheries (1993)2. Central Bureau of Statistics (1998)

Note : - : No dataSumber:1. Ditjen Perikanan, Departemen Pertanian. 1993. Statistik Perikanan Indonesia (Fisheries Statistics of Indonesia) 1991. Jakarta.2. Biro Pusat Statistik. 1998. Statistik Sumber Daya Alam Indonesia (Natural Resources Statistics of Indonesia) 1997. Jakarta.


Table 2.55 provides data (1990 to 1993) on the number of fishing boats, fishery establishments,marine fishing units by gear and number of fishermen (part and full-time) in the east coast provinces ofAceh, North Sumatera and Riau.

Table 2.55. Data on Fisheries in the East coast of provinces of Aceh, North Sumatra andRiau, 1990-1993. (Direktorat Jenderal Perikanan, 1992-1995).

Aceh North Sumatra RiauExplanation

1990 1991 1992 1993 1990 1991 1992 1993 1990 1991 1992 1993Fishery establishmentmanagement Without boat 293 165 183 92 401 1,273 3,806 1,969 2,643 1,952 1,958 2,033 With non- powered boat

1,654 1,707 1,657 2,273 8,057 8,596 9,527 8,998 10,918 10,632 10,673 11,078

With outboard Boat

1,405 1,517 1,536 2,566 - 28 35 - 968 1,329 1,334 1,383

With inboard boat 883 1,176 1,227 2,553 10,414 10,791 10,127 11,139 8,174 9,549 9,596 9,976Number of fishermen byfisherman category Full time 20,140 22,908 23,473 33,065 85,898 90,420 86,299 81,193 45,320 49,237 49,336 51,241 Part time (major) 3,220 3,662 3,753 5,287 22,382 23,696 22,487 21,157 10,376 11,220 11,528 11,973 Part time (minor) 2,589 669 686 866 2,589 2,741 2,601 2,447 5,045 5,457 5,344 5,550Number of Marinefishing boat Non-powered boat

1,682 1,925 1,862 2,832 8,210 9,246 9,814 9,694 11,278 11,025 11,051 11,363

Outboard motor 1,664 1,726 1,693 2,590 -- 28 35 -- 977 1,142 1,378 1,417 Inboard motor 994 1,213 1,234 1,583 11,569 11,863 12,840 12,746 8,239 9,873 9,910 10,192Number of MarineFishing Unit-by Type ofGear: Purse seine 95 288 212 288 8,574 494 1,389 1,026 63 59 56 56 Seine nets (payang, Danish seine,beach seine)

493 304 449 1,884 1,568 2,181 2,148 2,215 682 733 795 803

Gill nets (drift, encircling, shrimp,set and trammel)

2,500 2,030 1,939 2,447 6,899 7,590 8,919 9,039 6,844 7,061 7,097 7,849

Lift nets (raft,bagan, scoop,others)

2,665 157 223 296 2,732 2,500 2,749 2,842 2,141 1,786 1,772 2,146

Hook and lines ( 5,772 1,662 1,524 1,603 3,610 2,427 3,874 3,020 7,808 10,423 9,153 9,856 T 12 38 249 175 2,434 4,815 3,691 3,665 3,666 4,682 4,665 3,870 Shellfish collecting equipment

- - - - 2,784 2,940 2,607 2,802 3,067 2,017 2,199 2,429

21 476 - - 181 42 63 338 30 - - 194


Although nationally the fishery sector has grown annually at the rate of 5 per cent by volumeof catch and almost 15 per cent by export value, fisheries in Indonesia are far from efficient and wellmanaged. Indonesia is still facing a number of problems, including, among others, the following(Soegiarto 1996):

(a) Stock assessments are not yet completely done for all waters and species. There aremore than 40 major commercial species that have to be assessed and managedindividually;

(b) Fishery statistics are generally incomplete and can generate misleading informationand conclusions;

(c) Post-catch losses are still very high; some experts indicate about 20 per cent;(d) Exports are still dominated by two commodities: shrimp (60%) and tuna (14%). Both

are facing high competition from other countries, such as Taiwan Province of China,Thailand, China, and Mexico and a rather narrow market, mostly Japan. Thus, pricesfluctuate from time to time;

(e) Exports are in fresh or raw condition. There is only a limited effort at processing andgiving an added value;

(f) Almost 80 per cent of the fisheries in Indonesia are artisanal (traditional). There is astrong conflict between artisanal and commercial fisheries. Artisanal fisheries have alow productivity, low capital investment, low science and technology inputs and arethus slow in responding to modernization and new ideas;

(g) The central Government has almost unlimited authority to manage and regulate themarine fisheries; however, enforcement and management are weak.

Coastal aquaculture

Brackishwater pond culture dominates the coastal areas of eastern Sumatera that border theMalacca Straits. Mainly prawns and milkfish are cultivated in these brackishwater ponds, locallyknown as tambak . There has been a steady increase in the areas of tambak in the provinces of Aceh,North Sumatra and Riau. For instance, in 1979 tambak covered an area of 22,793 hectares, but by1983 the area had increased to 30,248 hectares (Burbridge and others 1988). In 1993 it amounted toroughly 39,840 hectares. Low productivity from tambak of 590 kg/ha/yr in Aceh, 410 kg/ha/yr inNorth Sumatra and 300 kg/ha/yr in Riau was recorded in 1983 (Burbridge and others 1988).

See further in table 2.56


Table 2.56. Brackiswater Pond Fisheries in the Provinces of Sumatera Bordering theMalacca Straits, 1991-1993 (Direktorat Jenderal Perikanan, 1993-1995)

Aceh Province N. Sumatera Province Riau Province

1991 1992 1993 1991 1992 1993 1991 1992 1993Area :Gross Area (ha)Net Area (ha)Households by size offisheries management :

2 ha2 – 5 ha5 – 10 ha10 haTotal

Production by species(metric ton)Fish : Milkdish

MulletsBarramundiTilapiaOthers

Shrimp :Giant tiger prawnBanana prawnMetapenaeus shrimpCrustacean : Mud crab

40,40236,323

6,4147,3181,140

68415,556

3,93767021

1,0101,178

12,5002,0583,237

87

42,60437,851

6,4147,3181,140

68415,556

3,63812912

569952

15,8202,8204,101

235

42,60438,428

6,3618,8692,0192,481

19,730

5,69356469

7361,090

12,7853,8373,031

554

3,3691,910

364312944287

1,907

2312

978836

2,7571,924

136194

6,3734671

259312454298

1,323

1879

2,77923

8,3233012176742

11,7011,147

16816731896

749

7703

-2

2,566

5,0931,689

6158

249186

934611

-150

1434

--

98

3048

--

315246

934621

-160

1024

--

44

2214

-12

339265

1336531

-229

618

--

22

6221

-13

Mariculture

Aside from brackishwater ponds, Indonesia has also a developed mariculture industry.Mariculture requires a clean but productive and relatively calm coastal water environment, free fromindustrial pollution and human wastes. Although the general technical requirements to develop marineculture or marine farming may be common, each species requires a special environment. For example,the shellfish Anadara blood cockle requires muddy bottom waters.

The potential areas for developing mariculture in Indonesia are estimated to be 80,925hectares with a potential production of 46 million tons/year consisting of:

Fishes 1,080,000 tons/yearShellfish 45,171,900 tons/yearSeaweed 482,400 tons/year


Mariculture programmes are currently being developed in the Riau archipelago, in particulararound Batam and Bintan Islands. The estimated potential area and production of mariculture for theprovinces of Sumatera bordering the Malacca Straits are shown in table 2.57.

Table 2.57 Potential Area for Development and Potential Production of Mariculture Alongthe East Coast of Sumatra in Malacca Straits (Direktorat Bina Sumber hayati, 1991)

Potential Area (ha) Potential production (ton/year)Province

Fish Shellfish Seaweed Fish Shellfish Seaweed

Aceh 200 0 250 60,000 0 4,700

North Sumatra 0 4,000 150 0 3,500,000 2,800

Riau 350 13,000 1,500 105,000 11,375,000 28,100

Total 550 17,000 1,900 165,000 14,875,000 35,600

Total Indonesia 36,000 53,625 25,700 1,080,000 45,171,900 482,400

Socio-economic contributions

The Indonesian marine areas covering more than 6 million square kilometres of territorial andarchipelagic waters and 2.7 million square kilometres of exclusive economic zone (EEZ) with regardto marine fishery resources amount to about 5.9 per cent of the combined total for the major fisheryregions of Indonesia. Therefore, it is not surprising that a large number of people are employed in thefishing sector. It is noted that there are people employed in industries that are dependent (or indirectlyinvolved) in the fisheries sector such as canning and shipping.

Over-fishing

Burbridge and others (1988) estimated the standing stock and maximum sustainable yield forfishery stock in the Indonesian portion of the Malacca Straits (table 2.58). On the basis of theproduction figures from capture fisheries, they concluded the following:

(a) Between 1975 and 1983, shrimp catches were above the MSY of 20,000 tons peryear;

(b) The catch from demersal fish stocks reached 50,000 tons in 1977 and 114,00 tons in1983, which exceeded the estimated MSY;

(b) In 1977, the pelagic fish stocks were 112,500 tons but declined steadily after 1977 toaround 77,000 in 1983, which is well below the estimated MSY of 126,500 tons a year.

Table 2.58. Estimated Standing Stocks and Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) for Fishery Stocks in the Indonesian Portion of the Malacca Straits, 1980 (Burbridge

et al., 1988)

Fish and Shrimp Stocks Standing Stock (x 103 t/yr) MSY (x 103 t/yr)

Shrimp Stocks 44 20

Demersal Fish Stocks 220 110

Pelagic Fish Stocks 253 126.5


Coral reef

Coral reefs also play a major role in fisheries by providing direct harvests of fish such assnappers, groupers and emperors and of lobsters, sea-cucumbers and other invertebrates. Coral reefsalso support fisheries for migratory species that visit the reefs, either to spawn or to feed on smallfishes found there. The destruction of coral by various means is now a major cause for worldwideconcern. In Indonesia there are many causes of the deliberate destruction of coral including dynamitefishing, use of poison to collect fish, careless use of boats and anchoring systems, and the removal ofcoral for sale to tourists, for building materials and for lime production. In addition, the fragile coralecosystem is subject to considerable stress from pollution and coastal sedimentation. Local andinternational trade in ornamental fish and specialty items (such as dried sea horses used for medicine)is also a threat to the reef ecosystem (See figure 8 and table 2.59).

The region is a global centre of diversity for coral reefs. Approximately 70 hard coral generaoccur in the vicinity of eastern Indonesia, the Philippines and the Spratly Islands, while 50 are presentin other parts of South-East Asia (Veron 1986). Throughout the East Asian Seas fringing reefs aremost common and are present around most small to medium-size islands. Reefs are less common onmainland coasts and on larger islands, particularly around rivers. The Philippines and Indonesia supportthe most extensive areas of coral reef in the region. Well-developed reefs are also found off thesouthern coasts of Myanmar and Thailand, on the offshore islands of Viet Nam, on the east coast ofpeninsula Malaysia, and off Sabah (UNEP/IUCN 1988).

The reefs of the East Asian Seas support a rich assemblage of marine life. They provide thefish, mollusks and crustaceans on which many coastal communities depend and, with other coastalhabitats, provide nutrients and breeding grounds for many commercial species (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Insome cases the fish taken from reef communities provide over half the protein intake of the localcommunities. UNEP/IUCN (1988) noted that coral reef fisheries have been estimated to comprise 8-10 per cent of the overall fishery production in the Philippines, five per cent in Indonesia and in excessof 20 per cent in Sabah, Malaysia. Tourism associated with coral reefs provides major economicbenefits in the region.

Reefs and non-reef communities within 15 kilometres offshore are often beyond the reach ofsmall-scale fishermen. Major destructive forces include excessive sedimentation and agriculturalactivities and various forms of destructive fishing, especially blast fishing and poisoning.


Figure 8 Mangroves, Swamps and Coral Reefs


Table 2.59. Coral reefsSubregion Total area

(Km2) atpresent

Area lost per yearduring last 5-10years or other

indirect indication ofloss

Number of coral genera Number of associated species(fish, seaweeds, molluscs,

other invertebrates)

1. Riau and Batam2. Bangka-Belitung and South Sumatera: - Pulau Maspar, Pulau Karang Tembaga, Pulau Pelepasan, Pulau Nangka Besar and Kecil, Pulau Karang Brombrom

Turbinaria, Montipora, Goniopora, Porites, Lobophylla,Galaxea, Heliopora, Fafites and Nephyta, Lobophytum.

45 species of fish

3. Jakarta West Java4. East Java: - Pulau Giligenteng, Pulau Kemudi, Pulau Kangean, Tanjung Paras, and Pulau Giliketapang

Acropora, Alveopora, Astreopora, Diploastrea,Echinopora, Euphyllia, Favia, Favites, Fungia,Goniastrea, Goniopora, Galaxea, Lobophyllia, Millepora,Montastrea, Montiopora, Pocillopora, Porites, Pectinia,Pavona, Platygura, Stylopora, Seriatopora, Shymphilliaand Clavularia, Dendronephyta, Gorgonian, Lobophytum,Nephyta, Sacrophyton, Sinularia, Tubipora, Xenia.

Sargassum (Padina),Halimeda, Caulerpa,Turbinaria.

5. South Kalimantan6. West KalimantanINDONESIA 50,000 76 coral genera

Source:1. Ministry of State for Environment, Republic of Indonesia (1996)Centre for Oceanology Research (1996)


Sources:1. Ministry of State for Environment, Republic of Indonesia (1996)2. Centre for Oceanology Research (1996)3. Ministry of State for Environment, Republic of Indonesia in cooperation with the Directorate for Nature Management, Norway, 1996. Indonesian Country Study on

Integrated Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management (editors: M. Kasim Moosa, Rokhmin Dahuri, Malikusworo Hutomo, Ismu Sutanto Suwelo and SuharyadiSalim). Jakarta.

4. Balai Penelitian dan Pengembangan Sumberdaya Laut Ambon-Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Oseanologi LIPI. 1996. Status Ekosistem Wilayah Pesisir SelatBangka, Proyek Pengembangan dan Pemanfaatan Potensi Kelautan Kawasan Timur Indonesia. Ambon.

5. Balai Penelitian dan Pengembangan Sumberdaya Laut Ambon-Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Oseanologi LIPI. 1996. Status Ekosistem Wilayah Pesisir SelatMadura dan Kepulauan Kangean, Proyek Pengembangan dan Pemanfaatan Potensi Kelautan Kawasan Timur Indonesia. Ambon.


Uses of reef degradation

Physical activities(a) Coral mining for building materials, cement, souvenirs, roads etc.(b) Human activities in coral reef areas, boat anchoring, poison fishing, blast fishing (c) Waste and excessive sedimentation siltation

Causes of reef degradation

(a) Lack of awareness and knowledge of coral reefs(b) Weak law enforcement(c) Weak institutional coordination(d) Pressure of economic needs by coastal people(e) Lack of a national concept for coral reef management

Concept development

(a) Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Programme (COREMAP)Rehabilitation is not related to replanting but to rehabilitating the environment byminimizing the insult/causes of coral reef degradation.

(b) Coral reef degradation is caused by a complexity of several factors such ashuman behaviour, perception, economic welfare, law enforcement.

(c) The strategy of the programme includes:- Improving public awareness;- Developing a management system;- Focusing on key locations;- Providing opportunities for environment friendly economic activities;- Developing institutional ability and cooperation;- Providing scientific support;- Learning from experience.

(d) Coremap is focused on:- Public awareness;- Development of community based management;- Strengthening of law enforcement;- Human resources development and institution-building;- Development of a coral reef information and training centre.

COREMAP objectives in the next 15 years (1998 - 2013)

The protection, rehabilitation, and sustainable utilization of coral reefs and their ecosystemswhich in turn will improve the welfare of coastal people.

