NBSIR 74-455
Abstracts of Papers on Testing and
Analysis of Flammable Fabrics
October 1972 to October 1973
J. F. Krasny
Fire Technology Division
Institute for Applied Technology
National Bureau of Standards
Washington, D. C. 20234
March 1974
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS
NBSIR 74-455
ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS ON TESTING AND
ANALYSIS OF FLAMMABLE FABRICS
OCTOBER 1972 TO OCTOBER 1973
J. F. Krasny
Fire Technology Division
Institute for Applied Technology
National Bureau of Standards
Washington, D. C. 20234
March 1974
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Frederick B. Dent, Secretary
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS. Richard W. Roberts. Director
Abstracts of Papers on Testing and Analysisof Flammable Fabrics October 1972 to October 1973
Compiled by J. F. Krasny
This collection of abstracts covers papers on textile flam-mability testing and analysis of flame retardant fibers andfinishes, for the period October 1972 to October 1973. It ishoped that this collection will facilitate research in thisarea in which there has been great interest in connection withthe introduction of fabric and garment flammability standardsby the Federal and several state governments. Similar collec-tions appear in the Proceedings- of the Annual Meetings of theInformation Council on Fabric Flammability, available from theCouncil, Room 510, 1457 Broadway, New York, N.Y., 10036.
Testing and StandardizationGeneral
Campbell, H. J. and Staples, M. L.
THE FLA_MJ4ABILITY OF TEXTILES.Canadian Text. J., 90 (7) 85-89 (1973).
This is a review of fire injury data, flammabilitystandards, and regulations, with emphasis on a com-parison between the U. S. and Canadian approach to theproblem of reducing losses from flammable fabric fires.A critical analysis of the 45° (CS 191-53) apparelfabric flammability test is presented. Ambiguities,especially those arising from the surface flash phe-nomenon encountered in napped cotton fabrics, are dis-cussed, with modifications to the test suggested. Theeffect of R.H. and specimen orientation (vertical orhorizontal) on ignition time is discussed, as well asthe performance of double layers of fabrics.
Feikema, J. G.
THE COMBUSTION RATES OF VARIOUS TEXTILESMelliand Textilberichte (Eng. Ed.), 54_ (2) 179-184(1973) .
Flammability tests were conducted with the specimensin the horizontal, 45°, and vertical position withthe flame spread rate measured at various distancesfrom the point of ignition over a total specimenlength of 44 cm. The major factors affecting flamespread rate were fabric weight and the dripping ofmolten polymer in the vertical tests. The latter ef-
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feet is more obvious at distances farther from thepoint of ignition.
65/35 polyester/cotton blends did not produce meltdrip. However, melt drip occurred in blends contain-ing 75% or more polyester and in the acrylic fabrics.Initial flame spread was found to be considerablyslower when ignition occurred in the body of the fa-bric than when the edge was ignited. There were somereversals in the relative ranking of the cotton andpolyester/cotton fabrics. Smaller differences inranking were observed when tests were conducted withpoint ignition than with ignition over the wholewidth of the sample : whole width ignition producedflame spread rates 1 to 1 1/2 times higher than thepoint of ignition.
Miller, B..
FLAMMABILITY TERT-IINOLOGY NEEDS VAST IMPROVEMENTAmer. Dyestuff Rep., 62_ (1) 25-21 (1973).
This paper attempts to point out certain inadequaciesin the terminology used in the study of textile flam-mability. By citing specific examples it has shown howsuch terms as " flame-retardant " , " self-extinguishing"
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"char length" and "flame progagation rate" must be usedin a narrower sense than has been generally done in thepast. At the same time, arguments v/ere presented forthe introduction of new terms and concepts, such as"thermal decomposition modifiers" and "ease of extinc-tion".
It is hoped that this discussion will prove useful tothose faced with the difficult problems that have ari-sen in the field of textile flammability
.
Sharman, L. J., Tovey , H. and Vickers, A. K.
