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Give independent
justification for scientific
method.
Give independent
justification for scientific
method.Knowledge produced
with this method
is reliable.
Knowledge produced
with this method
is reliable.
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Reasons to worry that scientific knowledge isn’t
reliable:
Reasons to worry that scientific knowledge isn’t
reliable:• Holism about testing• Underdetermination• Problem of induction
• Holism about testing• Underdetermination• Problem of induction
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Maybe we shouldn’t
try to justify scientific
methodology, just describe it.
Maybe we shouldn’t
try to justify scientific
methodology, just describe it.Sociology of
scienceSociology of
science
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Can’t explain why scientific
knowledge is better than any other kind of knowledge.
Can’t explain why scientific
knowledge is better than any other kind of knowledge.
Limitation of Sociology of
science:
Limitation of Sociology of
science:
But we want to explain success of
science!
But we want to explain success of
science!
What is Naturalism?What is Naturalism?
“Philosophy should be continuous with
science.”
“Philosophy should be continuous with
science.”
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Don’t need independent
justification for scientific method.
Don’t need independent
justification for scientific method.
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Results from science as a resource to
help answer philosophical questions.
Results from science as a resource to
help answer philosophical questions.
What is Naturalism?What is Naturalism?
“Philosophy should be continuous with
science.”
“Philosophy should be continuous with
science.”
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Result from
science
Result from
science
Scientific
knowledge is
reliable
Scientific
knowledge is
reliable
Naturalist philosophy of science?Naturalist philosophy of science?
Circular argument!Circular argument!
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NOT: How to justify scientific
methodology?
NOT: How to justify scientific
methodology?
Naturalism shifts the questionNaturalism shifts the question
INSTEAD: What’s an adequate description
of how knowledge
and science work?
INSTEAD: What’s an adequate description
of how knowledge
and science work?
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Science can tell us what the
belief-forming mechanisms are.
Science can tell us what the
belief-forming mechanisms are.
Which belief-forming mechanisms are good
ones?
Which belief-forming mechanisms are good
ones?
Philosopher asks:
Good for achieving
what goals?
Philosopher asks:
Good for achieving
what goals?
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Science can describe the belief-forming
mechanism.
Science can describe the belief-forming
mechanism.
Is the mechanism responsible for belief that the sun will rise tomorrow a good one?
Is the mechanism responsible for belief that the sun will rise tomorrow a good one?
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Philosopher asks:
what’s the goal?
Philosopher asks:
what’s the goal?
Is the mechanism responsible for belief that the sun will rise tomorrow a good one?
Is the mechanism responsible for belief that the sun will rise tomorrow a good one?
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Is the mechanism responsible for belief that the sun will rise tomorrow a good one?
Is the mechanism responsible for belief that the sun will rise tomorrow a good one?
Goal: avoiding error.
Goal: avoiding error. Mechanism is a
risky one. Mechanism is a risky one.
(problem of induction)(problem of induction)
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Observations can’t be an objective test of a
theory!
Observations can’t be an objective test of a
theory!
Kuhn:Kuhn:
Observations are
theory-laden.
Observations are
theory-laden.
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Müller-Lyer illusion
Müller-Lyer illusion
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Some background assumptions affect what you perceive.
Some background assumptions affect what you perceive.
Other background assumptions don’t affect what you
perceive.
Other background assumptions don’t affect what you
perceive.
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What you see is not affected
by knowledge that this is an illusion!
What you see is not affected
by knowledge that this is an illusion!
Müller-Lyer illusion
Müller-Lyer illusion
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PERCEPTUALMODULE
PERCEPTUALMODULE
THEORYTHEORY
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Perceptual module
Perceptual module
Scientific theory
Scientific theory
Experience
Experience
Interpretation of
experience
Interpretation of
experience
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Perceptual module output is fairly
uniform.
Perceptual module output is fairly
uniform.
Experience could provide objective
basis for evaluating theories!
Experience could provide objective
basis for evaluating theories!