Seagrass beds


South-East Asia, with about 20 species of seagrass from seven genera, has the most highlydiverse seagrass flora in the world. Both mangroves and seagrasses show a similar global pattern ofgeneric richness, characterized by a maximum variety in the Indo-West Pacific and secondary centresof diversity found in the Caribbean. Although the number of seagrass species is relatively small, theirnumbers are by no means proportional to their ecological and economic importance. They form densebeds that cover large areas of coastal waters and perform a wide spectrum of biological and physicalfunctions, serving as habitat and nursery areas for fish, many invertebrates, turtles and dugong. Theyalso provide alternative feeding sites for commercial and forage organisms (Fortes 1988) (see table2.60 : Seagrass).


Table 2.60. SeagrassSubregion Total area at

presentArea lost per year during last 5-

10 years or other indirectindication of loss

Number of seagrass species Number of associated species (fish,other vertebrates, molluscs, other

invertebrates)1. Riau and Batam

--

--

--

--

2. Bangka-Belitung and South Sumatera: - Pulau Maspar, Tanjung Badewa, Lampung Bay

1,880 m2

-7 (Thalasia hemprichii, Cymodecea rotundata, Cymodeceaserulata, Halophila ovalis, Halodule uninervis, Syringodiumisoetifolium, Enhalus acoroides)

- seaweeds = 3 (Padina sp, Sargassum sp, Gracilaria sp)- fish = - species

3. (a). Jakarta: - Pulau Pari

(b). West Java: - Banten Bay

2 m (in depth)

1,250,000 m2

-

-

8 (Thalasia hemprichii, Cymodecea rotundata, Cymodeceaserulata, Halophila ovalis, H. minor, Halodule uninervis,Syringodium isoetifolium, Enhalus acoroides)

7 (Thalasia hemprichii, Cymodecea rotundata, Cymodeceaserulata, Halophila ovalis, Halodule uninervis, Syringodiumisoetifolium, Enhalus acoroides)

11 species of Foraminifera, 27 species ofPhytoplankton, 29 species ofCrustaceans, 58 species of Polychaets, 5species of Echinoderms, 18 species ofMolluscs, and - species of Fishes.

28 species of Crustaceans, 25 species ofPolychaets, 3 species of Echinoderms, 10species of Molluscs, and 165 species ofFishes.

4. East Java: - Pulau Giligenteng, Pulau Goa-goa, Pulau Kemudi and Pulau Kangean

- - 8 (Thalasia hemprichii, Thalassodendron ciliatum,Cymodecea rotundata, Halophila ovalis, Halodule uninervis,Halodule pinifolio, Enhalus acoroides, Syringodiumisoetifolium)

-

5. South Kalimantan - - - -6. West Kalimantan - - - -INDONESIA - 12 species of Seagrass beds -

Source : 1. Ministry of State for Environment, Republic of Indonesia (1996)2. Centre for Oceanology Research (1996)

Note :- : No data


Sandy beaches

Sandy beaches occur extensively on the shores of coral islands and are interspersed amongother shore formations throughout continental Asia. Steep beaches of coarse sand are built up onocean-facing coasts exposed to strong surf. Intertidal flats of mixed sediments, with a narrow sandyfringe at high water mark, develop on more protected shores (Schwartz 1982).

Only a restricted fauna tolerates the surf forces and instability of an exposed sandy shore.Tropical organisms are further inhibited by high temperatures and desiccation. Most animals mustburrow for protection or limit their surface activity to periods when the sand is moist. The middle andlower beach animals are absent from shores with severe wave action.

The fauna of sheltered sandy beaches is much richer by comparison (Berry 1964; Vohra1971). On sand flats containing a proportion of silt, burrowing polychates, echinoderms andcoelenterates become important components of the fauna and a seaward zone of the marine grassEnhalus is developed. Marine turtles nest on the sandy beaches throughout many areas of the EastAsian Seas.

Rocky shores

Rocky shores occur on the coasts of many Asian islands. The south-west coast of Sumatraand the Pacific coastline of the Philippines and Sulawesi have extensive rocky topographies. Smallerrocky outcrops and boulder formations are common above coral reef flats and on headlands borderingsandy bays. Wave erosion of limestone creates sheer or fissured cliffs with little or no beach formation(Schwartz 1982).

The zonation of organisms on rocky shores in the region follows the typical pattern with threemajor zones (supra-, mid-, and sub-littoral), characterized by key organisms (littorinid snails, barnacles,and algae respectively). High surface temperatures and desiccation greatly limit the tropical fauna andflora in comparison with those of temperate rocky shores. Large seaweeds (such as fucoids andlaminarians) typical of cooler latitudes and the organisms they support are absent, and there is ageneral lowering of the zonation levels toward the equator. A rich assemblage of organisms occurs atthe lowest tidal level and in crevices (Berry 1964; Chuang 1973) where the environment is lessextreme. Tropical rock pools are subject to extreme heating and wide fluctuations in salinity andconsequently support a poorer biota.

Islands and submerged banks

The East Asian Seas marine region includes the extensive archipelagos of Indonesia and thePhilippines. There are also numerous islands off the coast of mainland Asia. Island types range fromcoral cays to raised limestone, volcanic and continental islands such as Java and Borneo.

Species diversity

Despite the basic homogeneity caused by the occurrence of many wide-ranging species, thereare great differences in diversity among the various parts of the Indo-West Pacific region. Manyauthors have noted the concentration of species in the East Asian Seas in the vicinity of thePhilippines, the Malay peninsula and Papua New Guinea/Irian Jaya. This area has been recognized asa faunistic centre from which other subdivisions of the Indo-West Pacific have recruited their fauna.The presence of a concentration of species is supported by a number of studies of the fauna in general


and for animal groups such as mollusks, crustacean and fish. As noted above, this pattern is alsofollowed by seagrasses and mangroves. Moving away from the Indo-Malayan centre to consider thefauna of the peripheral areas, there is a notable decrease in diversity correlated with distance (Briggs1974).

Seaweeds

The Asian and Pacific region contains 100 species of seaweeds of economic value. Theyconstitute an important biological resource of the region as part of the food web of marine life.Additionally, they are used for human consumption, animal feed, pharmaceutical products, fertilizer,and industrial raw material for the production of a wide range of products. Wild seaweed resourceshave become limited owing to extensive use and are being supplemented by cultivated resources(ESCAP 1990).

Invertebrates

The region is a global centre of diversity for marine invertebrates, including mollusks andcrustaceans (Briggs 1974). For the gastropod genus Strombus, Abbott (1960) found the greatestnumber of taxa in the vicinity of the Philippines (26), Okinawa (24) and Indonesia (23). The number oftaxa decrease moving east across the Pacific and west across the Indian Ocean.

Giant clams used to be abundant, having their centre of distribution in the region, but are nowheavily depleted and have been placed on the CITES (Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) list.

Fish

The region is a centre of diversity for marine fish. For example over 2,000 species of shorefish have been recorded in the shallow waters of the Philippines (Briggs 1974). Springer (1982) andAbbott (1960) recorded approximately 160 shorefish families in the region (with a similar numberpresent in south-east Africa and off the Great Barrier Reef). The number of families shows adecreasing trend moving east across the Pacific Ocean and away from these centres of diversity.

Gomes (1990) noted the general decline is fishery resources in the region as a whole,attributed to over-exploitation, particularly in inshore coastal waters.

Marine turtles

Six species of marine turtle nest in the region : the flatback (Chelonia depressa), the green(Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), oliveridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) and the loggerhead (Caretta caretta). The last five are classed asvulnerable or endangered (Elder and Parnetta 1991).

Sea snakes

East Asia is the centre of the world's radiation of true sea snakes (Hydrophiidae). Thisfamily contains some 14 genera and 47 species. Of these, 14 genera containing about 30 species are


found in the East Asian region. With the exception of the pelagic yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamisplaturus), which occurs in both coastal and oceanic waters from East Africa throughout the Indianand Pacific Oceans to the west coast of Central America, all other sea snakes are confined to tropicaland warm temperate regions extending from the Persian Gulf to the Fijian islands. The number ofspecies declines west of the East Asian region to about 20 species in India and 11 in the Persian Gulf(Voris 1972). The adjoining Australian region has 31 species (Cogger 1994), rapidly declining indiversity in the western Pacific region.

The sea kraits (Laticaudidae) also occur throughout the region. This family contains only sixspecies in a single genus (Laticauda); some taxonomists recognize a second genus, Pseudolaticauda.Three of the six species are found in the East Asian region.

Sea snakes are widely utilized in the region for their skins and significant trading in skins iscentred in Singapore and Thailand, although the total number of skins traded is uncertain (seeHeatwole 1987). Sea kraits are also utilized for their skins, and large quantities are exported from theregion to Hong Kong and Japan for food and oriental medicine.

Relatively little is known of sea snake biology and ecology, and therefore the impacts on wildpopulations from either trade or fishing by-catch mortality cannot be determined.

Marine mammals

The dugong (Dugong dugong) is present in the region but is endangered because of huntingand destruction of its natural habitat.

Balaenoptera edemi (Bryde's whale) is the most common cetacean in the region. Otherspecies recorded are: Balaenoptera acutirrostrata (minke whale), Balaenoptera borealis (selwhale), Balaenoptera physalus (fin whale), and Megaptera novaeangliae (humpback whale).Dolphin and porpoise species include Sousa chinensis (Indo-Pacific hump-backed dolphin), Orcaellabrevirostris (Irrawady dolphin), Neophocaena phocaenoides (finless porpoise), Tursiops truncatus(bottlenose dolphin), Delphinus delphis (common dolphin) and possibly also Sousa borneensis (whitedolphin), Sousa plumbea (plumbeous dolphin) and Stenella Malayana (Malayan dolphin).

Mangroves

In comparison with the mangrove flora of equivalent latitudes on the Atlantic shores of Africaand the Americas, the mangroves of the Indo-Pacific region, and South-East Asia in particular, areextremely diverse. Mangrove is the dominant coastal community in tropical Asia, with the Malay-Indonesian regions being its centre of distribution (see figure 9 and table 2.61 : Mangrove).


Figure 9 Mangroves and Inland Swamps

Table 2.61. Mangrove


Subregion Total area (Ha) at present Area lost per year during last 5-10years or other indirect indication of

loss

Number of mangrove treespecies

Number of associated species(birds,

fish, invertebrates) (specify)

1. Riau and Batam

221.050 (-) 54.950 _ _


363.430 (+) 168.430 _ _


28.608 (-) 28.608 _ _

4. East Java 7.750 (-) 7.750 _ _

5. South Kalimantan 120.780 (+) 54.130 _ _

6. West Kalimantan 194.300 (+) 154.300 _ _

Source :

1. Department of Forestry, Republic of Indonesia together with FAO/UNDP (1982) using data from 1970's2. National Forest-Inventory, INTAG, Department of Forestry, Republic of Indonesia using Landsat data from early and mid-1980's

Note:(-) : loss(+) : growth - : No data.


Indonesia has the greatest area of mangroves in the region with 4.25 million hectares (WCMC1992), of which about 2.9 million hectares are in Irian Jaya. The mangroves in the western parts of thiscountry, particularly Java, have suffered heavily from human impacts which have included illegalcutting, conservation to other uses (such as mariculture and other forms of coastal development) andpossible land-based industrial pollution (ASEAN-Australia Marine Science Project 1992). Themangroves in the east are less affected, but signs of degradation have been recorded in some locations(for example, Ambon Island and Halmahera Island).

Exploitation and use of mangrove resources

Status of resource exploitation

Indonesia mangrove resources: The total mangrove area in Indonesia is estimated to bearound 3.80 to 4.25 million hectares, of which around 0.38 million hectares (ReProt 1990) are locatedalong the eastern coast of Sumatera.

The mangrove area has, however, been fast disappearing. Silvius indicated in 1987 that out ofthe 1,365,000 hectares of original mangrove areas in Sumatera only 748,000 hectares were remaining, approximately 54.8 per cent. BAPPENAS (1993) pointed out that by 1993 only 29 per cent or about395,850 hectares of mangrove area would remain in Sumatera. The extensive conversion ofmangrove into tambak (brackishwater ponds) that has taken place in Sumatera in recent years is onereason for the reduction in mangrove coverage. For example, almost 70 per cent (36,000 hectares) ofthe total area of mangroves in the eastern coast of Aceh Special Province had been converted intotambak by 1990. Similarly in the eastern coast of North Sumatera in 1979, the tambak was only 839hectares (Burbridge and others 1988); by 1990 it had became 7,600 hectares (Dahuri and Pahlevi1994).

Other major causes of losses of the mangrove ecosystems in Sumatera are:

(a) Over-exploitation of their wood resources for export or domestic consumption, such asfor wood chips, mangrove logs, poles timber and charcoal, in particular in Aceh, NorthSumatera and Riau Provinces;

(b) Conversion into industrial sites, port facilities, human habitation and otherinfrastructure and facilities, for example, around the ports of Belawan and Dumai, aswell as in Batam, South Sumatera, Lampung;

(c) Pollution from domestic, petrochemical and industrial wastes;(d) Sedimentation dust caused by poor upland management.

Peat swamps are also extensive on the eastern coast of Sumatera island. Peat swamps formimportant watershed areas that help to mitigate flooding in adjacent areas by absorbing and storingexcess water. Many commercially valuable timber products are harvested from peat swamp forests.These include the valuable ramin wood species (Gonystylus bancanus, Shorea spp. and Cratoxylumspp.), rattans and resins.

The loss in peat swamp area for the whole of Sumatera can be estimated indirectly as follows:


Table 2.62. The loss in peat swamp areas in Sumatera

Original area(1,000 ha)

Remaining(1,000 ha)

Area(%)

Sources

7,282

Total loss in six years

4,6133,641972

63.3550.0013.35

Silvius (1987)Bappenas(1993)

Thus, for the whole of Sumatera, the average loss was 162,000 ha/year in 1987 to 1993. Themajor loss of peat swamps in Sumatera apparently happened before 1987 when approximately 2.7million hectares, or about 36.6 per cent of the original area, was lost most probably because of logging,transmigration programmes, large crop estates, or conversion to rice fields. For example, during thefirst 25 years of the long-term development plan (1969 to 1994), Indonesia converted about 5.0 millionhectares of peat swamps; 2.36 million hectares from Riau Province (Mardjono, personalcommunication 1996) for oil palm or coconut estates, transmigration programmes, new rice fields andfor other purposes.

Economic and ecological value of mangrove resources

Properly managed mangrove forests provide many long-term and direct economic benefits(Low and others 1994). The benefits are follows:

(a) As a protection for the coastline from erosion;(b) As a flood and typhoon buffer zone;(c) As a support for the yield of inshore fisheries as feeding or nursery grounds for

juvenile or larval fish or shrimps;(d) As a field habitat for education and research in resource management;(e) As a resource for conserving biodiversity.

Many species of birds (for example, purple heron, Ardea purpurea; milky stork, Mycteriacinerea), amphibians (for example, crab-eating frog, Rana cancrivora), reptiles (for example,saltwater crocodile, Crocodylus porosus) and mammals (for example, long-tailed macaque, Macacafassicularis; Malaysian flying fox, Pteropus vampyrus) are currently endangered because of habitatloss and over-exploitation by humans. These animals are wholly or partially dependent on mangrovesfor food, shelter and for many aquatic species as spawning and nursery grounds (Low and others1994).

A recent survey by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and NaturalResources (IUCN) identified 106 marine protected area (MPAs) in South-East Asia, with 35 inmangrove forests and another 48 being a combination of mangroves and coral reefs. Reportedly, only3 mangrove reserves and 4 combined MPAs have effective resource management, whereas 69reserves have ineffective or no management whatsoever (Low and others 1994). Moreover, theMPAs cover only a very small portion of the coastal resources of the region. Vast areas ofmangroves are still being disturbed and exploited, giving endangered species little or no protection.

A four-pronged approach was suggested by Low and others (1994) to ensure the survival ofthe endangered species and to conserve the biodiversity of mangrove areas:


(a) Political support;(b) Establishment of nature parks, reserves and managed areas;(c) Monitoring of management techniques;(d) Public education.

Timber extraction: For centuries the Indonesians have utilized mangroves for firewood,charcoal, tanning dyes, timber and for the construction of boats. The following genera are frequentlyused for those purposes : Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Avicennia, Nypa and Oncosperma . Nypa leaf can be used for various things, such as thatched roofs, baskets and cigarette "paper". Thestalks of the flower are cut off and the sap is tapped for making brown sugar of the fermented palmwine or "arak". These traditional uses of mangrove resources go hand-in-hand with large-scaleexploitation using higher capital investment and technologies.