CURRENT STATUS AND NATIONAL PRIORITIES FOR FLAflKlABLEFABRIC STANDARDSProc. 6th Annual Meeting ICFF , New York, 264-306(Dec. 1972).
This paper covers the status of flammable fabricsstandards development for mattresses, children's sleep-wear sizes 7 to 14, upholstered furniture, and blan-kets, as well as the applicable sampling plans. Themanner in which priorities for apparel standards are
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determined is described: accident statistics areused to determine the more hazardous apparel item-sex-age grouping combinations, and availability ofFR fabrics for such uses is considered.
Tribus, M.
DECISION ANALYSIS APPROACH TO SATISFYING THE REOUIRE --
MENTS OF THE FLAflHABLE FABRICS ACTStandardization News, STDNA 1 (2) 22-27 (1973).
In reference to the Flammable Fabrics Act of 1967, de-cision analysis is suggested as a method to specify"reasonable protection" from fabric flammability
.
Stress is given to the need for balance between costand protection, higher cost encouraging the circum-vention of standards and lower protection. The mostadvantageous trade off level to be found is with theprobability theory using such factors as ignitionlevels, exposure to ignition, cost per garment and useof standard.
Yuill, C. H.
FIRE TESTS - THE CREDIBILITY GAPStandardization News, STDNA, 1 (6) 26-28, 47 (1973).
Fire tests mean different things to different inter-ests. Small-scale tests are needed for convenienceand economy, but can be misleading if their limita-tions are not understood, particularly in relation toperformance in actual fires. Materials that performwell by themselves may show poor performance when test-ed in combination with other materials. On the otherhand, reports of large-loss fires frequently pin-pointspecific causes without supporting evidence.
Demonstrations of the reaction of materials to lightfire exposure such as a match flame have been usedto prove: (1) a greater hazard than that which actu-ally exists or (2) a degree of safety that will berefuted by large-scale tests. Com.plaints against the"numbers game" ignore the necessity for the utility ofspecific end points. There is need for more large-scale testing in many areas to determine where to setend points.
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Testing and StandardizationTest Development
-A.non
.
DEVELOPMENT OF A SEMIRESTRAINED VERTICAL FABRIC FLATl-
?4ABILITY TEST CONCEPTText. Chem. & Color., 5 (10) 27-33 (1973).
The Test Method Development Subcommittee of the Ap-parel Products Flammability Committee of the AmericanApparel Manufacturers Association evaluated a seriesof laboratory test method concepts in an effort todevelop a bench test which would predict flame spreadcharacteristics. The ultimate objective was to de-termine whether a small scale test would produceflame spread consistently similar to the flame spreadobserved with the same fabric in garment form on amannequin. The method involves edge ignition (by agas flame or a folded filter paper) vertical sampleposition, and moderate restraints of the sample toprovide more realistic conditions for testing ofthermoplastics than presented by metal frames.
Eisele , D.
FLAME RETARDANT TREATMENT OF NON-WOVENSMelliand Textilberichte , 53^ (10) 1167 (1973).
This is part of a series of papers on the materialsand processes used to produce FR non-wovens. Theauthor discusses methods for determining ease of igni-tion, flame spread rate, distance, intumescence,melting and dripping, afterglow, and extinguishability(by means of carbon dioxide) . Ease of ignition andflame spread are measured by means of a modified semi-circular tester in which a Bunsen burner is moved 26times per minute past the specimen. The number ofcycles needed for ignition, and the flame spread alongthe arc are measured.
. Gobeil , N. B.
ASTM TASK GROUP IS WORKING ON A NEVJ FLAWIABILITY TESTERText. Chem. & Color., 5 (2) 21-25 (1973).
During March 19 70 an ASTM task group on apparel flam-mability began work on the development of a testerthat could accurately measure both ease of ignitionand rate of burning.