Scientific resources: Sociology,
organizational psychology
Scientific resources: Sociology,
organizational psychology
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Philosophical task: Explain special features
of science.
Philosophical task: Explain special features
of science.
David HullDavid Hull
Merton’s four norms of science:
Merton’s four norms of science:
• Universalism• Communism• Disinterestedness• Organized Skepticism
• Universalism• Communism• Disinterestedness• Organized Skepticism
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Merton’s reward system of science:
Merton’s reward system of science:
Priority claim(recognition as first to come up with an idea or
result)
Priority claim(recognition as first to come up with an idea or
result)PHIL 160PHIL 160PHIL 160PHIL 160
USE(other
scientists use and cite your
idea or result)
USE(other
scientists use and cite your
idea or result)
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Hull’s reward system of science:
Hull’s reward system of science:
Tension between Merton’s norms
and reward system.
Tension between Merton’s norms
and reward system.
Easier to get the reward
(priority) if you subvert
norms!
Easier to get the reward
(priority) if you subvert
norms!PHIL 160PHIL 160PHIL 160PHIL 160
I use ideas of others:
I use ideas of others:
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• To build my ideas.• To support my ideas.
• To build my ideas.• To support my ideas.(Need to build my ideas
before others can use them!)
(Need to build my ideas before others can use
them!)
Hull’s reward system requires cooperation!
Hull’s reward system requires cooperation!
Want my idea to be used
Want my idea to be used
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• Check ideas of others before using them to build my ideas.• Check my own work to make sure others can use it to build their ideas.
• Check ideas of others before using them to build my ideas.• Check my own work to make sure others can use it to build their ideas.Organized skepticism flows from reward
system.
Organized skepticism flows from reward
system.
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• Share ideas widely so others may use them.
• Share ideas widely so others may use them.Communism flows
from reward system.
Communism flows from reward
system.
Want my idea to be used
Want my idea to be used
Usable ideas:Usable ideas:
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• Survive testing.• Fit well with other ideas.• Lead to new ideas.
• Survive testing.• Fit well with other ideas.• Lead to new ideas.These are ideas
that fit well with the
world!
These are ideas that
fit well with the world!
Hull’s picture fits with human
nature
Hull’s picture fits with human
natureI might not be skeptical
of my own ideas.
I might not be skeptical
of my own ideas.
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Community is skeptical
of ideas (tested when used).
Community is skeptical
of ideas (tested when used).
Hull’s picture:Hull’s picture:
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• Explains why science has these norms.• Explains how these norms make science successful.
• Explains why science has these norms.• Explains how these norms make science successful.
Philip KitcherPhilip KitcherScientific resources:
game theoryScientific resources:
game theory
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Philosophical task: Determine best distribution of
researchers among rival research programs, and what science should do
to attain this distribution.
Philosophical task: Determine best distribution of
researchers among rival research programs, and what science should do
to attain this distribution.
Interests of individual scientists
Interests of individual scientists
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How to set up science so these interests
harmonize?
How to set up science so these interests
harmonize?
Interests of scientific fieldInterests of
scientific field
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What is best for science?
What is best for science?
5% chance both will fail
5% chance both will failPut all workers on Research Program 1
(80% chance of success)
Put all workers on Research Program 1
(80% chance of success)Put most workers on Research Program 1,
but put some on Research Program 2
(95% chance of success)
Put most workers on Research Program 1,
but put some on Research Program 2
(95% chance of success)
Research Program 180% chance of success
Research Program 180% chance of success
Research Program 215% chance of success
Research Program 215% chance of success
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Put most workers on Research Program 1
(enough that additional workers
wouldn’t make a difference),
Put remaining workers on Research Program 2
Put most workers on Research Program 1
(enough that additional workers
wouldn’t make a difference),
Put remaining workers on Research Program 2
“Decreasing marginal returns”
“Decreasing marginal returns”
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How does individual How does individual choose? choose?