A number of mangrove species are harvested for charcoal production, fuel wood etc. (tableAA). For example, Riau Province in Sumatera has long been a centre for charcoal production frommangrove trees. The product is exported to Singapore, Malaysia and Hong Kong, China. In 1984, 836kilns operated in Riau (Soemodihardjo 1984). Exports of charcoal in 1989 amounted to over 22,000tons at a total price of US$ 1.8 million (Pemerintah Daerah Tingkat I Riau 1991). In northernSumatera, mangroves were used for charcoal production on a subsistence basis. The operation of acharcoal factory compared with other land use options in mangroves (table 2.63) provides only limitedemployment.

Mangrove wood is also used as raw material for a large paper mill in Gowa. Bamboo is usedas basic raw material, supplemented by mangrove wood and eucalyptus. Experience has shown that aprocess with a ratio of 80 per cent bamboo and 20 per cent mangrove wood produces a very goodquality paper (Rachmat 1975). A paper mill using mangrove chips has been established in West Irianas part of a joint United States and Indonesian venture.

Table 2.63 Commercial and Subsistence Uses of Mangrove Forest Resources in NorthSumatra, Indonesia (Sukardjo, 1982)

Species Commercial Uses Species Subsistence UsesCeriops tagal and Xylocarpus Batik dyes Avicennia spp. Fuelwood, firewood, rough walling,

livestock grazing and bark for tannin.Excoecaria agallocha and sommeratlaalba

Packing cases Bruguiera spp. Poles for construction, charcoal,firewood and fuelwood

Rhizophora apiculata, R. Mucronata,Bruguiera gymmorhiza, B. parviflora, B.sexangula and B. cylindrica

Poles forconstruction, pilingand timber

Exocoecaria agallocha Boxes and firewood

Rhizophora spp. and Bruguiera spp.(bark)

Tannins, adhesivesand dyes

Ceriops spp. Tannin and dyes (bark) and fuelwood

Rhizophora spp. and Bruguiera spp. Charcoal Avicennia corniculatum

Rhizophora spp.

Sonneratia spp.Derris trifoliata

Fuelwood for charcoal production andfodder for goatTannin (bark), poles, fuelwood, plankingand boxesWalling board and firewoodFodder for goat


The life expectancy of a coastal prawn culture pond built from cleared mangroves is aboutfive years. Ponds built behind mangroves should have an indefinite life, if management is good. This isbecause the mangrove forest can be used to soak up nutrients and sediments from prawn ponds. Mangrove tree growth is not stimulated by the availability of nutrients. The addition of organic wastematter from the ponds will have little effect as the mangrove trees grow in anaerobic soils. It requires,respectively, 2 to 20 hectares of mangrove forest to absorb nutrients from one hectare of low intensiveto high intensive ponds (Sasekumar and Wilkinson 1994). Thus, well-placed and well-managed coastalprawn ponds located behind mangroves can achieve high economic returns (Sasekumar and Wilkinson1994).

Mangrove management practices, policies and strategies

Policies for mangrove management are primarily aimed at sustaining their ecological functionsand benefits for the national interest. Efforts to manage mangroves have been principally directed toreduce conflicts between environmental degradation and economic development (Atmadja and others1994).

The Department of Forestry and Local Government is responsible for implementing thepolicies and strategies regarding the conservation and management of mangrove systems. Thefundamental principles are:

(a) To maintain the essential ecological processes and the support systems;(b) To preserve genetic diversity and ensure the sustained utilization of the species and

the ecosystem (Atmadja and others 1994).

Management and conservation: The Government encourages the development of the forestrysector and, through the Department of Agriculture and Department of Forestry, has regulated thecutting of mangrove forests. A 50 to 200 metre green belt of mangrove is required along the coast and10 to 20 metre along river banks. The green belt serves to preserve the ecological functioning ofmangroves in the region. A formula for determining the width of the mangrove green belt in the coastalarea has been developed. The proposed formula takes into account the width of the mangroveecosystem in the area, the slope of the coastline and the tidal range. The formula has been put intoeffect as an integral part of Presidential Decree No. 32 (July 1990), on the Management of ProtectedForest Areas. This formula is applied throughout Indonesia.

Other efforts at conserving mangroves in Indonesia involve the establishment of protected andconservation areas. A number of nature reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, nature parks, natural recreationparks and grand forest parks have been developed in parts of Indonesia to conserve and protectmangrove areas. Currently, there are 13 reserves with the principal aim of protecting mangroves(Soegiarto and others 1982). Mangroves are also found bordering 14 other protected areas where theyare of secondary interest. In addition, nine new proposals for mangrove reserves have been approvedby provincial governors and a great number of proposals are currently being processed at theDirectorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation. Surveys and studies on thoseproposed sites are now under way, carried out jointly by the Directorate of Nature Conservation,Centre for Research and Development in Oceanology, Centre for Research and Development inBiology, various universities and the World Wildlife Fund of Indonesia. The protected areas will be 30per cent of the total Indonesian mangrove forest area by the year 2000.

Currently there are only 522,070 hectares of mangrove area under conservation and 614,120hectares are assigned as protected forest, in total about 28.5 per cent. However, in Sumatra, only 2.6per cent (365,000 hectares) of the mangrove area is protected. An additional 6.4 per cent (870,000


hectares) is being proposed (BAPPENAS 1993). Generally speaking the protected areas are noteffective; poaching and encroaching in the mangrove areas are quite high.

Indonesia has policies relating to mangroves on fisheries and settlement, industry andtransport. Environmental impact studies are required to be carried out prior to establishing newsettlements and industry, following guidelines provided by the Government. Every development in thecoastal zone, including mangrove areas, which may result in damage to the environment must beapproved by the Government.

Organization and cooperation: While the principal responsibility for managing mangroveforests is in the hands of the Department of Forestry, research programmes and other relevantactivities on mangrove ecosystems are also carried out by a number of government agencies, researchinstitutions and universities. In order to coordinate the activities and efforts of these bodies, a NationalMangrove Committee (NATMANCOM) was established in 1980. The committee has some twentymembers, representing government agencies and development programmes pertaining to mangroveecosystems. The membership is reviewed and updated every two years. Some of the committee'sactivities are as follows:

(a) To coordinate research programmes on mangroves;(b) To prepare lists of institutions and agencies dealing with mangrove programmes;(c) To prepare a directory of mangrove scientists;(d) To compile and update a bibliography on mangrove research in Indonesia;(e) To organize every four years a scientific seminar on the mangrove ecosystem. The

purpose of the seminars is to review the state of knowledge, to evaluate researchresults and to plan and give directions for future research programmes. So far, fivenational seminars on the mangrove ecosystem have been organized.

Rehabilitation: One of the positive management activities of the "Perum Perhutani" is thereplanting of damaged mangrove forests in Java. More than 5,000 hectares of damaged mangroveforest have been rehabilitated in Cilacap in the last three years (1993). Over 10,000 hectares ofdisturbed mangrove areas on the northern coast of West Java have also been replanted since 1976.

Developing community-based management: The urgency of developing community-basedmanagement of mangrove ecosystems in Indonesia has also been realized as a consequence of anumber of internal and external factors, namely:

Internal factors

(a) Conflicting policies on development and conservation;(b) In some cases, conflicting policies between the central Government and the

provincial/local authorities;(c) Weak enforcement of existing rules and regulations;(d) Inadequate skills, education and motivation, especially locally;(e) Increasing population pressure on land and its resources.

External factors


(a) Increasing global awareness of the environment and the importance of community-based and non-governmental organization participation;

(b) Open market and free exploitation and conservation of mangrove lands into prawn andfish culture areas, as well as other uses.

Indonesia is developing community-based management on biosphere reserves (for example, inGunung Leuser, Aceh Province), national parks and coral reefs (COREMAP). Community residentsare being trained to increase their awareness of relevant environmental issues and the sustainability ofresources. At the same time, they are being provided with alternative skills to generate income. Thecommunity will be given the opportunity to participate in protecting the environment, as well assustaining the resources of the area.

Constraints in mangrove management: The present constraints in the management ofmangroves in Indonesia are as follows (Atmadja and others 1994):

(a) Inadequate enforcement of existing laws, regulations, decrees;(b) Insufficient resources (equipment, personnel, training);(c) A lack of coordinated and integrated programmes; (d) Unfavourable socio-economic and customary law recognition.

Sand mining

Sand mining is also carried out at locations along the Malacca Straits, such as Johor and Riau.The sand production from Riau in 1993 stood at 1.45 million tons. Sand is also exported to Singaporefor the reclamation of coastal areas (Statistical Office of Riau Province 1995).

2.3.2.2 Endangered/transboundary/migratory species

A good example are turtles, which are now taken care of by COREMAP, programmes of theIndonesian WWF and others (see table 2.64 below).


Table 2.64. Endangered species protected by law in Indonesia

Natural Resources Scientific Name

I. CRUSTACEACoconut Robber CrabHorse Shoe Crab

Birgus latroTachipleus tridenta

II. MOLLUSCAGiant ClamSouthern Giant ClamChina ClamHorse Hoof Bear Paw C.Soffron ColouredSmall Giant ClamTriton’s ThrumpetGiant Holmet ShellMother of PearlGreen SnailChambered nautilusScally Clam

Tridacna gigasT. derasaHippopus porcellamusH. hippopusTridacna croceaT. maximaCharonia tritonisCassis carnutaTrocus niloticusTurbo marmoratusNautilus pompilusTridacna sqymosa

III. REPTILIALeatherback TurtleMarsh CrocodileGrey Olive LoggerheadRed Brown Loggerhead

Dermochelys coriaceaCrocodylus porosusLepidichelys olivaceaCareta careta

IV. MAMMALIA1. Dugong2. Dolphin

Borneo white DolphinBottle-nose D.Idem as aboveRough Toothed D.Common D.Red Bellied D.Malayas D.Indonesia White D.Plumbeous D.Bick Finiess PorpoisieLittle Indian Porpoisie

Dugong dugongDolphin & ZipridaeSousa borneensisTursiops aduncusT. catalinaSteno rostratusDelphinus delphisD. roseirostiisStenella malayanSotalia plumbeaS. plumbeaNeophocaena phocaenoidesNeomeris p.

3. WhaleBlue W.Fin W.Sef W.Minke W.Southern Right W.Humback W.Sperm W.Beaked W.Pygmy Sperm W.Killer W.Pilot W.

CetaceaBalaenoptera musculusB. physalusB. borealisB. acutorostraraEubalaena australisMegaptera nova cangliaePhyseter catodonZiphius cavirostrisKogia breviceptsOrcinus orcaGlobicephala macrorhynchi

4. Other SpeciesBlack coral Anthipates sp.


2.3.2.3 Major problems and issues

Degradation of the coastal and marine environment

The factors contributing to the degradation of the coastal and marine environment have beenidentified as mostly human activities. The rapid development of the coastal zone and population growthhave resulted in the present situation. The uncontrolled exploitation of living resources, sometimesusing destructive methods, has led to the loss of habitats and species. Many of these living marineresources are being removed at rate far exceeding the natural sustainable levels. With non-livingresources, the extraction process itself causes environmental degradation. Nearshore mining activitieshave often contributed to the erosion of beaches. Coastal waters have been subjected to pollutionthrough the discharge of urban and industrial wastes. To support the physical growth of coastal cities,reclamation of foreshore areas and changes in the coastal geomorphology by man-made constructionare common. These changes have impacted further on the marine environment by altering currentpatterns and increasing the sediment load particularly when water circulation of the area becomesreduced.

Adding to the problem is the spillage from small craft that discharge oily bilge waters. Thetransport of hazardous substances is another risk factor that needs to be considered. Accidents of thisnature at sea, however, have so far been uncommon.

Coastal degradation is much more evident in western Indonesia, especially Java, Bali and partsof Sumatera. Here pollution, over-fishing, coral loss and mangrove destruction have followed theincreases in population (for example, in Medan and the Bangka Straits).

Marine pollution

Marine pollution sources are:

(a) Vessel-borne pollution;(b) Land-based wastes from human settlements; towns near the beach being the main

cause of pollution;(c) Dumping by foreign ships a potential pollution source in the future;(d) Mining activities at sea.

Marine pollution levels are higher in the coastal waters than in the open seas. This issue is ofgreat environmental concern, particularly with the continuing trend of increasing coastal population.Fast growing coastal cities in the region, many without adequate sewage treatment plans, contribute tothe degradation of the coastal waters and shallow marine habitats. Open drainage canals keep pouringeffluent and industrial wastes directly into coastal waters.

Red tides, both toxic and non-toxic, cause blooms of dinoflagellates. These have beenincreasing in frequency and locality within the region. Although the causative factors have not beenpositively identified, pollution from land-based sources is strongly suspected. The occurrence of redtides has an impact on the mariculture industry as it usually results in fish kills of immense proportions.Paralytic shellfish poisoning caused by eating fish and shellfish during red tide blooms have resulted infatalities throughout the region and is of growing concern.


The discharge of raw sewage into coastal waters has raised the coliform count to beyondacceptable limits. Shellfish in these areas usually have high coliform counts in their tissues. Thisincreases the risk of exposure to human pathogens and disease transmission.

2.3.2.4 Economic losses because of over-exploitation

The current economic cost of this degradation has been estimated to be in the order of $20billion. At a national level, direct plus indirect benefits of marine and coastal resources are valued at$96 billion. This $96 billion adds indirect values such as human health, coastal protection and amenityvalue to the current contribution of marine and coastal resources GDP. Improved management andrehabilitation of resources that could be rehabilitated would increase this value by $20 billion to $116billion.

Socio-economic and cultural factors affecting biodiversity

Despite the high potential for the development of marine ecosystems and resources, thethreats to the sustainable capacity of marine ecosystems to provide resources and environmentalservices have, in many cases, reached a critical level. Human activities, which threaten marinebiodiversity, can be broadly grouped into five categories:

(a) Over-exploitation of living resources;(b) Physical alteration of coastal and marine habitats;(c) Coastal and marine pollution;(d) Introduction of alien species;(e) Global climate change.

However, these threats are in essence symptoms of more fundamental forces that are causingthe degradation of marine biodiversity.

Threats to coastal and marine biodiversity

Fish aggregating devices

Fish aggregating devices are a supplement to fishing gears that are taken to deep waters ofmore than 200 metres to attract and collect fishes (mainly the big pelagic) such as tuna and skipjack(DGF 1994c).

The placement of a fish aggregatting device is naturally contingent on the presence of pelagicfishes. Common targets are tuna, jacks and mackerel. Channels known to be migratory routes andprone to strong currents are favourite sites. Three dimensional structures are more effective than twodimensional ones. The number and species of fish attracted is related to the number of structures,distance offshore and water depth. Larger fish aggregating device structures attract more fish thansmall structures and clear water is a positive factor.


Human use (impact)

According to Polovina (1991) the principle functions of fish aggregating devices are the sameas fish habitats, fishing grounds, sheltering etc. Fish aggregating devices simply increase the amount ofexploitable population available to fishermen without actually increasing population sizes.

Climate change and the marine environment

Hadi (1990), citing from other authors, illustrates that from the measurement of meteorologicalparameters in the northern hemisphere, from 1890 until 1940, the air temperature has risen between0.30 degree Celsius to 0.60 degree Celsius. Global warming causes global sea-level rise. Over the lasthundred years, the sea level has risen between 10 to 15 cm. With the increase of air temperature, thesea level will continue to increase.

The impact of the climate change upon the marine environment (including the coastalenvironment) will cause:

1. Coastal inundation;2. The death of coral animals due to sea water temperature rise.

The complex nature of the marine environment makes it difficult to identify the real cause ofdamage to the marine environment whether from seawater temperature rise or sea level rise. Theoccurrences of such marine phenomena as ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillation), and storm surges orof geological process, such as land subsidence, create uncertainty in deciding the real cause of thedamage.