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The experimental tester resulting from the project in-corporates some of the principles of the 45° angletester and others explored by the National Bureau ofStandards. In the ease of ignition test the ignitionflame impinges on the surface of the fabric with thespecimen held at 62° from the horizontal. In the rateof burning test the specimen is held at a 45° anglewith ignition forced at the lower edge. Test para-meters can be changed by making minor engineeringchanges
.
Griggs, D. I.
THE BRITISH EXPERIENCEProc. 6th Annual Meeting ICFF , New York, 2 30-2 37(Dec. 1972) .
The British fire death statistics for cases attendedby fire departments are discussed briefly; theycurrently are apparently leveling out at somewhatabove 800 deaths per year. Death due to asphyxiationappears more frequently than those due to burns.Experimental work with night clothing and dressinggowns led to development of vertical tests for easeof ignition, flame spread rate and distance, and heatevolved. The test for ease of ignition, and a testwhich classifies fabrics into those which spreadflame, those with limited spread of flame, and thosewhich melt, are applied first. The amount of flamespread, and sometimes heat transmission, are measuredon fabrics which spread flames. At the time the paperwas given an interlaboratory study was in process.
Miller, B. , Goswami, B. C. and Turner, C.
THE CONCEPT AND MEASUREMENT OF EXTINGUISHABILITY AS AFLAMMABILITY CRITERIONText. Res. J., 43^ (2) 61-67 (1973).
Burning experiments in enclosed spaces have shown thatoxygen depletion leading to flame extinction occurseven in a relatively large volume of air because con-vection is only partially effective in supplying airto a burning flame and removing products of combustionand pyrolysis. Quantitative evaluation of extinguisha-bility through oxygen depletion determined under real-istic burning conditions would, therefore, be a valua-ble indication of the hazard potential of a material.
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Accordingly, a method has been developed for establishing a characteristic minimum-burning condition in termof oxygen concentration which results in a more strin-gent criterion for the innate flammability of a material than the conventional oxygen index (01) value. TheTRI Flammability Analyzer is used to measure steady-state flame propagation rates at several oxygen concentrations high enough to support steady burning. Extrapolating the resultant linear burning rate-oxygen con-centration relation to zero burning rate yields an in-trinsic (01)0- With the analyzer, it is possible todetermine intrinsic indices for the more common andvigorous upward directions of burning, and the upwardindices obtained for a group of natural and syntheticfabrics, woven and knitted, are appreciably lower thanthe indices for the downward direction. Indeed, allfabrics studied, except Nomex, are found to be inher-ently capable of upward burning in air.
Testing and StandardizationApparel
Carter, W. H. , Finley, E. L. and Farthing, B. R.
FLAME TEMPERATURE, HEAT RADIATION AND HEAT CONTENTMEASURED FOR ALL-COTTON AND COTTON-POLYESTEP^ FABRICSJ. Fire & Flammability, 4 (2) 106-112 (1973).
This research measured the heat radiation rate whenfull size A-line dresses made of all-cotton, 70/30cotton-polyester and 50/50 cotton-polyester wereburned on a life-size mannequin form. Radiation rateswere evaluated in relation to surface temperaturesmeasured on the mannequin and to the total heat con-tent in cal/gram for the three fabrics. An Eppleypyrheliometer placed at waist height and 18 inches outfrom the mannequin surface was used to measure heatradiation rate. The mannequin surface temperaturesdecreased as the polyester fiber content increased;whereas the total heat contents and radiation ratesincreased with increase in polyester fiber.
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Duncan, A. J.
COMMITTEE E-11 ON STATISTICAL METHODS - REPORTPERTAINING TO THE SAMPLING PLAN AMENDMENT TO THECHILDREN'S SLEEPX^7EAR STANDARDStandardization News, STDNA, 1 (5) 26-27 (1973).
