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Navigation for Non-Pilot Navs.
Basic Navigation for Non-Pilots
training as CASARA Navigators
Prepared by: T. Cooper
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Topics
• Aircraft systems
• Meteorology
• Navigation
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Aircraft Systems
• Basic Instruments
– Compass
– Directional Gyro
• Engine management
– Engine gauges
– Throttle, Mixture, Prop
• Fuel management
– Tanks (capacity, usable, switching)
– Gauges/dipping
– Fuel burn – aircraft range
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Typical PanelCompass
Attitude
IndicatorAir
Speed
Turn
Coordinator
AltimeterVOR
Directional
Gyro
ADF
Fuel
Tach VSI
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Navigation Instruments
• Compass
– Primary source of heading information
• Directional Gyro (DG)
– Stable heading info
• Altimeter
– Pressure setting
• VOR/ADF/GPS
– Electronic Nav. aids
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Engine Management
• Tachometer – engine RPM
• Manifold Pressure Gauge
• Throttle
• Mixture
• Prop control (constant speed props)
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Fuel Management
• Typically 2 or 4 fuel tanks
– Pilot must select tank to draw fuel from
• Fuel gauges generally aren’t accurate.
• Tanks must be dipped prior to flight
• Fuel use is measured in gallons/hour
– 172 is typically 8 US Gal/hour
– 172 normal tanks hold 42 Gals (40 Usable)
• 1 US Gal of Avgas weighs 6Lbs
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Weight and Balance
• Critical factors in light planes
• Load capacity is limited, choice:
– Fuel
– Passengers/Crew
• Balance is critical for safe flight
– Limited safe range of loading
– Fuel, Front and rear seats, baggage
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“Typical” Radio Stack
Audio panel/
Intercom
GPS
Nav/Comm 1
Nav/Comm 2
Transponder
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Cessna 172
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PA-24
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Meteorology
• Reading METARs and TAFs
• Reading FDs and GFDs
• Overview of GFAs
• ATIS and airport weather reports
• Nav Canada weather web site
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METAR
• Station actual weather report
• Taken at airports (FSS/ATC or Auto)
• Standard reports hourly, top of the hour
• Special reports for significant changes
METAR CYND 182300Z 26004KT 10SM -SHRA OVC038 07/02 A3002 RMK SC8 SLP169=
METAR CYND 190000Z 36002KT 12SM BKN038 05/04 A3003 RMK SC7 SLP170=
METAR CYND 190100Z 00000KT 15SM SCT038 BKN080 02/02 A3002 RMK SC3AC2
SLP168
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Decoding METARs
Type Station Date/Time Wind
METAR CYND 182300Z 26004KT
Vis Weather Sky Cond. Temp
Altimeter
10SM -SHRA OVC038 07/02 A3002
Remarks
RMK SC8 SLP169
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TAF
• Terminal Area Forecast
• Issued every six hours
• Valid for 12 hours
TAF CYND 181958Z 182002 21008KT P6SM BKN040 TEMPO 2024 P6SM -SHRA
BKN030
FM0000Z 16008KT P6SM SCT020 BKN030 TEMPO 0002 P6SM -SHRA
BKN020
RMK NXT FCST WILL BE ISSUED AT 191145Z=
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Decoding TAFs
Type Station Issued Valid Wind Vis Sky
TAF CYND 181958Z 182002 21008KT P6SM BKN040
Temporarily Between Vis. Weather Sky
TEMPO 2024 P6SM -SHRA BKN030 From Time Wind Vis. Sky
FM0000Z 16008KT P6SM SCT020 BKN030 TEMPO
0002 P6SM -SHRA BKN020
RMK NXT FCST WILL BE ISSUED AT 191145Z=
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GFA
• Graphic Forecast Area
• Issued every six hours
• Valid for 12 hours
– Three issued (0 hours, 6 hours, 12 Hours)
• Outlook valid for 12 hours
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Example GFA – 0 hour
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Example GFA – 6 hour
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Example GFA – 12 hour
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FDs and GFDs
• Forecast upper winds
• Available in text and graphic versions
• Based on twice daily observations
• Valid when issued for periods indicated
• Temperatures indicated for levels above
3000’
• Text coded as DDVVTT (2533-10 =
250T 33Kts –10C)
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Example GFD
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Example FD
OTTAWA. ONT
STN YOW -
for
use
3000 6000 9000 12000 18000
FDCN01 CWAO FCST BASED ON 190000
DATA VALID 19060005-09 1911
2225-
03
2430-
08
2538-
14
2668-
23
FDCN02 CWAO FCST BASED ON 190000
DATA VALID 19120009-18 2041
2438+0
0
2438-
04
2547-
09
2470-
21
FDCN03 CWAO FCST BASED ON 190000
DATA VALID 20000018-05 2735
2931-
02
2830-
08
2742-
13
2754-
26
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Demo Nav Canada Site
• Nav Canada’s web site is a primary
source of weather info for flight.