2.3.2.5 Causes including sectoral demands and failures and internal and external marketdemands

Over-exploitation of the natural resources in the marine and coastal zone, such as coral reefs,mangroves, seagrass and ornamental fishes, will cause destruction and degradation to the marine andcoastal ecosystem. In addition, the increasing rate of shipping, some carrying toxic and hazardousmaterials, could possibly endanger the sea through marine pollution. Transboundary pollution could alsobe factor.


If the global warming predictions were to take place, Indonesia may be one of many islandcountries in the world that would be detrimentally affected by global warming and sea-level rise. Thisis simply because coastal areas in Indonesia are mostly flat. However, the majority of participants atthe focus group discussion were not too concerned with these phenomena. The same perception wasalso true for other resource persons who were interviewed during the course of this assignment. Thereason for this argument is because global warming and sea-level rise will take place in a relativelylong-term period.

Environmental threats will either directly or indirectly reduce or degrade marine biodiversity atgenetic, species, or ecosystem levels. The most serious and direct threats to coastal and marinebiodiversity are the conversion of coastal habitats (for example, mangroves, seagrass beds andestuaries) into man-made land uses, such as tambak , industrial estates and settlement; and theharvesting of coastal and marine resources. Indirect threats to marine biodiversity would be in the form


of pollution and sedimentation.


2.4 MODIFICATION OF AQUATIC HABITATS

2.4.1 Freshwater

2.4.1.1 Freshwater and coastal wetlands

From January until March 1988 the coastal wetlands and waterbirds along the north coast ofeastern Java, including the Brantas and Solo deltas, were surveyed as part of a cooperative project ofthe Asian Wetland Bureau/INTERWADER and the Indonesian Directorate General of ForestProtection and Nature Conservation (PHPA).

As result of continuous reclamation, most of the original mangrove forest in the survey areahas been converted into brackishwater fish ponds (tambak). Throughout the survey area the remainingcoastal fringe of mangroves has a maximum width of 50 metres. This is much less than the 200 metrewide greenbelt that has been proposed by the Government.

Apart from the coastal fringe, some mangrove vegetation remained along rivers (with a fringeof less than 15 metres), along the dikes of the numerous ponds, and as small patches inside ponds. Atotal of 98 different bird species were encountered in the area. Despite the poor status of theremaining mangrove vegetation, the surveyed area showed a considerable richness of waterbirds whowere using the area for roosting, foraging and breeding. A total of 10 breeding colonies of waterbirdswere encountered comprising over 17,500 nests of 13 different species of waterbirds, including Black-headed Ibis, Threskiornis melanocephalus, (8 nests) and Nankeen Night Heron, Nycticoraxcaledonicus, (2 nests, probably interbreeding with Black-Night Heron, Nycticorax nycticorax). NearUjung Pangkah (at the Solo delta) a breeding colony of around 10,000 nests was found, representingthe most important breeding colony of waterbirds known on Java.

Large concentrations of migratory waders were observed on the intertidal mudflats and sandysites along the coast and in front of deltas and estuaries. It is estimated that approximately 40,000-50,000 waders visit the survey area every migratory season. A total of 21 different species of waderswas observed, including the endangered Asian Dowitchers at the Lembaan Estuary (Solo Delta). Thisindicates that the main wintering range of this species includes the island of Java.

The Brahminy Kite, Haliastur indus, was only observed on three occasions, although it hadbeen reported as very common in the Brantas delta in 1936 by Hoogerwerf. This indicates aconsiderable decline of the Kite's population within a few decades.

Samples taken of the macrobenthic fauna in the intertidal flats at five different locationsrevealed an average biomass of 8.7 g/m2 (AFDW). Local variation in macrobenthic biomass,however, was large, with a minimum of 0.03 g/m2 at the Pesisir estuary and a maximum of 36.8 g/m2at the Wonorejo estuary.

2.4.1.2 Inland lakes and water bodies

No data and information were found for this subject as related to SCS.


2.4.2 Marine

The modification of marine habitats was described in section 2.4.2.1, estuaries andembayments were described in section 2.4.2.2, coral reefs in section 2.4.2.2 and mangroves in section 2.4.2.4. Seagrass beds are described below.

2.4.2.1 Degradation of coral reefs and other coastal ecosystems including beaches,mangroves and seagrass beds

The sustainable capacity of these coastal ecosystems is being subjected to stresses anddegradation from inappropriate development activities within the coastal zone itself as well as in theocean and in the upland areas. The causes of the degradation of these coastal ecosystems aredescribed below.

(a) Coral reef damage is caused mainly by coral mining, the use of explosives (bombing)and poisons to harvest reef fish and other biota, and by sedimentation from upland soil erosion. Basedon the percentage coverage of living corals, it was reported that 41.8 per cent of the Indonesian coralreefs are severely damaged, 28.3 per cent moderately damaged, 23.7 per cent in good condition, andonly 6.2 per cent in excellent condition.

(b) The conversion of mangroves to other land uses, such as tambak , settlement andindustrial estates, and the over-harvesting of mangrove timber has resulted in the reduction of theirareal extent and quality. The Indonesian mangrove area has decreased from 4.25 million hectares in1982 to 3.80 million hectares in 1993. An accurate figure for the area is not known since othersources give different numbers (4.25 hectares in 1982 and 3.24 hectares in 1987) (see figure 9).

(c) Sedimentation that increases the turbidity of marine waters has so far had the mostdeleterious effects on seagrass beds. Heavy coral mining and collection from reef flats, such as on theSeribu Islands and the coast of Bali, have also caused seagrass beds to deteriorate.

(d) Beach erosion is mostly due to inappropriate coastal development or construction. Thisis a common phenomenon in Indonesia. Other practices that have resulted in beach erosion includethe collection of beach sand for construction materials; the construction of airports, hotels, and otherstructures too close to beaches or in offshore waters; and sand mining.

2.4.2.2 Over-exploitation and unbalanced utilization of coastal and marine resources

Although the exploitation rate of fisheries resources for Indonesian marine waters is currentlyestimated at 40 per cent of its sustainable potential, there are some marine areas, particularly thosewith dense population and high industrialization such as the northern coast of Java, the Straits ofMalacca, and the Strait of Bali, which have already been over-fished (Naamin and Hardjamulia 1990;Dwiponggo 1991). This is because the distribution of fisheries activities is highly skewed. Mostfishermen, in particular the traditional ones who constitute 85 per cent of the total number offishermen, are concentrated in these coastal areas. Furthermore, owing to high world demand andprices, the utilization rate of penaeid shrimps has been very high, not only in those areas but also inother marine waters including southern, western and eastern Kalimantan, the eastern coast ofSumatra, South Sulawesi, western Nusa Tenggara, and the Arafura Sea. Such an unbalanced


utilization is also occurring for other coastal and marine resources, such as seaweeds and mangrovetimber.

2.4.2.3 Coastal and marine pollution

A variety of wastes originating from both land- and marine-based activities eventually enterthe marine environment. Sources of land-based pollutants include: coastal and upstream agriculturewhich discharge pesticides, fertilizers and sediment run-off; and urban and industrial developmentleading to the discharge of untreated wastes and effluent. Sources of marine-based pollutants include:oil and gas related activities resulting in the discharge of drilling wastes, chronic spills and potentialmajor oil spills (tanker accidents, blowouts); and marine traffic accidents resulting in the release ofwaste and toxic materials. The accumulation of wastes in coastal and marine waters, especially inareas with high population density and industrial activities such as the northern coast of Java and theMalacca Straits, has caused heavy pollution in these areas. This, in turn, could threaten thesustainability of marine living resources and human health. Cases such as the massive fish kills inJakarta Bay (1986, 1993 and 1994) and in Bontang Bay in 1989, and the Minamata-like diseases foundin North Jakarta (DAHURI 1991) indicate such a scenario.

The ever-increasing coastal and marine water pollution is also believed to be one of the mostimportant factors causing harvest failures in brackishwater shrimp production in the last five years invirtually all populated or high industrial development areas including the northern coast of Java, SouthSulawesi, and Aceh.

2.4.2.4 Illegal extraction of coastal and marine resources

Illegal utilization of coastal and marine resources include the use of extraction techniqueswhich are forbidden by Indonesian laws and regulation (for example, coral mining, the use ofexplosives and poisons to catch fish) and illegal fishing by foreign fishermen.

2.4.3 Critical habitats, ecosystems and species of transboundary importance

These are important for:

(a) Sustaining fisheries;(b) Sustaining regional/global biodiversity;(c) Protecting those elements sensitive to damage;(d) Protecting against economic losses associated with degradation;(e) Proposing interventions.

3. ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC COSTS OF THE IDENTIFIEDWATER-RELATED PRINCIPAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

An underlying assumption of the UNEP Country Study is that biodiversity is valuable, both ingeneral and in its various manifestations. This assumption is consistent with those of all major donoragencies (for example, the World Bank [Goodland 1988]; USAID [Brady 1988]; British OverseasDevelopment Agency [Flint 1990]) and with those of the Government of Indonesia itself (BAPPENAS1991; MoF/FAO 1991). The Indonesian Country Study, therefore, does not attempt to rationalize thisexisting policy framework comprehensively. Rather, its aim is to indicate roughly how valuablebiodiversity is in the case of Indonesia, thereby providing a context for assessing current expenditurelevels on biodiversity conservation and the scale of expenditure that seems likely to be needed to


secure and develop the country's biodiversity assets. It is also recognized that valuing biodiversitycompletely is a complex task and may in principle be impossible because of the uncertainty inherent insome of the assumptions that need to be made. This chapter will therefore draw attention to some ofthe kinds of value involved and some of the estimates which have been produced in the recent past.

At all stages it should be recalled that the natural systems being valued are both highlycomplex in themselves, and interact with one another in complex ways, both physically andecologically. They are therefore able to produce multiple outputs of economic significance, but not allof these outputs can be maximized at the same time. Thus, for example, harvesting a forest for timbermay reduce its ability to yield rattan canes or tourism revenues. Moreover, the linkage betweenecological processes means that harvesting one system for one output can reduce the yield of otheroutputs from other systems. Thus, harvesting a mangrove swamp for wood-chips may reduce offshorefisheries and damaging coral reefs can cause the loss of coastal farmlands through erosion.

The main point here is that biodiversity and ecosystem management inevitably involves theneed to resolve conflicts of interest among groups wishing to use the resources concerned incontradictory ways. This has profound implications for all aspects of management since it must allowfor rational decisions to be made in a way that maximizes both the fulfilment of the basic needs of thepeople and the sustainable generation of national and local income.

3.1 FORESTRY AND WILD-LIFE MANAGEMENT

Over 100 tree species are harvested commercially to produce about 35 million m3 of industrialwood annually, supporting a timber industry valued at over US$ 4.5 billion each year (BAPPENAS1991; ADB/Gol 1992a). This exploitation of the forest estate for wood is based on the IndonesianSelective Cutting and Planning System (TPTI) which is designed to achieve sustainable outputs fromareas which are intended to remain under forest indefinitely as permanent production forest (MoF/FAO 1991).

One point to make about biodiversity in forestry concerns the long-term impact of TPTI on thegenetic composition of the populations of trees (mainly Diptercarpaceae) which are being harvested.The sustainability of TPTI management depends largely on the role of 'mother trees' left after logging,but genetic aspects of the selection of these is very little understood at present (Curran and Soetikno1991). Moreover, Dipterocarps are typically mast-fruiting incidents so the density and fruitingcapabilities of the mother trees must also be taken into account. It appears that Dipterocarps mustoften reach a girth higher than that specified under TPTI for mother trees before they seed (Curranand Soetikno 1991).

Rattans or climbing palms are the second most valuable forest product after timber. Rattanexports in 1988 earned Indonesia more than US$ 200 million (Caldecott 1988a; BAPPENAS 1991).Meanwhile, in the mid-1980s wild meat contributed some US$ 100 million annually to the economy ofSarawak, a state in Malaysian Borneo with a population of about 1.5 million (Caldecott 1988b).Comparable figures per person might be expected in much of Kalimantan, Irian Jaya and elsewhere inIndonesia. This was used to derive a value of US$ 12.50/ha/yr, implying a value of US$ 1.25 billion ayear for Indonesia's 100 million hectares of forest, approximately equal to annual timber stumpagevalues (ADB/Gol 1992a). This component is directly related to the biodiversity of forest systemsbecause of the adaptations of prey species to their environment and the acute sensitivity of wildlifepopulation productivity to habitat disturbance (Caughley 1978).



Other products available in Indonesia's forest include fruits, vegetables, nuts, spices, perfumes,seed oils, fodder, anti-microbial agents, other potential pharmaceuticals, pesticides, food colourants,flavours and food preservatives, dyes, adhesives, resins, gums, waxes and latexes. Since many ofthese products are of high economic value, they can sustain the basic needs of local communities aswell as providing commodities for trade and commercial development (see below).

The variety of actual or potential outputs which Indonesia's forests are capable of producinghelps to explain the importance to rural communities of access to forest areas from which they canharvest a variety of materials. The timber, rattans, medicinal plants, wild meat and fruits so obtained,without the need for cash, supplement their agricultural production and can make a great difference interms of the level of real well-being experienced by cash-poor villagers. Since much of the direct usevalue of forest biodiversity in Indonesia enters the economy at a subsistence level in this way, and isnot recorded in national accounts, this makes it hard to calculate the true economic contribution of thisbiodiversity overall.

3.2 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

It is hard to distinguish the value of the ecological functions of forests from that of theirconstituent species collectively. It is accepted that logged forests have a hydrological functioncapability significantly less than that of intact forest, at least for a few years after logging. Meanwhile,artificial plantation forests are unable to perform ecological services as efficiently as natural forests fora variety of reasons. These include their simplified canopy structure and root systems, andmanagement procedures that necessarily reduce ground vegetation cover (such as thinning, weeding,fire-breaks and synchronous harvesting or defoliation because of pest attack or fire (ERL 1991). Thisis relevant in that Indonesia had established about 1.5 million hectares of industrial tree plantations by1980 (mostly Tectona grandis and Pinus merkusii) and a similar area of non-industrial planted forest(Repetto and others 1989).

These factors imply that Indonesia is correct in emphasizing the protection of natural forests(Hutan Lindung) as the mainstay of its watershed management strategy. These areas are veryimportant in terms of ecological function, but serve another role in maintaining biodiversity assets intactas well. Although the maintenance of over 30 million hectares of protection forest imposes anadditional burden on PHPA, the national economic significance of this role cannot be over-emphasized.Damage to protected forest in watersheds causes a deterioration of both water supply and availabilitypatterns downstream.

The economic consequences of extensive forest loss are illustrated by the regional examplesof Thailand, the Philippines and Hainan Province of China, with natural forest cover of under 30 percent, 25 per cent and 15 per cent respectively. These have all experienced serious economic loss fromdeforestation through a failure of ecological service functions (such as causing floods and droughts),and from the loss of valuable or potentially-valuable wild species, such as reduced wild meat harvestsand rattan supplies (ERL 1991).

At present, Indonesia retains some 60 per cent forest cover overall, but in local clearanceareas flash-floods are becoming noticeable and even careful logging has a marked impact onsubsistence lifestyles in nearby areas, for example by damaging riverine fisheries.


3.3 AGRICULTURE AND AGRO-FORESTRY

Biodiversity can play an important role in helping agriculture to satisfy basic economic needssustainably. Thus, the genetic diversity of Indonesian rice, cultivated fruit trees and other staples isrecognized as of great value, especially in intensively-managed agrarian situations. Much ofIndonesia's land area is of low agricultural potential, however, and the country's biological richness canusefully be applied in extensive systems of agriculture. This is particularly appropriate with the growingof diverse, multiple-output tree crops in combination with food-crop systems, an approach to land usecalled agroforestry. This addresses a central problem in tropical small-farm agriculture in areas withpoor soils and wet chemical inputs. An effective solution is shifting cultivation, but this damages soilquality and vegetation cover unless it is practised by very sparse populations which can allow longfallow periods between cultivating each plot of land.