At its meeting in April 1973, Committee E-11 spentconsiderable time discussing the proposed samplingplan amendment to the Children's Sleepwear Standard.This is one of the initial standards issued under theFlammability Fabrics Act as amended in 1967 and islikely to set precedents for many other Federal Govern-ment standards to follov/ in the area of product safety.The introduction of a sampling plan into the standardis in itself a significant feature. It stands insharp contrast to the policy recently proposed bythe National Highway Traffic Safety Administrationwhich refuses to allow permissive failure rates inits flasher standard. The E-11 discussion, whichis summarized in this report, was concerned with thebackground ~ of the sampling plan, its special features,interpretations needed for the computation of anoperating characteristic curve and criticism, of thetest method.
Finley, E. L. and Butts, C. T.
GARMENT CONFOR.MATION ON A MANNEQUIN CHANGES FLAM^IABLECHARACTERISTICSJ. Fire & Flammability, 4_ (3) 145-155 (1973).
A-line dresses, with and without selfbelt, wereburned on an adult size mannequin. Ignition wasby exposure to six gas burners located at the hem-line for 5 seconds. Fabrics used were all-cotton,70/30 and 50/50 polyester/cotton, with and withoutTHPOH-NH3 treatment. The belts acted as flame-stopsfor about 3 minutes with the all-cotton, 2 minutesfor the 70/30, and 1 minute for the 50/50 dresses.Unlaundered, FR treated dresses v^/ithstood 1 minuteexposure to the gas burners but ignited after 20launderings. Mean peak temperatures measured duringthe complete burning of the dresses were higher forthe belted than the unbelted dresses. These tempera-tures became lower with decreasing polyester content(parts of the blend fabrics stayed intact and char-red) . Temperatures were relatively low where thefabric was in contact with the mannequin. Mean timesto peak temperature varied from 8 to 33 seconds;
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they decreased with polyester content, and wereslightly shorter for the belted than the unbelteddresses.
Krasny, J. F. and Fisher, A. L.
LABORATORY MODELING OF GARI'lENT FIRESText. Res. J., 43 (5) 272-283 (1973).
In an attempt to model real-life burn accidents, gar-ment assemblies were burned on adult-size mannequinsand the temperature distribution over the mannequinsurface determined. Anaesthetized, shaved rats wereexposed in openings of the mannequinns in the spatialarrangements encountered in real-life garment fires.The correlation between the depth of burn into theskin and the temperature observed on the mannequinsurface near the exposed skin seemed fair. In otherexperiments, the interaction of burning fabrics anddepth of burn was studied by means of simulated gar-ments fitted to anaesthetized, shaved rats.
Garment geometry was found to affect the burn injurypotential as much as fabric parameters. It is dis-cussed in terms of initial fabric to s]cin, fabric tomannequin, and outerwear-underwear distance (thesedistances often change during the fire due to heatshrinkage of themioplastic fibers, turbulence, etc)
;
forTTiation of chimney spaces between fabric layers andthe mannequin surface; and firestops such as belts.
Other experiments covered the effect of combinationsof various fabrics, such as dress-slip assemblies.Gaments made from flame-retardant (FR) -treated cot-ton fabric and 100% thermoplastic fibers did not ig-nite in our experiments when used as single layers.When combined with polyester/cotton blends in outer-wear/underwear assemblies, these fabrics caused smallerareas of the mannequins to be raised to elevated tem-peratures than the blend fabrics alone. This effectwas particularly marked for the FR treated cotton.
In our experiments, polyester/cotton blends seemed tohave more potential for causing injury than comparable,100% cotton fabrics. 100% thermoplastic fiber fabricsappeared to have a lov7 injury potential.
The effect of fabric weight on the area of the manne-quin raised to elevated temperatures was not clearcut, though it was obvious that heavier fabric caused
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more severe injury to exposed skin, and v/ere more dif-ficult to extinguish by beating out the flames thanlight fabrics.
Mandel, J., Steel, M. N. and Sharman , L. J.