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Navigation
• Latitude/Longitude/compass/great circles/rhumb lines
• Distance and Speed
• Publications (CFS, AIP)
• Charts (VNC, WAC, JOG)
• Pilotage
• Ded Reckoning
• Tools (E6B, ICAO Ruler, Protractor, Flight log)
• ICAO Flight Plan/Flight Itinerary
• In flight calculations
• Diversions
• Electronic Nav aids (VOR, ADF, GPS)
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The North Poles
• True North (the real North Pole)
• Magnetic North (the magnetic Pole)
– This is where your compass points
– Difference between Mag and True is
Magnetic Variation (shown on charts)
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Magnetic North Pole
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Compass
• North, South, East, West
• 0 or 360, 180, 90, 270 Degrees
• Compass correction card
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Compass Rose
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Great Circles
• A GREAT CIRCLE is a circle on a
sphere's surface whose plane is
passing exactly through the centre of
the sphere.
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Small Circles
• Any circle on a surface of a sphere
which is not a great circle is a SMALL
CIRCLE. A SMALL CIRCLE is any
circle on a surface of a sphere whose
plane is not passing through the
sphere's centre.
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Latitude
• PARALLELS OF LATITUDE, or parallels in
short, are so called because they are SMALL
CIRCLES whose plane is parallel to the
equator. The Parallels are used to specify the
arc, in degrees, of which a point is located
relative to the Equator.
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Longitude
• A MERIDIAN (line of longitude) is an arc on a
GREAT CIRCLE that extends from one pole to the
opposite pole (Half of a Great Circle).
• The PRIME MERIDIAN which used in navigation
was arbitrarily selected in 1884 as the meridian that
passes through the Royal Greenwich Observatory in
Greenwich England.
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Location
• The earth's coordinate system provides means to accurately locate any point on the surface of earth.
• Such position is given in an arc measured in degrees, minutes and seconds.
• A position report of N31 15' 00" W86 20' 00" indicates that this position is situated at 31,15' and 00" North of the Equator and 86 20" and 00" West of the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian as shown in the next slide.
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Location Example
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Rhumb Line
• A rhumb line is a line on the surface of Earth which
intersects every meridian at the same angle.
• On a sphere, where the meridians are converging at
the poles, a rhumb line will form a spiral curve that
eventually ends at either of the Earth's poles.
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Great Circle line
• An arc on a great circle represents the
shortest distance between two points on a
sphere.
• In long range navigation, great circle routes
are desired.
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Charts
• Charts used in Visual Rules Flight (VFR)
– VNC – Visual Navigation Chart
– WAC – World Aeronautical Chart
– VTA – Visual Terminal Area chart
• Additional Charts used in CASARA
– JOG – Joint Operations Graphic
– Topographical
• Different scales – levels of detail
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Sample VNC
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Exercise 1
• Using the VNC
– Review legend, pick out airports, Nav.
Aids, etc.
– Find Lat/Long position of CYOW (Ottawa
airport) on Toronto VNC
– Find Lat/Long position of CYGK (Kingston
airport) on Toronto VNC
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Pilotage
• Visual Navigation
• Landmarks
• Direct reference to charts
• Search Navigation is Pilotage
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Ded Reckoning
• Deduced reckoning
• Calculated heading
• Time
• Distance
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Point A to Point B
• True track
• Wind velocity and direction (True)
• True Heading
• Ground Speed
• Magnetic Heading
• Distance
• Time
• Fuel required
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Plan a flight
• We are going to fly from CYRO to CYGK to
CYCC and return to CYRO (not landing at
CYGK or CYCC).
• Use the weather information in the handouts
(or today’s weather if available).
• Use a C-172 as the aircraft, assume a TAS of
100Kts.
• Fuel required….Weight and Balance
• Flight log
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Preparing the Flight Log
• Determine True Track
• Measure distance to destination
• Calculate True Heading based on Winds
• Calculate estimated ground speed
• Calculate Magnetic Heading based on deviation
• Calculate ETA
• Calculate Fuel required
• Enter checkpoints and distances
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Publications
• Canada Flight Supplement (CFS)– Information on all registered Aerodromes in
Canada
– Listing of navigation beacons, radio stations (frequencies, locations)
– Misc. information
– Valid for 56 days
• Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP)– General info, regulations, aerodrome details, etc.