How does individual How does individual choose? choose?
Choose Research Program likely to bring me the
biggest reward.
Choose Research Program likely to bring me the
biggest reward.
Research Program 180% chance of success
Research Program 180% chance of success
Research Program 215% chance of success
Research Program 215% chance of success
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Possible reward Possible reward structure:structure:
Possible reward Possible reward structure:structure:
Research Program
that succeeds
Research Program
that succeeds
Research Programthat fails
Research Programthat fails
Each Each worker worker gets gets
prestige prestige pp..
Each Each worker worker gets gets
prestige prestige pp..
Each Each worker worker gets no gets no
prestige.prestige.
Each Each worker worker gets no gets no
prestige.prestige.
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Join Research Program 1 (80% chance I’ll earn
prestige p)
Join Research Program 1 (80% chance I’ll earn
prestige p)Join Research Program 2 (15% chance I’ll earn
prestige p)
Join Research Program 2 (15% chance I’ll earn
prestige p)
How does individual How does individual choose? choose?
How does individual How does individual choose? choose?
Problem: No one will choose
to join Research Program 2!
Problem: No one will choose
to join Research Program 2!
Research Program 180% chance of success
Research Program 180% chance of success
Research Program 215% chance of success
Research Program 215% chance of success
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Kitcher’s reward Kitcher’s reward structure:structure:
Kitcher’s reward Kitcher’s reward structure:structure:
Each Each worker worker gets gets
prestige prestige pp divided by divided by number of number of workers.workers.
Each Each worker worker gets gets
prestige prestige pp divided by divided by number of number of workers.workers.
Each Each worker worker gets no gets no
prestige.prestige.
Each Each worker worker gets no gets no
prestige.prestige.
The bigger the group, The bigger the group, the smaller the share of the smaller the share of
prestige.prestige.
The bigger the group, The bigger the group, the smaller the share of the smaller the share of
prestige.prestige.
Research Program
that succeeds
Research Program
that succeeds
Research Programthat fails
Research Programthat fails
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Join Research Program 2 (15% chance I’ll earn prestige
p/M)
Join Research Program 2 (15% chance I’ll earn prestige
p/M)
How does individual How does individual choose? choose?
How does individual How does individual choose? choose?
If N>>M, better expected payoff
if I join Research Program 2
If N>>M, better expected payoff
if I join Research Program 2
Research Program 180% chance of success(N workers)
Research Program 180% chance of success(N workers)
Research Program 215% chance of success(M workers)
Research Program 215% chance of success(M workers)
Join Research Program 1 (80% chance I’ll earn prestige
p/N)
Join Research Program 1 (80% chance I’ll earn prestige
p/N)
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Refinement to model:Refinement to model:
z% chance both will fail
z% chance both will failChances of success depend in
part on number of workers pursuing the program!
Chances of success depend in part on number of workers
pursuing the program!Workers who join early increase chances a lot.Workers who join early increase chances a lot.
Workers who join late make less difference.Workers who join late make less difference.Workers who join late make less difference.Workers who join late make less difference.
Research Program 2y% chance of success
Research Program 2y% chance of success
Research Program 1x% chance of success
Research Program 1x% chance of success
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Bigger reward if you Bigger reward if you join early and make a big join early and make a big
contribution.contribution.
Bigger reward if you Bigger reward if you join early and make a big join early and make a big
contribution.contribution.
Research Program
that succeeds
Research Program
that succeeds
Research Programthat fails
Research Programthat fails
Strevens’ reward Strevens’ reward structure:structure:
Strevens’ reward Strevens’ reward structure:structure:
Each worker Each worker gets share of gets share of prestige prestige pp
proportional proportional to his actual to his actual contribution.contribution.
Each worker Each worker gets share of gets share of prestige prestige pp
proportional proportional to his actual to his actual contribution.contribution.
Each Each worker worker gets no gets no
prestige.prestige.
Each Each worker worker gets no gets no
prestige.prestige.