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS ANALYSIS OF THE ASTM IN-TERLABORATORY STUDY OF DOC FF 3-71 FLAmABILITY OFCHILDREN ' S SLEEPWEARStandardization News, STDNA, 1 (5) 8-12, (1973).
ASTM Committee D-13 on Textile Materials carried outan interlaboratory study on the test method given inDOC FF 3-71, Standard for the Flaranability of Child-ren's Sleepwear. Sixteen laboratories and eight fa-brics were involved. Committee D-13's conclusionswere that the study demonstrated that laboratoriesdo not obtain the same "pass-fail" results when test-ing the same fabrics with DOC FF 3-71 as written and,in fact, gross differences in reproducibility wereobtained. The same test data was analyzed at NBS
.
The analysis reported in this paper leads to conclu-sions contrary to those reported by D-13. The NBSreport shows theoretically that with a go-no-go- test,such as that for children's sleepwear, the probabilityof complete agreement between laboratories is attainedonly when the material under test is either so farsuperior to the test method requirements or so farinferior to them that unavoidable test method fluctu-ations have no effect on the outcome of the test. Fora fabric that is only 2% defective, the probabilityof complete agreement betv/een 16 laboratories is dov/n
to 72 percent. The data provide no evidence to sup-port D-13's conclusion that gross differences in re-producibility are obtained.
Peach, R. W.
CONFORMANCE SAMPLING FOR CHILDREN'S SLEEPI^rEARStandardization News, STDNA, 1 (5) 13-15 (1973).
The DOC FF 3-71 includes a sampling plan, whichthough not specifically intended to be a qualitycontrol tool, is in effect just that. Thus, thestandard will exert an influence on how a garmentmanufacturer conducts his business. Additionally,the position taken that the manufacturer's own testdata is not acceptable places an unwarranted stric-ure on this industry. The author warns that despite
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Congressional pressure, government agencies shouldexert more restraint before pushing through manda-tory standards of this nature.
Pressley, T. A., Fincher, K. W. and Rowlands, R. J.
TEXTILE FLAf^'^lABILITY TESTINGText. J. Australia, £8 (2) 17-20, 38, 40 (1973).
This paper explains the background to AustralianStandards 1176, "Methods for the Determination ofFlamraability of Textiles from which Clothing may beMade", AS 1248, "Fabrics Described as of Low Flamma-bility", and AS 1249, "Safe Design Rules for Child-ren's Night-clothes". Rather than adopting the British"Children's Nightdress Regulation 1964", the authorsstudied the apparel fire experience in conjunction withAustralian hospitals, and related such garment para-meters as fiber content, fabric construction, andweight, as well as garment fit, to the observed hazard.Unlike the U. S. statistics, which show a large inci-dence of nightwear fires, especially of females,Australian statistics show boys wearing day-timegarments to be the foremost victims of fires.
In the ease of ignition test, hydrogen jet flameswere chosen as ignition source because of flamestability. Samples are mounted horizontally andignition is from below. This results in a conve-nient method and rates fabrics in the same manneras they were found in burn incidents.
The rate of burning test is vertical, and samples areheld on needles (which are small heat sinks). Igni-tion is by means of a 7 jet gas burner across the fullwidth of the sample. The use of glass threads tostabilize the position of thermoplastic fabrics inthe flame is discussed, as is the effect of atmos-pheric pressure which was found to be significant.A method for measuring total heat output during eachtest, by means of recording the temperature rise in astandard copper rod in the chimney, is described butits use in rating fabrics is in abeyance pendingfurther analysis of its significance.
Another method is used to measure surface burn of, e.g.,chenille and flannel fabrics. Bone dry samples areused for this test because most such accidents seemto occur after the victim has been standing in frontof heat sources for considerable time periods, and the
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garments can be assumed to be fully dried. Surfaceburn is measured, in the downward direction. Methodsfor measuring ease of extinction are considered; theLOI test differentiates correctly between fibers butis independent of fabric weight while in real-life,heavier fabrics are harder to extinguish.