Much of Indonesia has long been inhabited and used by shifting cultivators, but as populationshave increased so too has the area of serious damage. This has been greatly aggravated by migrantpopulations entering and clearing forest areas without having the social means to minimizeenvironmental damage which are typical of long-term resident populations in marginal lands (Dove1987; Kartawinata and others 1989; Jessup 1991; Li 1991). Where shifting cultivation is no longerviable, higher population densities can, in principle, be supported by incorporating nitrogen-fixingleguminous woody plants within food-crop systems. This basic approach can be developed further byadding economic trees to the woody component, thereby providing diversified perennial cash-crops andraw materials to support other forms of sustainable development (see tables 3.1; 3.2 and 3.3).


Table 3.1. Socio-economic impacts of agricultural productionSubregion Average agricultural production in watershed areas

(ton)Average earnings from production Number of

peopleinvolvedin thesector

Type of technology used in production

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1991/1992

1992/1993 1993/1994

1994/1995 Land processingmachenery

Pest controlmachenery

Paddyprocessor

1. Riau and Batam

363,578 350,610 350,810 378,994 380,160 357,094 350,710 364,902 379,577 - (a). Two wheelstractors.(b). Four wheelstractors: small,big.

(a). Hand sprayer,(b). Knap sackmotor sprayer,(c). RatFumigator,(d). Power sprayer

Trasher,dryer, cleaner,polisher, ricemilling unit,huller, largerice mill andsmall.

2. Bangka-Belitung

and SouthSumatera

1,062,638

1,300,278 1,213,075 1,130,041 1,275,521 1,181,458 1,256,676 1,171,558 1,202,781

-

Idem as above Idem as above Idem as above


27,474

9,529,451

31,43310,406,341

28,48810,453,303

22,9569,502,006

19,30910,350,699

29,4539,967,896

29,96010,429,822

25,7229,977,654

21,1329,926,352

--

Idem as above Idem as above Idem as above

4. East Java7,985,794

8,338,060 8,365,977 8,039,187 8,312,086 8,161,927 8,352,018 8,202,582 8,175,636 - Idem as above Idem as above Idem as above

5. SouthKalimantan 963,936

1,088,242 1,049,082 1,039,455 1,081,177 1,026,089 1,068,662 1,044,268 1,060,316 - Idem as above Idem as above Idem as above

6. WestKalimantan 490,392

529,336 569,082 571,143 626,136 509,864 311,003 570,112 598,639 - Idem as above Idem as above Idem as above


Sources:1. Central Bureau of Statistics, 1994-1995. Agricultural Survey Production of Paddy in Indonesia. Jakarta.2. Central Bureau of Statistics, 1994 Agricultural Survey, Agricultural Machenery By Province and District. Jakarta.Note : - : No data


Table 3.2. Socio-economic impacts of public health

Subregion,Watershed area

Ranking of majordiseases includingwater-borne diseases

Average number of reported cases for each disease(Morbidity rate per 1000)

Average number of deaths for each disease(Case Fatality Rate-CFR %)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

1. Riau and Batam

Diarrhea and vomiting 17.78 25.23 18.24 19.19 22.71 18.68 0.080 0.170 0.004 0.010 0.096 0.010


Idem as above9.50 27.55 27.57 21.98 23.24 19.69 0.100 0.030 0.030 0.019 0.060 0.020


Idem as above

Idem as above

18.6036.49

18.0040.35

13.2431.87

15.0140.17

12.3939.66

13.3727.04

0.0000.100

0.0000.010

0.0020.002

0.0000.004

0.0020.004

0.0030.009

4. East Java Idem as above

34.30 28.10 32.29 50.75 44.46 40.38 0.010 0.010 0.002 0.000 0.002 0.002

5. South Kalimantan Idem as above

24.83 26.24 19.82 18.28 17.55 12.08 0.210 0.100 0.018 0.025 0.026 0.006

6. West Kalimantan Idem as above

8.27 20.21 15.48 19.03 23.02 21.75 0.150 0.080 0.021 0.008 0.031 0.003

Source :1. Ministry of Health, Republic of Indonesia (1996)2. Central Bureau of Statistics (1998)


Table 3.3. Socio-economic impacts of infrastructureSubregion,

Watershed areaType and location of infrastructure affected by water-related processes Cost of damage or repair per

infrastructureSocio-economic impact ofinfrastructure damage

Type ofnaturaldisaster

Destruction Year Location

1. Riau and Batam

Flood

Land slide

Settlement andagriculture

Idem as above

1996/1997

1996/1997

Batam, Bengkalis, IndragiriHulu, Indragiri Hilir,

Housing : 11,578 (Rp 18,159,264,000) Human loss


Flood

Land slide

Idem as above

Idem as above

1996/1997

1996/1997

Ogan Komering Ulu, MusiRawas, Lahat.

Musi Rawas

Housing : 536 (Rp 3,843,452,000) Material loss


-Flood

Land slide

-Idem as above

Idem as above

-1996/1997

1996/1997

-Purwakarta, Kuningan.

Cianjur, Sukabumi

-Housing : 16,474 (Rp 70,366,583,000)

-Loss of jobs

4. East Java Flood

Land slide

Idem as above

Idem as above

1996/1997

1996/1997

Tuban, Lumajang, Sukabumi

-

Housing : 5,498 (Rp 2,721,083,000) Isolation for other areas

5. South Kalimantan - - - - - Increase of daily needsprices

6. West Kalimantan - - - - - Agriculture supportdestruction

Source:1. Ministry of Social Welfare: Operational Map of Disaster (1998)2. Ministry of Social Welfare: Annual Report (1996/97).3. Ministry of Social Welfare: Destruction Occurrences Data and Steps of Problem Solving (1995/96)

Note: - : No data.


Ideally, such systems should make maximum use of existing Indonesian agroforestry practicessince this will take advantage of local knowledge and local species adaptations while increasing theoverall genetic continuity of agricultural landscapes. Modern agro-forestry provides a powerful modelfor sustainable agricultural development in the marginal lands of Indonesia, effectively addressing thetwin aims of sustainability and the relief of poverty.

3.4 COASTAL SYSTEMS AND WETLANDS

Of all the environmental systems in Indonesia, the coastal zone has the highest concentrationof human population, planned development activity and investment, and actual or anticipated pollutionand other environmental problems, as well as the greatest density of naturally productive resourcesystems.

Coastal systems have both a high degree and a high diversity of biological productivity, andthese resources support a large proportion of Indonesia's population. These systems are productivepartly because this is where the mixing of nutrient and energy flows from the land and the sea occurs. The most valuable living resources are, therefore, in the places where this mixing is most dynamic - inthe estuaries and mangrove swamps. These represent areas where intense and sustained harvesting offinfish, shellfish and other resources is possible. These same areas are, however, most vulnerable topollution or other disturbances which are carried down to the coast by rivers. In an estuarine system,any such disturbance is multiplied by the impact of other human activities occurring locally, so intenseeffects can easily be generated. Estuarine systems are thus both highly valuable and highly vulnerable,a combination which demands extreme care in their management. The key values, uses and functionsof coastal ecosystems in Indonesia can be summarized as follows (Hamilton and Snedaker 1984;Burgridge and others 1985):

(a) Agro-ecosystems-food production; livestock production; timber products and fuel; fishproduction;

(b) Fishpond (tambak) aquaculture - increased fishery production; increased income andliving standards; increased protein consumption per person;

(c) Freshwater system - natural flood control and storage; water supply and recharge;nutrient and sediment sinks; waterbird habitat; food production; building and energymaterials;

(d) Beach systems - breeding habitat for birds, sea turtles and other species; recreation;tourism; fishing habitat; timber and fuel; protection from coastal hazards;

(e) Estuarine systems - nutrient influx to coastal waters; fisheries production; nursery andspawning areas for many coastal fish; links to mangroves, seagrasses, pelagic anddemersal fisheries;

(f) Tidal swamps - habitat for fish, wildlife and plants; flood storage; links to mangroves;timber and fuel; links to rice culture; fisheries production;

(g) Mangroves - sediment filter; nutrient filter; fishery resource (finfish and shellfish); nettransfer oil production to coastal fisheries; breeding and spawning grounds for manycoastal species; nursery grounds for coastal and estuaries species; links to seagrassbeds and coral reefs; shoreline protection, buffer for tidal swamps; timber and fuel;tannin, alcohol, sugar and other chemicals;

(h) Seagrass beds - nutrient filter; net transfer of production to coastal fisheries; feedinghabitat for green turtles and dugongs; nursery grounds for coastal fisheries; links to


mangroves and coral reefs; fishery production;(i) Coral reefs - links to seagrass, mangroves, beaches and coral islands; shoreline

protection; beach sand replenishment and production; high internal productivity;shellfish and finfish production; spawning and nursery grounds for fish; tourism andrecreation; ornamental species (shells, corals, fish etc); seaweed harvesting;mariculture;

(j) Demersal systems - high productivity in upwelling areas and coastal areas; high prawnand finfish production;

(k) Pelagic systems - high productivity in upwelling areas; high-yielding migratory species.

See further table 3.4 : Wetland in Indonesia


Table 3.4. Wetlands in IndonesiaLAND AREA NATURAL WETLANDS (NA) ARTIFICIAL WETLANDSTOTAL (NA)

(%)ind

PEATSWAMP

FRESH-WATERSWAMP

MAN-GROVEFOREST

CORALREEF

SEAGRASSBED

BEACHVEGETATION

MUDFLATSANDGFLAT

LAKE ESTUAR

RIVER

SUB TOTALNATURALW.

FRESHWATERPOND

DAM/RESERVE

PADDY.FIELD

BRACKISH POND

SALT.PAN

SUB-TOTALARTIFICIAL W.

TOTAL(NA)WETLANDS

ISLANDS CATEGORIES

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20SUMATRA Original area

RemainingareaProteced area

47,348,100 25 7,282,0004,613,000

341,000

4,890,0001,090,000

253,000

857,000485,025

61,900

nanana

nanana

13,0007,0002,000

nanana

370,043nana

nanana

nanana

13,412,0438,195,025

857,90055,533 na 2,787,31

743,514 na

02,888,36

40

13,412,0439,081,389

657,900

JAWA BALI Original areaRemainingareaProteced area

13,774,700 7 000

72,0004,5001,250

171,50018,577

2,600

nanana

nanana

nanana

nanana

8,270nana

nanana

nanana

249,77024,077

3,85034,878 na 5,329,04

5109,013 na

05,472,93

60

249,7705,497,013

3,850

MUSATENGGARA

Original areaRemainingareaProteced area

8,292,700 5 000

4,0002,000

0

38,80025,300

2,500

nanana

nanana

19,0004,500

0

nanana

6,0415,000

500

nanana

nanana

67,84138,800

3,0004,821 na 445,216 5,207 na

0455,244

0

67,641492,044

3,000

KALIMANTAN


53,946,000 28 4,413,0003,531,000

257,000

3,895,0001,717,000

362,000

1,092,000

353,45078,000

nanana

nanana

8,0003,0002,000

nanana

114,23192,00025,000

nanana

nanana

8,522,2315,698,450

724,00029,122 na 1,032,44

89,370 na

01,070,94

00

9,522,2316,767,390

724,000

SULAWESI Original areaRemainingareaProteced area

18,921,600 10 44,00034,000

0

282,00066,000

2,500

272,50084,333

6,300

nanana

nanana

65,00025,000

3,600

nanana

159,87196,000

3,300

nanana

nanana

823,371305,833

15,70030,862 na 1,111,56

982,394 na

01,224,82

50

823,3711,530,858

15,700

MALURU Original areaRemainingareaProteced area

7,450,500 4 48,000420001,000

46,00021,000

5,500

197,500100,000

21,500

nanana

nanana

39,00015,500

8,700

nanana

3,438nana

nanana

nanana

333,838178,500

36,700na na 11,622 39 na

011,661

0

333,938190,161

36,700


JAVA Original areaRemainingareaProteced area

42,198,100 22 8,910,0008,753,0001,283,000

2,355,0002,285,000

360,000

1,500,000

1,382,000

508,100

nanana

nanana

36,00023,00017,000

nanana

115,000115,000

45,000

nanana

nanana

12,918,00012,558,000

2,213,100na na 16,573 68 na

016,841

0

12,918,00012,574,641

2,213,100

INDONESIA(NA)


191,931,700

100 20,697,00016,973,000

1,882,000

11,544,0005,185,500

984,250

4,129,100

2,450,185

680,900

nanana

nanana

180,00078,00033,300

nanana

774,394308,000

73,800

nanana

nanana

37,324,88424,994,685

3,854,250

0155,216

0

nanana

8,393,290

304,623nanana

08,853,12

90

37,324,89433,847,814

3,654,250

Compiled by Wetlands International from these sources as at 1996 1,2 Central Bureau of Statistics (1994) 3,4,8 Silvius et al. (1989)5 Original and remaining area (Giesen, 1993); protected area (Silvius et al., 1989) 10 Remaining area, protected area and all data for Irian Jaya (Silvious, 1989); Original area including floodplain (Giesen, 1994)14,17 Central Bureau of Statistics (1992) 16 Kompas, 7 July 1995

Notes: 6,7,9,11,12,15 Data not available 13,19,20 Automatic calculation of available data na Accurate data not available


4. ANALYSIS OF THE ROOT CAUSES OF THE IDENTIFIED WATER-RELATED ISSUES

As can be seen from the following matrices, from both the water-related issues or problemswith transboundary consequences and from the generic water-related issues/problems withtransboundary causes and single country impacts (see table 4.1), the root causes are all fundamental innature, such as: environmental awareness and its control, inappropriate technology or absence ofenvironmentally sound and sustainable development countermeasures, absence of treatment plans toreduce pollution and degradation problems, human failures and lack of integration and coordination inlaw enforcement.

Water-related issues and problems with transboundary consequences are found in the watersshared with neighbouring countries, such as the Malacca-Singapore Straits in general. Possibilities forbroader impacts are generated in the Java Sea bordering Sumatera, Java and western and southern Kalimantan. In the Malacca Straits, shared by the three coastal States of Indonesia, Malaysia andSingapore, the issues and problems mostly originate from oil pollution because of the heavy volume ofships passing through the Straits and other related offshore prospecting activities. All these activitiescould create issues and problems in the form of oil pollution, sedimentation and heavy metalcontamination. Offshore activities contribute to the degradation of critical habitats.

Sedimentation from both land-based sources through rivers and from the sea itself in the formof sea-based sources could decrease turbidity, reduce light penetration into the sea and affectphotosynthesis causing a decrease in primary production. The impacts on coastal habitats, such asmangroves, seagrasses, coral reefs and other biotas, will affect their growth and propagation, includingthe growth of benthic communities. Furthermore, silt particles in the water column trap heavy metals,chlorinated organic pesticides and bacteria and could pose serious threats to the health of humans andecosystems. Bio-accumulation in such an area could affect species composition, resulting in thedisappearance of some species and the appearance of undesirable ones. The degradation of criticalhabitats will be seen mainly in soft bottom habitats, coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves swamps.In general, the major environmental concerns along the eastern coast of Sumatera or in the waters ofthe Malacca Straits are: oil and chemical spills, harmful algal blooms and fish kills, fecal coliformcontamination, tributil tin (TBT) contamination and heavy metal pollution, and sedimentation.