– Supplied to all licensed pilots in Canada
– Updated four times per year
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CFS Page
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Set heading Point
• A point selected near departure point
• Allows climb to be completed and cruise
flight established.
• Clear landmark, easy to navigate to
visually
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Exercise 2
• Draw the tracks for the flight on the
VNC
– Identify the airports using the CFS
– Select a set heading point
– Draw track lines on the chart
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Nautical Mile
• 1nm equals one minute arc of latitude
• The basis of distance measure for air
navigation
• 1nm = 1.151 statute mile
• Speed measured in Nautical Miles per
Hour (Kts)
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Tools
• ICAO Ruler – scaled to match charts
• Protractor – determine true track
• E6B flight computer
– Wind drift calculations
– Fuel burn, duration
– Flight time
– Pressure and Density Altitude
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Exercise 3
• Measure the length of the trip
– Using the ICAO ruler
– Fill out the distance field in the log for each leg
– Mark the halfway point and 10Nm marks on each leg
• Measure the True Track of each leg
– Using the protractor
– Fill out the flight log
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CDN Airspace
• Airspace in Canada is divided into different areas with specific rules.
• Classes of Airspace– Class A = IFR only, FL180 to FL600
– Class B = IFR/CVFR, 12,500’ to FL180
– Class C = IFR/VFR, controlled, terminal area, airport control zone
– Class D = IFR/VFR, controlled, terminal area
– Class E = IFR/VFR, controlled IFR, non-controlled VFR, controlled minima apply, control zone – twr closed, control extension areas
– Class F = Special use: Restricted or Alert area, gliders, paradrop, military, etc.
– Class G = Uncontrolled.
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CDN Airspace
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US Airspace
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Cruising Altitudes
• VFR– 0 to 179 dg Odd Thousands plus 500’
– 180 to 359 dg Even Thousands plus 500’
– Magnetic track
– Above 3000’ AGL
• IFR– 0 to 179 dg Odd Thousands
– 180 to 359 dg Even Thousands
– Magnetic track
– Above 3000’ AGL
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Exercise 4
• Review the planned flight, look for any
airspace issues (CYA, CYR, Controlled)
• Select an appropriate cruising altitude
for the flight.
– Take into account airspace and cruising
altitude rules
– Enter this in the log
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Wind Drift
• Aircraft operate in a fluid environment
• Wind will affect the actual track of the
aircraft
• Heading must compensate for wind
effects
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Wind Drift
A
B
Wind
Planned TrackActual Track
Heading Correction Angle
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Drift Lines
• 10dg drift lines are used to gauge drift
when flying.
• Plotted from both ends of a leg on both
sides of track.
• Basis of track correction calculations
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Exercise 5
• Plot drift lines for the first leg of the planned
flight
• Calculate the true heading for each leg of the
planned flight
– E6B wind side (this is were the fun begins)
• Enter aircraft TAS in log
• Calculate the estimated ground speed, time
and fuel required for each leg
• Calculate the magnetic heading for each leg
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In Flight Calculations
• Ground Speed checks
• Heading errors
• Course corrections
• Time remaining
• Fuel required
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Exercise 6
• Select waypoints for in-flight ground
speed checks.
• Fill out waypoints on flight log
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ICAO Flight Plan
• Flight plan filed with Nav Canada
• Flight plan contains details on:
– Aircraft (type, speed, nav equip.)
– Route of flight
– Takeoff time, ETA to destination, etc.
– Survival equipment
– Persons on board
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Exercise 7
• Fill out ICAO flight plan based on
planned flight and standard CASARA
crew
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Exercise 8
• Simulate the flight
– Determine the affects of wind different than
forecast
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Diversions
• Change of destination in-flight
• In non-search flying diversions are done:
– To get clear of deteriorating weather
– Due to passenger discomfort
– Due to urgent situation requiring landing
• Estimation of heading, distance and time.
• Exercise: using planned flight, calculate
diversions from various points on the trip.
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Exercise 9
• Estimate diversions from various points
on the trip.
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Electronic Nav Aids
• Automatic Direction Finding (ADF)
– Radio DF to an non-directional beacon
– AM radio stations or specific NDBs
• VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR)
• Instrument Landing System (ILS)
• Global Positioning System (GPS)
– Satellite based
– Extremely accurate