Testing and StandardizationFloor Covering
Day, M. and Wiles, D. M.
CARPET FLATIMABILITY : AN OXYGEN INDEX MODIFICATION OFTHE PILL TESTJ. Fire and Flamm. , 4 (2) 165-173 (1973).
A simple, relatively inexpensive test method for deter-mining the flammability of carpets has been devisedbased on the oxygen index concept and the timed burningtablet test. The combustion propensity of the carpetis determined by adjusting the proportion of oxygen ina mixed oxygen/nitrogen, constant total flow, supplyfed into the test cabinet containing the carpet speci-men. A methenamine tablet is used as a constant igni-tion source and rate of flame propagation is measured.The critical oxygen value is determined as the minimiimconcentration of oxygen which will just support com-bustion of the test specimen after ignition. Accu-rate and repeatable results have been obtained. Thetest method ranks carpets according to their limitingoxygen index value and rate of burning at an oxygenindex of 21%.
Denyes, W. and Raines, J. W.
A MODEL CORRIDOR FOR THE STUDY OF FLAMJIABILITY OFFLOOR COVERINGSNBSIR Report 73-200, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.),Washington, D. C. (1973) .
A program was carried out to develop a laboratorytest method that would measure the flame propagationcharacteristics of floor covering materials. A faci-lity was designed which included a floor mounted speci-men in a rectangular cross-sectional duct having aforced supply of air and a gas burner ignition source.The effects of variations in duct size, ignitionsource, and air flow were studied. Factors influen-cing repeatable test results were explored. Flame
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spread was measured by an observer and temperature andheat flux measurements were recorded on an electronicdigital data acquisition system.
Denyes , W. and Quintiere, J.
EXPERIMENTAL AND A?^ALYTICAL STUDIES OF FLOOR COVERINGFLAmABILITY WITH A MODEL CORRIDORNBSIR Report 73-199, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Wash-ington, D. C. (1973) .
The factors which control flame spread on carpets werestudied in full scale experiments in a corridor. Thepredominant factor was found to be radiant preheatingof the carpet surface ahead of the flame front. Ifa critical level of preheating is exceeded, an accel-erating flame front will develop; if not, a decelera-ting flame front will develop. The intensity of ra-diant preheating depends on the energy supplied bythe carpet and other sources, the dimensions of thecorridor, and air velocity. Underlays provide in-sulation from the floor and increase carpet fire se-verity; bonded installation can reduce it. Mathe-matical modeling yields scale relationships v/hichallow comparison of the results in the model corridor(with some qualifications) with the results of full-scale situation. A suggested test method is des-cribed .
Huggett, C.
CARPET FLAM^IABILITY AND THE NBS FIRE CORRIDOR FIREPROGRAMStandardization News, STDNA, 1 (5) 16-20 (1973).
Controversies over floor covering flammability testmethods, the need for improved standards, and severalrecent fires involving floor coverings have focusedspecial attention to the first phase of the NBS corri-dor fire program. The program is designed to studythe effects of configuration, fuel loading and distri-bution, ventilation and other design parameters on thespread of fire through corridors in multiple occupancybuildings. The experimental program, observations,and correlation with real life hazards are outlined.Methods by which the results of flammability testscan be scaled to predict perfomance in full-scalebuildings of different design are suggested.
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Lee, T. G. and Huggett, C.
INTERLARORATORY EVALUATION OF THE TUNNEL TEST(ASTM E 84) APPLIED TO FLOOR COVERINGSNBSIR Report 73-125, NTIS COM 73-11189, Nat. Bur.Stand. (U. S. ). , Washington, D. C. (19 73).