Table 4.1. Indonesia Causal Chain Analysis

Water RelatedEnvironmental

Issue

Impact Zone(Specific

geographicZone)

SourceCausal Chain

Socio-economicImpacts

Action

Immediate Intermediate Root cause

Oil E. Sumatera

Jakarta Bay

Tankers ballastwater discharge

Operationaldischarges

Accident

Offshore rigaccidentdischarges

International andnational shipping

Human error

Offshoreprospecting &exploitation

Lack of PortReceptionfacilities

Lack of controltoadequatenavigationalaids

Lack of investment

In Progress withInternationalConventions

Financial constraints

Loss of tourist andrecreational value

Damage to fish trapsespecially by tar balls

Degradation of mangroves,coral reefs habitats loss offisheries production

Provide portreception facilities

Enforcement ofexisting legislation

NCP & SOPimplementation

Upgrade local SOP

Litter/SolidWaste(Plants,bottles,polystyrene,paper productswood)

All"hotspots"

Urban wastedisposal

Direct dumping

Erosion fromcoastal dump sites

Inadequatefacilities forvolumes ofwaste

Poor siting oflandfill and dumpsites

Inadequate planning of solidwaste disposal

Absence of recyclingfacilitiesLack of law enforcement

Inadequate waste collectionsystems

Poor practices, inadequatepublic education

Loss of tourist andrecreational value

Damage to fishgear/traps loss of fisheriesproduction & revenue

More & betterplanned disposalsites

Provision ofincentives torecycle

Law enforcement

Publicparticipation& Education


IncreasedSedimentloads

Whole coast Forestry

Agriculture

Dredging ofportsharbours &navigationalchannels

Reclamationand coastalconstruction(Engineering)

Poor land use practices

Inappropriatetechnology

Inappropriatestandards & controls

Inadequateregulationenforcement

Lack of capacity

Lack of investment

Inadequate legal andadministrative framework

Loss of tourismrevenue

Loss of fisheries productionand revenues

IncreasedInvestment

Development andadoption ofconstructionstandards

Public Education

Improved land useplanning

Adoption ofsustainableagriculturalpractices

Heavy MetalDomestic

JakartaSurabayaBatamPontianakBanjarmasin

City pipesCanalsRivers

Organics RiverEstuary

Absence of sewage system Disease, fish killsfinancial constraints

Innovativemethods of sewagedisposalenvironmentallysound technology

Harmful AlgalBlooms

JakartaS. Sumatera

Nitrate ToxicAlgalBloomsRed Tides

Estuaries &Bays

Nutrients into the sea Fish killsSickness

Reduce nitrate &phosphateentering sea


As described in the previous sections, oil in the Malacca Straits forms the greatest problembecause of the transportation of tankers with 3.23 million barrels of crude oil/day through thisnavigation channel. Oil spills increased from 2 per cent in 1976 to 9 per cent in 1993 (Malacca StraitReport).

From another point of view, the impact of oil pollution on marine fisheries results in adegradation of spawning grounds and a reduction in fish stocks and a falling demand for fish productsfrom the affected areas.

It could also be seen from table 4.1. that the root causes are also perhaps the samefundamental issues: weak environmental awareness, absence of sewerage systems; absence ofenvironmentally sound technology; and the lack of law enforcement, even though many rules andregulations are already in existence.

5. CONSTRAINTS TO ACTION

The roots of the problems that cause the degradation of marine biodiversity include thefollowing socio-economic and cultural factors:

5.1 FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS ON DEVELOPMENT

In many cases, current sectoral management approaches are not promoting the efficient useof resources. The sectoral emphasis upon single-purpose uses generally precludes the consideration ofeconomic impacts on other sectors. Potential losses in economic productivity are seldom fully assesseduntil these losses become apparent. For example, appropriate coastal engineering practices havecaused significantly increased dredging costs at some ports and harbours, and in some cases theobstruction of shipping lanes as a result of ship groundings. As a second example, critical watershortages have occurred in some project areas involving a mix of aquaculture and agriculture, therebythreatening ongoing project viability.

Lack of coordination and cooperation among sectoral agencies has led to duplication of effortin such areas as data gathering and the enforcement of regulations. The problem is particularlypressing because the costs of data-gathering and enforcement in marine-based operations aregenerally much higher than in land-based operations. Given the severe government financialconstraints, it will be crucial to explore activities, such as the gathering of oceanographic data and theenforcement of fisheries regulations, where greater inter-agency coordination of efforts will lead tocost savings.

Owing to financial constraints, infrastructure in coastal communities is underdeveloped; as aresult the resource base available to coastal communities is often under-utilized. In particular, thetransportation links between many islands, and between coastal areas and inland districts, are oftenpoorly developed hindering the marketing of products. Problems caused by the lack of infrastructurehave been compounded in some cases by limited operating and maintenance funds. Selectiveinvestment in new government infrastructure may be essential to remove marketing bottlenecks. It willbe critical, however, to ensure that this new investment makes a definite, positive contribution in termsof payback, and to explore more cost-effective alternatives, such as the rationalization of existinginfrastructure or the deregulation of shipping activities.


5.2 RAPID POPULATION GROWTH IN COASTAL AREAS

The coastal zone supports a large variety of critical coastal ecosystems that are essential forthe maintenance of diverse marine resource bases. The coastal and marine areas bring together awide spectrum of natural resources that are dependent on the well-being of highly diverse, productiveand complex coastal and marine ecosystems including mangroves, seagrass beds and coral reefs. Inaddition, the coastal zone also provides a strategic location for industry, commerce, tourism andsettlement. As a consequence, most of the Indonesian population (65 per cent) presently lives withinthe coastal zone.

5.3 LACK OF POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

As a result of focus group discussions, interviews, literature reviews, and the PAS ownexperiences and knowledge, many laws and regulations relating to the management of marineresources utilization on a sustainable basis have been promulgated. Unfortunately, these laws andregulations are mostly not implemented. This is due mainly to poor law enforcement, sectoral egoismand lack of coordination.

Because the enforcement of most laws and regulations relating to the management ofsustainable marine resource use are in the form of sanctions (punishment) and rewards are weak orfrequently inconsistent, there are no incentives for an individual or a community to apply them. Lack ofcoordination and cooperation (egoism) among sectoral agencies or between central and regionalgovernments has led to duplication of efforts in such areas as data gathering, project implementationand the enforcement of regulations. In addition, this lack of institutional coordination and cooperationhas created resource use (development) conflicts. For example, the conflict between mangrove areaconservation versus golf course and real estate development at Pantai Indah Kapuk near the JakartaInternational Airport, conflict between traditional fishermen versus trawlers prior to 1980, and betweenconservation versus tourism in Seribu Island Marine Park. All of this in turn results in a lack of policyimplementation.

5.4 COASTAL POVERTY

Environmental degradation, which threatens marine biodiversity, is a result of bothindustrialization and poverty. This is especially true in developing countries like Indonesia wherepoverty is still lingering on in the majority of coastal communities. Poor people within the coastal areashave generally no alternative livelihood so they are forced to exploit resources and environmentalservices from ecologically marginal coastal and marine ecosystems.

5.5 LACK OF AWARENESS OF THE STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF COASTALAND MARINE RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The majority of planners, decision makers and resource users in Indonesia perceive renewablecoastal and marine resources, such as fish and mangroves, as less valuable than non-living resourcessuch as oil and gas and other minerals. Mangroves, seagrass beds and coral reefs are examples ofcoastal ecosystems that are undervalued for their environmental goods and services and ecological


functions. As a result the conversion of these ecosystems into man-made land uses has taken placethroughout the country.


5.6 LACK OF POLITICAL WILL TO APPLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES IN MARINE RESOURCE UTILIZATION

Sustainable development of coastal and marine resources requires the maintenance andenhancement of the carrying capacity of coastal and marine ecosystems in providing environmentalgoods (natural resources) and services. Since these environmental goods and services are regarded bymost Indonesian people as of relatively low value, there will be a lack of political will to maintain themfor sustainable development.

5.7 LACK OF RECOGNITION OF LOCAL RIGHTS AND INDIGENOUSKNOWLEDGE, COMMUNITY-BASED PARTICIPATION, AND EMPOWERMENTTO LOCAL GOVERNMENT

So far most coastal and marine programmes and projects were based on the top-downapproach. Very few programmes or projects on coastal and marine resource development have beeninitiated and managed by local coastal communities themselves. This approach is believed to be themain factor that has resulted in the unsustainable development of marine resources in the country.

5.8 LACK OF INTEGRATED APPROACHES IN COASTAL AND MARINERESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

Most coastal and marine resource development programmes or projects were carried outbased upon a sectoral approach. This was caused by a lack of manpower that has the ability todevelop and implement integrated coastal and marine resource development plans in both central andregional government institutions. In addition there are no working models that can demonstrate that theintegrated coastal and marine resource management approach is indeed more beneficial than thesectoral approach.

5.9 LACK OF CAPABLE HUMAN RESOURCES

In general there is a lack of manpower with the necessary skills to carry out coastal andmarine resource inventory and environmental assessment; to formulate integrated marine resourceplanning and management; to implement, monitor and evaluate such an integrated plan; and to enforceregulations. There is also a lack of technical and managerial skills in integrated coastal and marineresource planning and management on the part of local community organizations and in the privatesector. Furthermore, there is a skewed distribution of skilled manpower, with most of it beingconcentrated in Java. Shortages of skilled personnel, particularly in the outer islands, make it hard todecentralize planning and management functions of coastal and marine resource development to levelswhere development initiatives are implemented, and to develop resources in response to regional orlocal needs.

This lack of capable manpower is due mainly to: (a) the absence of education and trainingprogrammes which focus specifically on integrated coastal and marine resource management; (b) thelack of integrated, interdisciplinary approaches in marine sciences and fisheries education and trainingprogrammes; (c) inadequate preparation in the basic sciences such as mathematics, physics, chemistry


and biology; and (d) a lack of coordination among agencies in delivering effective extensionprogrammes on integrated coastal and marine resource management.

5.10 LACK OF INFORMATION AS A BASIS FOR RATIONAL AND OPTIMALMARINE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Information is a fundamental prerequisite for rational and effective planning and managementof sustainable coastal and marine resource development. Although the basic components of coastaland marine databases are currently available, there are many deficiencies. In many cases, existingdata are contained in manual systems, particularly at the provincial and district levels, which makesretrieval, analysis and dissemination difficult. Analysis is also made difficult by the lack of data in adatabase system that suits the need of coastal and marine resource management. There is insufficientbaseline information on key biophysical and socio-economic-cultural aspects that are needed for theplanning and management of sustainable marine resource development. Accessibility for the public toobtain data and information regarding coastal and marine resources, especially those categorized assecret/security data, is still very low. Finally, although there is sufficient data and information, veryrarely do middle managers and top managers in most government agencies use the availableinformation as a basis for planning and decisions in marine resource development. The majority ofplanners and decision makers still use "management by feeling approaches" instead of rationalmanagement approaches in marine resource development.

6. ONGOING AND PLANNED ACTIVITIES RELEVANT TO THE IDENTIFIED ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Like many other countries, Indonesia's first 25-year development plan, launched in 1968, wasbased on economic growth, political and monetary stability and equity. Issues of environmental qualityand sustainability represent a more recent addition to Indonesia's development concerns.

Indonesia first demonstrated its commitment to the environment when it established the StateMinistry for Development Supervision Environment in 1978. It became the State Ministry of Populationand Environment in 1983 in accordance with Act No. 4/1982 which defined the Ministry as theinstitution responsible for the management of the environment at the national level. In 1993, the agencybecame the State Ministry of Environment. The first legal policy on environmental management wasthe enactment of Act. 4/1982 on basic provisions for environmental management, revised by Act No.23/1992 on the regulation of the environment. Since then, many regulations have been established toensure environmental management and sustainable development. Conceptually, the idea of sustainabledevelopment is embodied in the State Policy Guidelines of 1993 and the National Guidance Act of 1945which stated that "The use of natural resources has to be done in a rational, optimal and responsibleway, taking into account the carrying capacity, and aiming at the utmost welfare of the people andsustainable function and balanced use of the environment towards sustainable development".

6.1 NATIONAL PROGRAMMES AND ACTIONS FOR LAND-BASED AND SEA-BASED POLLUTION CONTROL

6.1.1 Environmental impact assessments

Environmental impact assessments (EIAs) are mandated by Government RegulationNo.51/1993, which functions as a decision-making instrument regarding the feasibility of a certain


enterprise or activity by observing the impact on the environment from the first phase of planning.6.1.2 PROKASIH (Clean River Programme)

This programme aims to raise the quality of river water to meet the standard of water qualityis accordance with its respective uses. From 1989 to 1993/1994 Clean River Programme activitiesdealt with 31 rivers in 13 provinces. Operational realization of the Clean River Programme has beeneffected by the regional administration through a Prokasih team established by the provincialgovernment.

The Clean River Programme is the foundation for local and regional government enforcementactions regarding industrial effluent in the most industrialized provinces. It could be mentioned herethat perhaps all of the rivers beyond this programme could be stated as pollution hot spots (see table1).

6.1.3 Small-scale industries impact control

Some small-scale activities produce waste that pollutes the environment. For example,traditional gold mining produces waste with a high organic content and toxic and hazardous waste.Because small-scale industry has financial constraints, the Government has extended its assistance indealing with the control of waste.

6.1.4 Environmental damage control

Environmental damage often occurs during mining activities. Uncontrolled sand and gravelmining in rivers may cause sedimentation and erosion.

6.1.5 Marine and coastal pollution control

Marine and coastal pollution will reduce the potential of marine and coastal resources insupporting the development of Indonesia. The disposal of waste and chemical and oil spills creates anumber of problems.

To address the problems, the following programme has been designed and implemented:

(a) Port and hazardous pollution control programme;(b) Clean tourism programme for coastal areas;(c) Development of an environmental impact management system for oil spills (National

Contingency Plan for Oil Spills).

6.1.6 Hazardous waste management

This has included the construction of facilities for a hazardous waste management centre insome provinces in Indonesia and the implementation of emergency response systems in industries.Other waste programmes include the "Clean Up" programme, the minimization waste programme, thedevelopment of regulation, and the development of public awareness.


6.1.7 Clean City Programme (ADIPURA)

The Adipura Award is presented by the President to those cities and their people who havesuccessfully maintained the cleanliness of their cities based on criteria determined by the centralGovernment.

6.1.8 Cleaner production development

The intention of this programme is to prevent and to reduce the waste of resources in the production cycle. The goal of this programme is "zero emission" together with ecolabelling/ISO 14.000.The programme concentrates on the industrial sector, but it is expected to be available for othersectors in the future.

6.1.9 Implementation of coastal spatial layout and land use plans

Coastal spatial layout and land use plans should be based on the following process:

(a) The planning and development objectives of each sector must be clearly designated.To achieve the objectives, good coordination, integration and synchronization betweenvarious activities is needed;

(b) Spatial layout and land-use allocation and the establishment of national coastal areamanagement plans for many users should be based on an integrated decision-makingprocess.

6.1.10 Establishment of national coastal water quality standards

Indonesia is currently in the process of establishing coastal water quality standards. Initialdrafts indicate that these standards will be based on the beneficial use of the coastal zone for:

(a) Protection of marine life;(b) Protection of human health from the consumption of marine fish and shellfish;(c) Protection of recreational uses;(d) Aesthetic considerations.

It is recommended that beneficial use be designated and that the standards be based on thetype of use for which the areas is designated. For example, if an area is designated as a "recreationaluse area" then the standards applying to it would be less stringent than a 'preservation use area' butmore stringent than an "industrial use area".

In addition, it recommends that because of the difficulty and expense involved in monitoringcoastal zone areas, only a few selected key parameters be included in the standards.

More recently, the Government launched "Ten national steps towards environmentalmanagement and sustainable development" which will serve as broad guidelines for Indonesianenvironmental policies and strategies:

(1) Protect the environment;(2) Consider the carrying capacity of the environment;


(3) Raise the environmental quality;(4) Actively protect and benefit from the diversity of flora and fauna;

(5) Coordinate and integrate human, environmental and man-made resources intoenvironmental management strategies and policies;

(6) Optimize efforts towards regional spatial management;(7) Normalize environmental functions by reducing the risk of environmental

damage and pollution;(8) Increase community participation;(9) Anticipate and rely on environmental and economic information systems;(10) Utilize science and technology in environmental management and

environmental law enforcement.

In recent years Indonesia has made significant progress towards the formulation andimplementation of sustainable development principles as covered by Agenda 21, as reflected in thenational strategies and policies adopted and in its constant institutional development efforts.

Integrated management and sustainable development of coastal and marine areas, asdescribed in "Agenda 21 - Indonesia" 1997 (A National Strategy For Sustainable Development) as aresponse to Agenda 21 - Rio de Janeiro 1992, has been incorporated into Indonesia’s Fifth Five -yearDevelopment Plan.

In the Fifth Five-year Development Plan, many of the development activities take place incoastal areas. Population growth, export demand and per capita consumption all increased the use ofcoastal area marine resources. In 1992, fish production was 3.5 million tons, equaling 53 per cent ofMSY of 6.6 million tons. It is predicted that by 2000, this will increase to 4.25 million tons, and by 2020to 6.04 million tons. However, this will also cause an increase in pollution. Waters off the Surabayacoast show the existence of large volumes of domestic and industrial waste, and the water quality isreported to be the second most polluted in Indonesia, after Jakarta Bay.

However, the coastal communities have not yet gained any significant benefit fromdevelopment in these areas. On the contrary, other communities and agencies from locations far fromthe coast tend to enjoy the benefits. Therefore, the development of coastal villages should pay moreattention to the regional social, economic, cultural and environmental conditions.

In Indonesia, there are 116 small islands and groups of small islands that are ecologicallysusceptible, particularly because of global warming and natural disasters. The potential result is adecrease in the numbers of living creatures, animals and human beings that inhabit the islands. Smallislands typically have large numbers of endemic species and high levels of biodiversity consisting ofvaluable and protected species.

Indonesian waters are frequently navigated by both foreign container ships and fishing boats.Law enforcers face problems preventing ship traffic which is protected by agreements. Relativelyweak control in eastern Indonesia creates other problems in dealing with the frequent violations, suchas the disposal of toxic and hazardous waste and trespassing in the catchment zone of various bioticand non-biotic resources.

This situation requires better management of coastal and marine areas, especially institutional


integrity and competence so that resources found in these areas may become prime products in thedevelopment of Indonesia in the future.

The following programme areas have been designated to deal with these issues:

A. Integrated planning and resource development in coastal zones;B. Monitoring and protecting coastal and marine environments;C. Utilizing marine resources sustainably;D. Enriching and empowering coastal communities;E. Developing small islands sustainably;F. Maintaining security of the exclusive economic zone (EEZ);G. Managing the impacts of climate change and tidal waves.

6.2 SHIPPING AND MARINE PORT ACTIVITY

Except for Jakarta, Surabaya and Belawan, few physical improvements have been made tothe port system over the last 25 years. Most commercial ports are, therefore, not equipped for theintroduction of modern technology and efficient cargo handling methods.

In many marine and coastal areas, direct discharges of ballast water, raw sewage and solidwaste is taking place. Resources and ecosystems found in coastal areas are vulnerable to damagefrom these discharges. In some cases, the locations of the most vulnerable resources are unknown, sothat these resources cannot be protected.

6.3 INDUSTRY AND HYDROCARBON POLLUTION

Oil industry activities include extensive offshore exploration and production, heavily usedtanker routes serving Pacific Rim nations, refineries and large-scale terminal operations. Each of theseoperations can result in a major oil spill. However, few marine and coastal regions have eithercontingency plans or response capability. In 1982, legislation was enacted requiring proponents of oilsector related development projects to produce oil spill contingency plans for site specific oil and gasactivities. A national oil spill contingency plan has not yet been developed.

Onshore petroleum facilities, such as refineries, can affect local ecosystems through thechronic discharge of pollutants, air emissions, the conversion of lands to industrial use, the impactsassociated with community development, and other effects. Where chronic pollution leads to tailing ormortality of commercial species, local fishing income and food sources may be lost.

6.4 FISHERIES AND OVER-FISHING

Over-fishing in some areas (the Malacca Straits and the northern coast of Java) appears to bethe main constraint to fisheries development, but habitat destruction and coastal pollution have alsobecome significant. While the over-exploitation of fish stocks near densely populated coastalcommunities could limit production objectives, reduce incomes and result in higher unemployment, thedestruction of mangrove forests and coastal wetlands (swamps) has already eliminated importantmarine nurseries. This loss is serious because 60 to 80 per cent of commercially valuable marinefishery species use wetlands, estuaries, and other areas near the ocean shorelines as spawning,nursery and foraging grounds at some point in their life cycles. Coastal habitats are also degraded byland-based pollution discharges (by far the most significant pollution source), but too little is knownabout their fate or impacts.



Other problems constraining the development of fisheries include inadequate infrastructure,marketing and distribution facilities, shortage of capital and credit, insufficient skilled manpower, andthe generally inefficient technology of production units.

6.5 CORAL MINING AND DEGRADATION OF CRITICAL HABITATS

Coral reef mining leads to a direct loss of coral from extraction; to the smothering and killingof nearby coral animals with particulates and debris; to a weakened reef structure which is susceptibleto slumping and damage from storms; and to changes in the composition of the ecosystem through theintroduction of bacteria and other harmful organisms.

There is extensive evidence that current levels of reef mining cannot be sustained. Reefcommunities are unable to generate new coral at a rate equal to the economic rates of exploitation.Coral mining on a significant scale is, therefore, a process of reef removal rather than sustainableharvest.

Coral reefs are vulnerable to many pollutants, especially to the effects of combinations ofpollutants. Reefs may thus be susceptible to damage from the drilling wastes of offshore oil and gasoperations. Coral reefs are also affected by such destructive and widespread practices as the use ofdynamite, carbide bombs and various forms of poisons to catch reef fish.

6.6 AQUACULTURE AND OTHER OFFSHORE ACTIVITIES

The major policy issue regarding aquaculture is the extent to which new tambak developmentshould be allowed on new sites at the expense of coastal ecosystems (tidal swamplands andmangroves) that support other coastal resource uses (fisheries, forestry).

Aquaculture operations are vulnerable to upstream activities such as poor forestry oragriculture practices that cause large quantities of sediment and silt to be carried downstream to fill intambaks and associated watercourses. Upstream developments such as dams can seriously alterwater flow regimes, thereby impacting downstream aquaculture operations. Upstream use of fertilizersand pesticides and industrial discharges of toxic compounds, heavy metals and other wastes affectwater quality and toxicity. Aquaculture operations are also sensitive to oil spills from offshore oil andgas activities.

Aquaculture has been constrained by a lack of investment in cage technology. There is also aneed to explore the appropriateness of proven foreign technology which may be more economicallyand environmentally attractive than expanding tambak operations. The lack of appropriate hatcherytechnology and training has also been an impediment to increased aquaculture production.

6.7 COASTAL FORESTRY AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

If coastal forests are over-harvested, the vegetation cover may change and, once disturbed,may not regenerate. Unregulated cutting of large mangrove and swamp forests, especially near theestuaries of major rivers, has created dense thickets where the natural forest regeneration process hasbeen severely impaired. Over-exploited areas may be subject to additional environmental changes.Where mangrove forests are removed, salt may intrude into coastal groundwater, salinating the landand habitats for a wide range of coastal species. Other physical changes may also result. While therole of mangrove forests in coastal ecosystems is only partially understood, the importance of swampforests to coastal fisheries is documented. Large areas of tidal swamp forests have been reclaimed in


the past century for transmigration and irrigation, particularly for rice production.Engineering works, such as road construction, canals or water diversions, which block or alter

water circulation patterns, also affect coastal forests. The ecosystems of coastal forests are intimatelylinked to upland and coastal influences, and these links can be positively exploited if management issensitive to the needs of the different ecosystems.

Coastal mangroves forests are particularly vulnerable to marine pollution, especially offshoreoil spills. Past spills have had long-term effects on trees and other mangrove biota. Coastal forestscould also be affected by industrial and domestic pollution.

6.8 COASTAL AGRICULTURE AND CONVERSION OF CRITICAL HABITATS

Most of the best agricultural land has already been developed. Converted tidal swamp lands,for example, have yielded only one fifth the rice produced on the best fields in Java. Yet, the need toincrease food production intensifies the pressure to develop new agricultural lands, and may lead to theconversion to agricultural use of mangrove swamps and other sensitive coastal areas in Java, resultingin loss of the habitat essential to fisheries.

Other uses may conflict with agriculture, such as the citing of industrial plants upstream ofwetland agricultural sites and tambaks. Upland agricultural uses may also have adverse effects oncoastal zone areas through run-off. For example, fisheries and aquaculture operations could beadversely affected by pesticides in agricultural run-off.

6.9 INDUSTRY AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE

A major constraint on industrial development is the generation of industrial waste. Industrialwastes probably contain most of the toxic and non-biodegradable wastes that enter the rivers. Theyeventually end up in river deltas and coastal areas where they can accumulate in the aquatic foodchain, causing serious problems. Disposal, detection and control of industrial effluent will continue to bea major problem for the Government, as will the local capability to monitor and regulate the spread ofhazardous materials. Many of the well-known industrial waste sources, such as those in Jakarta Bayand Surabaya, are being researched and monitored. Reports of high mercury levels and otherhazardous wastes in Jakarta Bay are recurrent sources of concern.

Devising and implementing appropriate air and water quality standards are, however, the mostdaunting tasks confronting the Government.

6.10 TOURISM AND DESTRUCTION OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

Other than Bali, few major Indonesian resort areas have been developed to world classstandards. More such areas are needed to begin to tap coastal tourism potential.

Tourism opportunities are most notably constrained by the lack of adequate physicalinfrastructure and support services, such as transportation, communications, guides and interpreters.For example, the estimated demand for tourism support staff is currently 5,000 a year, yet Indonesia'straining institutions can only produce 1,400 specialized personnel a year. During the establishment of


these services, close cooperation with other marine and coastal resource users will be necessary,particularly in developing physical infrastructure which does not conflict with other resource uses.

Tourism is also constrained by the need to avoid both placing undue pressure on local culturesand lifestyles and threatening the viability and integrity of coastal ecosystems. Some cultures may beparticularly sensitive to tourist intrusions. In addition, unmanaged and unplanned exploitation of coastalecosystems and upland areas could seriously affect the tourism potential of these areas. TheGovernment, therefore, believes that tourism must be managed at a pace which is compatible withexisting social and cultural systems and which preserves the environmental resources of the country.

6.11 TRANSPORTATION, TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND UNCOORDINATEDACTIVITIES

Physical constraints (terrain, islands) continue to impede the development of a functionaltransportation and telecommunications infrastructure. The Government has a long-term developmentplan for ground-based broadcast transmission systems linking all important population centres, but evenoptimists anticipate that it will be at least 20 years before a truly integrated nationaltelecommunications network can begin operation.

6.12 COASTAL COMMUNITIES AND INADEQUATE PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE

Some villages lack adequate legal and administrative frameworks, while others have not beenprogrammed for social development. Most of the many isolated coastal villages have inadequatephysical infrastructures and facilities (water supply, sewage treatment, solid waste management). Inmany cases, the development status of these communities is unknown or difficult to ascertain becausethe database is not computerized. Improved coordination between village heads and governmentagencies in planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating development projects in coastalcommunities is, therefore, badly needed.

While traditional coastal communities tend toward multiple resource use, activities other thanfishing are not economically oriented. Many villages do not fully realize the economic potential ofmarine and coastal resources because they lack the knowledge, skills, technology, equipment andcapital. However, realizing the economic potential may entail a transition from multiple resourcedependency to dependency on single purpose developments, such as plantations or hotels as a touristattraction. This transition could reduce income diversity and disrupt traditional social and naturalresource use patterns. Some traditional cultures may even conflict with the requirements ofindustrialized activities such as oil and gas development or manufacturing.

Inadequate education may also bar many residents of coastal communities from industrialemployment.

Coastal villages are often located near estuarie s that have freshwater supplies and rich coastalfisheries. Concentrations of population in certain areas could lead to the over- exploitation and pollutionproblems already described in the fisheries and coastal forests sections.


7. SPECIFIC ACTION PROPOSED FOR EACH IDENTIFIED ISSUE

7.1 Pollution(domestic sewage, industrial waste, agricultural waste, mining waste, radioactivesubstances, heavy metals, hydro-carbon - oil spills, anti-fouling paints, offshoreactivities)

7.2 Freshwater shortage(decrease of water-quality and quantity)

7.3 Over-exploitation of living aquatic resources(fisheries and other critical habitats)

7.4 Habitat modification(mangroves, coral reefs, seagrasses)

A. Policies

Many policies to be taken into consideration are related to:

(1) Agenda 21 Indonesia, a national strategy for sustainable development in Indonesia,consisting of:

(a) Human services (poverty alleviation; consumption patterns; populationdynamics; management and promotion of human health; promotion of humansettlement development; global trade; economic instruments andenvironmental accounting);

(b) Waste management (atmospheric protection; toxic chemicals management;hazardous waste management; radioactive waste management; liquid andsolid waste management);

(c) Land resources management (land resources planning; forest management;sustainable agriculture and rural development; water resources management);

(d) Natural resources management (biodiversity conservation; managing andpromoting biotechnology; integrated management and sustainable developmentof coastal and marine areas).

(2) Dasakarya or the 10 steps towards environmental and sustainable developmentprinciples.

(3) GBHN or the national directive guidelines as an overall framework for the people'swelfare.

(4) REPELITA or the five-year planning framework and SARLITA or the five-yeartarget of national development activities within the framework of the long-term


development period of 25 years.

B. Laws and regulations

Table 7.1 below lists the relevant laws and regulations.

Table 7.1. Laws and Regulations Related to Environment and Natural ResourcesLegislation Date Description

Joint DecreeSecurity & Defense/Chief of Staff-ArmedForces Kep/B/45/1972Finance SK/901/M/1972Justice kep/799/MK/III/12/1972Communication J.S. 8/72/1Attorney GeneralKep/085/J.A./12/1972

1972 National Marine Security Coordinating Agency(BAKORKAMLA)

Ministerial Decree Mining & Energy No. 4 1973 Prevention and handling of Water Pollution from OilExploration and Exploitation

Act No. 1 1973 Continental ShelfGovernment Regulation No. 17 1974 Controlling the Implementation of Exploration and

Exploitation for Offshore Oil and natural GasPfresidential Decree No. 31 1975 National Coordinating Committee for the Resolution

of National Area and Sea Bed Jurisdiction(PANKORWILNAS)

Ministerial Decree Agriculture No. 35 1975 Determination fo Several Types of Wild Animals tobe Protected (Dolphins)

Ministerial Decree Agriculture No. 607 1976 Areas for Catching FishPresidential Decree No. 18 1978 Ratification of Interaltional Convention on Civil

Liability for Oil Pollution DamagePresidential Decree No. 19 1978 Ratification of Interaltional Convention on the

Establishment of an International Fund for OilPollution Damage

Presidential Decree No. 28 1978 Establishment of Ministry of State for DevelopmentSupervision and the Environment (PPLH)

Presidential Decree No. 43 1978 Ratification of Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna(CITES)

Ministerial Decree Agriculture No. 327 1978 Determination of several Types of Wild Animals tobe Protected (Whales and Gray, Olive andLoggerhead Turtles)

Ministerial Decree Agriculture No. 716 1980 Determination of Several Types of Wild Animals tobe Protected (Whales and Gray, Olive andLoggerhead Turtle)

Presidential Decree No. 39 1980 Abolishment of Trawl NetsMinisterial Decree Agriculture No. 607 1980 First Stage in Implementing the Abolishment of

Trawl NetsMinisterial Decree Agriculture No. 633 1980 Implementation Directive on the Abolishment of

Trawl NetsJoint Decree 1981 Standard Operating Procedures for Combating Oil


Communication & Mining and Energy No.DKP.49/1/2/27Kpts./DM/MIGAS/198

Pollution in the Malacca/Singapore andLombok/Makassar Straits

Act No. 4 1982 Basic Provisions for the Management of the LivingEnvironment

Presidential Decree No. 25 1983 Restructuring of PPLH as the Ministry of State forPopulation and Environment (KLH)

Act No. 5 1983 Indonesian Exclusive Economic ZoneAct No. 9 1985 FisheriesMinisterial Decree Agriculture No. 473a 1985 Determination of Total Allowable Fish CatchAct No. 17 1985 Ratification of Principles of the Archipelagic Concept

and United nations Convention on the Law of theSea (UNCLOS)

Government Regulation No. 29 1986 Analysis of Impacts to the Environment (AMDAL)Presidential Decree No. 26 1986 Ratification of ASEAN Agreement on the

conservation of Nature and Natural ResourcesMinisterial Decree Communication No. 167 1986 International Certificate for Petroleum Ships and

hazardous WastePresidential Decree No. 46 1986 Ratification of International Convention for the

Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL)Ministerial Decree Forestry No. 12 1987 Determination of Several Types of Wild Animals to

be Protected (Black Coral, Giant Clams and othermarine invertebrates)

Ministerial Decree Tourism PostalTelecommunication No. 97

1987 Provisions on Water Tourism Undertakings

Ministerial Decree Populaiton andEnvironment No. 2

1988 Guidelines for Environmental Quality Standards forWater, Wasterwater, Air and Sea Water

Ministerial Decree Mines and Energy No.185K

1988 Technical Guidelines on Environmental Informationand Environmental Impact Analysis for GeneralMining, Oil and Gas Mining and Geothermal(Offshore tin mining)

Ministerial Decree Agriculture No. 417 1988 Utilization of the fishery Resources in the IndonesianExclusive Economic Zone


1988 Implementation of Provisions on Water TourismUndertakings


1988 Rules on Cruise Line Enterprises

Ministerial Decree Mines and Energy No.1158

1989 Provisions on Implementation of Analysis onEnvironmental Impact in Mining and EnergyUndertakings

Ministerial Decree forestry No. 687 1989 Utilization of Recreation Forests, Tourism Forests,National Parks, Grand Forest Parks and MarineTourism Parks

Act No. 5 1990 Conservation of Living, natural Resources and theirEcosystems

Act No. 9 1990 TourismGovernment Regulation No. 15 1990 Business in Fisheries


Government Regulation No. 20 1990 Water Pollution ControlPresidential Decree No. 23 1990 Establishment of Agency for Environmental Imact

Management (BAPEDAL)Presidential Decree No. 32 1990 Management of Protected AreasDirectorate General Fisheries Decree No.IK/220/D4.744/91K

1991 Catching Fish with ProhibitedSubstances/Instruments

Ministerial Decree Population andEnvironment No. 3

1991 Water Quality Standards for Activities Already inOperation

Presidential Decree No. 23 1991 List of Business Fields Closed to Investment(Appendix 1 No. 56, Business in the Utilization andExploitation of Sponges which is closed in relation tothe Law of Foreign and domestic Investment

Ministerial Decree Population and Environment No. 103

1992 Quality Standards of Liquid Waste (waste dischargesfrom coastal developments)

Act No. 24 1992 Spatial use Management

Presidential Decree No. 44 1993 Restructuring of the Ministry of State for Populationand Environment (KLH) as the Minstry of State forEnvironment (LH)

Government Regulation No. 51 1993 Revision of Environmental Impact Analysis(AMDAL)

Government Regulation No. 19 1994 Dangerous and Toxic Waste ManagementAct No. 5 1994 Ratification of the convention on BiodiversityAct No. 6 1994 Ratification of Convention on Action Plan for

Climate ChangeMinisterial Decree Agriculture No.375/Kpts/IK.250/5/95

1995 Ban on Catching the Napoleon Wrasse Fish(Cheilinus undulatus)

C. Institutional function

Recognizing the inter-sectoral nature of the marine and coastal environment, it has beensuggested that a national inter-agency group responsible for coordinating marine and coastaldevelopment be established.

The recognition that all environmental components are interdependent would suggest that asole agency utilizing a holistic approach would be the most appropriate means of addressingcomprehensive environmental management issues. Alternatively, where a sole environmental agency isnot a feature of the government structure, effective cooperation among relevant government agenciesis critical in achieving an inclusive and interdisciplinary marine environmental management strategythat features sustainable development. These two ideal management approaches rarely exist in eitherdeveloped or developing nations in spite of their obvious logic.

8. IMPLICATIONS OF THE PROPOSED ACTION BY SECTOR

8.1 FINANCIAL ASPECTS AND POLICY DEVELOPMENT

The operational and strategic policy for the proposed actions should be based on a nationwideimplementation scheme in anticipation of the environmental conditions that might be changed within the


next 25-year long-term planning framework. In addition, the operational and strategic policy forms afurther step of the 1993 national directive guidelines and the sixth five-year planning framework for theenvironment sector. At the same time, these formalities will also be used as guidance by the provincesand the non-government communities in setting up their environmental management programmes andprojects either at the central or provincial level. Furthermore, a national coordination meeting, orRAKORNAS, will be held for environmental management, at which inter-agency planners,implementing parties and non-governmental organizations will participate. Then, at a later stage thefive yearly national coordination meeting will be divided and will discuss in more detail the yearlyoperational scheme to meet the requirements of the programmes or projects mentioned above (see the"First National Coordination Meeting on Environmental Management and Sustainable Development",Jakarta, 22-24 November 1994).

8.2 SHIPPING AND PORTS

Examples of actions that could be taken to improve sea communications include:

(a) Improving the network of aids-to-navigation (such as buoys, beacons) and expandingthe system of Notices to Mariners;

(b) Investigating the need for traffic separation schemes and vessel traffic managementsystems;

(c) Upgrading cargo handling methods;

(d) Developing regulations to eliminate and control international and accidental dischargesfrom ships, and developing shore reception facilities to receive ship waste discharges.

8.3 OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT

Improved methods of geo-science mapping would provide more accurate estimates of oil andgas potential. Oil spill risks related to shipping, tankers and oil well blowouts can be mitigated by thefollowing:

(a) Implementing a national oil spill contingency plan;(b) Acquiring, maintaining, and deploying countermeasures equipment;(c) Organizing and training countermeasures personnel;(d) Preparing sensitivity maps to identify resources at risk.

8.4 FISHERIES

To realize the full economic and social potential of the fisheries sector, several requirementsmust be met in the areas of information (research, stock assessment, data analysis, resource mapping),improved resource management and planning capabilities, development of appropriate resourcemanagement systems, and structural changes in the fishing sector itself (such as modernization, capitaland infrastructural requirements, and growing geographic distribution of fishing effort).


The Government could meet these requirements by developing a coordinated andcomprehensive fisheries management and production programme that sets out objectives, animplementation schedule and strategy for achieving the objectives.

8.5 CORAL MINING

Some examples of ways to encourage coral reef use are:

(a) Establishing guidelines and regulations together with an appropriate enforcementcapability that ensures the conservation of coral reefs;

(b) Establishing marine parks, conservation areas and other designations for especiallyvulnerable and important areas;

(c) Finding alternative small-scale or seasonal employment, such as limited harvesting ofornamental and precious corals, to offset the socio-economic effects of restrictingcoral mining, allocating badly damaged or dead coral reefs to non-renewable coralmining operations, and exploiting alternative land-based sources of building materials;

(d) Researching the ecology of coral reefs as a basis for formulating management andconservation practices and guidelines.

8.6 AQUACULTURE

The opportunities for increased aquaculture development would be enhanced by strengtheninginstitutional arrangements in areas such as those outlined below.

Provide institutional support by:

(a) Identifying and implementing programmes to monitor and manage the impacts of otherresource use activities on aquaculture.

(b) Establish aquaculture-oriented training and education programmes such as:

(i) Extension services in cooperation with government departments, universities,community organizations and business groups;

(ii) Courses and training for fish farmers in new culture techniques, hatcheryoperations, disease diagnosis and control, and growing fish in rice paddies;

(c) Conduct research and pilot studies to improve information infrastructure to determinehow existing tambak production can exploit polyculture opportunities and improvenutrition and disease control, and to enhance culture techniques and hatchery fryprogrammes.


8.7 COASTAL FORESTRY

Examples of institutional arrangements which could be implemented to improve the benefitsderived from the exploitation of coastal forests include:

(a) Developing integrated coastal forest land use plans;(b) Establishing conservation programmes and special reserves to conserve important and

sensitive coastal forest areas.

8.8 COASTAL AGRICULTURE

Tentative examples of institutional arrangements that could improve coastal agriculture include:

(a) Developing and strengthening institutions responsible for agricultural sectordevelopment and policy, programmes and implementation in integrated resourceplanning and management;

(b) Encouraging combined rice/fish culture;

(c) Establishing water management policies and enforcement mechanisms to ensurewater flows are compatible with coastal and other types of farming practices;

(d) Integrating the planning of upstream development to avoid the contamination ofdownstream coastal environments.

8.9 INDUSTRY

Some examples of ways to manage industrial development in a manner that supports thesustainable development of marine and coastal resource include:

(a) Improving information systems to help analyse more effectively water and airdischarges from inland industry to coastal regions so that enforceable andimplementable regulations can then be developed;

(b) Training, equipping and supporting an adequate number of government personnel tomonitor effluent and receiving waters in coastal areas.

8.10 TOURISM

Some examples of initiatives that could assist in developing the tourist sector, both at the national and coastal zone levels, include:

(a) Undertaking and involving local authorities in coastal site analyses to determinesuitable locations for tourism;


(b) Planning investments to upgrade physical infrastructure, taking into account the needsof local communities;

(c) Coordinating the planning of tourism development with other coastal zone activities toensure sustainable resource use;

(d) Exploring opportunities for local community involvement in tourism activities.

8.11 TRANSPORTATION AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

High priority should be given to developing an integrated telecommunications system providinghigh quality and high capacity telephone, telegraph and telex services. Such a system would improvedata collection and information processing capabilities. In addition, improvements to the radio andtelevision network would assist in the development of distance education and training capabilities.

8.12 COASTAL COMMUNITIES

Several tentative examples of programmes and actions related to coastal communitydevelopment include:

(a) Improving the organization and capabilities of village government and socialdevelopment agencies;

(b) Developing a computerized village inventory of social and economic factors affectingcoastal communities to enable improved analysis and planning for coastal communitydevelopment.


REFERENCES AND SOURCES OF DATA AND INFORMATION USED IN THEANALYSIS

1. Aprilani Soegiarto & Sujatno Birowo (editor), 1975 “Atlas Oseanologi Perairan Indonesia danSekitarnya” Vol. 1 & 2, LON-LIPI-Jakarta.

2. BAPPENAS AND CIDA, 1987 "Action plan for sustainable development of Indonesia's marineand coastal resources", Bappenas Canada/Indonesia Medium Term Planning Support Project,Jakarta.

3. BAPPENAS and USAID, 1994. "Policy towards area development in Indonesia”, USAIDContract No. 497-0362 (Jakarta).

4. BAPPENAS and USAID, 1994. "Coastal resources and their role in aquatic resourcesdevelopment" (Jakarta).

5. BAPEDAL, 1994 “Prokasih/Clean River Program”, Jakarta.6. Burbridge, P.R; Koesoebiono; H. Diesche & B. Patton 1988, “ Coastal Zone Management in the

Straits of Malacca, School for Resource and Environment Studies, Dalhouse University, Halifax,Dora Scotia Canada.

7. Chou, L.M., 1991 “Some guidelines in the establishment of artificial reefs” Tropical Coastal AreaManagement, A news letter for Coastal Managers, Ushers and Resources in the Asean Region, 6(1/2):4-7.

8. Chua, Thia-Eng. S. Adrian Ross and Huming Yu, (eds), 1997. "Malacca Straits EnvironmentalProfile" GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme for the Prevention and Management of MarinePollution in the East Asian Seas.

9. Department of Public Works and NEDECO, 1973. "Masterplan for drainage and flood control ofJakarta" (Jakarta).

10. Department of Public Works, 1987. "Cisadane River basin development feasibility study"(Jakarta).

11. Direktorat Tata Kota & Tata Daerah – Ditjen Cita Karya – Dep. PU, January 1990 “PenyusunanProfil Kawasan Laut dan Udara”, Jakarta.

12. Dahuri, R, 1991 – “An Approach to Coastal Resource Utilitaion: The nature and Role ofSustainable Development in East Kalimantan Coastal Zone in Indonesia”, Ph.D. Dissertation,Dalhouse University, Halifax N. S. Canada

13. Delft Hydraulics Project Outline, 1991 "Impacts of sea-level rise on society and environment”,Indonesia (Jakarta).

14. DHV Consultants, 1996 "Ports environmental improvement project", Summary Report, (TheNetherlands).

15. IUCN, 1983 “Global Status of Mangrove Ecosystems”.16. KLH, 1990 “Kualitas Lingkungan di Indonesia” (The Quality of the Environment in Indonesia) –

Jakarta .17. KLH and EMDI, 1993. "PROSIDING-Lokakarya-Pemantapan Strategi Pengelolaan Lingkungan

Wilayah Pesisir dan Lautan Dalam Pembangunan Jangka Panjang Tahap Kedua" Kapal Kerinci,(Jakarta).

18. Lawrence C. Koe & M.A. Azis – UNEP – COBSEA Project EAS – 27 “Programme of Actionto control Land-based Sources of Pollution in the EAS Region “ Singapore, 1994.

19. Ministry of State for the Environment, 1990 “Indonesia Coastal Environmental ManagementPlanning” Jakarta.


20. Ministry of State for the Environment, 1995 "Inventory of watershed in Ciliwung - Cisadane Riverbasin development project - Indonesia", EAS-35 UNEP Project (Jakarta), in 4 volumes

21. Ministry of State for the Environment in cooperation with the Directorate For Nature Managementof Norway, 1996. "Indonesia country study on integrated coastal and marine biodiversitymanagement" (Jakarta).

22. Ministry of State for the Environment, 1996. "Indonesia's marine environment - a summary ofpolicies, strategies, actions and issues" (Jakarta).

23. Ministry of State for the Environment with assistance from Wetlands International-IndonesiaProgramme, 1996 "The national strategy and action plan for the management of Indonesianwetlands" prepared for the National Wetland Committee (Bogor).

24. Polovina, J.J, 1997 “Ecological Consideration on the applications of artificial reefs in themanagement of artisanal fisheries/Tropical Coastal Area Management, A Newsletter for CoastalManagers, Users and Researsh in the Asean region”. 6 (1/2): 1-4.

25. Soegiarto, Aprilani and Sujatno Birowo (eds), 1975. Atlas Oseanologi Perairan Indonesia danSekitarnya, vol. 1 & 2, LON-LIPI (Jakarta).

26. Soegiarto, A and N. Polunin, 1981 “The Marine environment ofIndonesia” A Report prepared forthe Government of the Republic of Indonesia, under the sponsorship of the International Union forConservation of Nature (IUCN) and the World Wild Life Fund (WWF) 257 pp.

27. Salm, Rodney and Matheus Halim, 1984. Marine Conservation Data Atlas (PHPA – Bogor).28. Silvius, M.J; APMJ Steeman; R.T. Berczy; E. Djuharsa & A.W. Taufik, 1987, “ The Indonesian

Wetland Inventory” a Preliminary Compilation of Information on Wetland of Indonesia –AWB/PHPA/Inter water & Edwin, Bogor-242 pp.

29. Soemodihardjo, S; O.S.R. Ongkosongo & A. Abdullah, 1986 “Pemikiran awal kriteria penentuanjalur hijau hutan mangrove” in : diskusi panel pendayagunaan dan batas lebar jalur hijau hutanmangrove (Soerianegara, I;S. Hardjowigono; N. Naamin; M. Sudomo & A. Abdullah, eds) LIPI-Panitia Program Mab Indonesia: 17-22 pp.

30. Soekardi Puspowardoyo, 1991."Pengembangan dan pemanfaatan air tanah di Indonesia", SeminarPengembangan Air Tanah (Jakarta).

31. Sloan, N.A. and A. Sugandhy, 1994 “An Overview of Indonesian Coastal EnvironmentalManagement” Coastal Management 22 : 215-233.

32. Soeyarso (editor), 1995. “Atlas Oseanologi-Teluk Jakarta” LIPI – Pusat Penelitian sanPengembangan Oseanologi – Jakarta – 1995.

33. UNDP, 1989. “Indonesia forrest, land and water”. Issues in sustainable development/UNDP,World Bank Report No. 7822/Ind.

34. UNEP Bangkok, 1997 “Integrated Management of Watershed in Relation to Management andConservation of Nearshore Coastal and Marine Areas in the left Asian Seas Region, Phase I,Assessment of Effect of River Discharges of Sediments, Nations and Pollutants on CoastalWetlands, Seagrass Bed and Coral Reefs”, A Regional Overwiew RCU/ EAS Technical ReportsSeries No. 13.

35. USAID, 1987. “National Resources and Environmental Management in Indonesia” An OverviewUSAID, Jakarta.

36. White, A.T, 1990 “Artificial reefs for marine Habitat enhancement in South East Asia”Asean/US Coastal Resources Management Project, Manila, Philippines : 43 pp.



ANNEXES

Other related information can be found in this section:(1) Prokasih or Clean River Programme(2) Map of oil concessions in Indonesia

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