Results of an interlaboratory evaluation of the ASTME-84 tunnel test method involving eleven laboratoriesand nine materials; including four carpets, are re-ported. Data on flame spread, smoke, and fuel con-tribution are analyzed statistically. Selected phy-sical characteristics of each tunnel are tabulatedand compared relative to specifications in the testmethod. The between-laboratory coefficient of vari-ation (reproducibility) in flame spread classification(FSC) was found to range from 7 to 29% for the fourcarpets and from 18 to 43% for the other materialstested. The betv;een-laboratory coefficients of vari-ation for smoke developed and fuel contributionranged from 34 to 85% and from 22 to 117% respec-tively for all materials tested. The causes ofhigher variability in smoke and fuel contributionmeasurement between laboratories is not definitelyknown but may be reasonably attributed to variationsin tunnel construction, maintenance, and operation,in the location of photometers, and in the mountingof thermocouples in different laboratories. Somevariability of results may possibly be due to vari-ation in test specimens. Variation in constructionand measurement techniques among tunnels may be mini-mized by updating the test method standard.
Sanders, R.
A Sr4ALL SCALE BURNING TEST FOR SHAG CARPETSText. Chem. & Color., 5 (3) 34-37 (1973).
The objective of this work was to develop a smallscale burning test which would correlate with thetendency for a flame to propagate through the pileof shag carpets. A method was devised to test flamepropagation through the pile of shag carpets by usingthe oxygen index tester. A small swatch of carpetwas mounted in the test chamber in the horizontalpile-side-up position. Stainless steel rods, 1/8-inch in diameter, were placed between tuft rows inorder to prevent interference due to ignition of thebacking, and the oxygen index designated as the PileBurn Index (PBI) of the carpet was determined. It was
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found that shag carpets which did not meet the accept-ance criterion of the methenamine tablet test (U. S.
Departnent of Commerce Flammability Standard) due topropagation of the flame through the carpet pile hadFBI's in the range of 18-20, while those which passedthe test had FBI's of 22 or greater. The shag carpetswith FBI's between 20 and 22 were found to exhibitmarginal behavior in the tablet test. The FBI's ofboth polyester shag and nylon shag carpets were de-creased when certain chemical residues from the dyebath (especially silicone) were on the carpet speci-mens .
Segall, W. M.
CARFET FLAWmBILITY UFDATEAmer. Dyestuff Rep., 62_ (6) 36 (1973).
A brief description of the flammability regulation ofcarpets; the citations by FTC for violation of thestandard by numerous manufacturers; the definition ofaddition of alumina trihydrate used in lattices or foamsas a fire retardant treatment and the need to laundersuch carpets before testing; and the presentation byindustry to FTC of evidence that the laundering proce-dure of FTC was unrealistic and substitution of abetter procedure.
Segall, W. M.
EFFECT OF FLAMMABILITY STANDARDS ON THE CARPET IN-DUSTRYStandardization News, STDNA, 1 (5) 21-22, 68 (1973).
The experience of the carpet industry with the firstflammability standard developed under the amendedFlammable Fabrics Act has demonstrated the need for astatistical approach to the enforcement of governmentregulations based on mandatory safety standards. Re-cognition of the inherent variability of manufacturedproducts and the lack of precision of test methodscan be established by the incorporation of valid sam-pling plans in future standards.
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Stamm, G.
EVALUATION OF THE FLA^IT^ABILITY OF TEXTILE FLOOR ANDWALL COVERINGSTextilveredlung, 8 (6) 326-340 (1973).
This paper describes the work leading to a new SwissStandard "Determination of Flammability Propertiesof Textile Floor and Wall Covering" {Sm 198,897,draft May 19 73) . A number of carpets were tested byfour methods, all using a 2 0 mm gas flame. Flamespread, burn, and afterglow times were measured.Samples were tested in the vertical position, andignition time was varied. Flammability classifica-tions based on flame spread and burn time are discus-sed .
Thoram , E . C
.
EFFECTS OF CARPET VARIABLES ON THE METHENAMINE PILLTESTJ. Fire & Flammability, 4 (2) 197-209 (1973) .
Polyamide carpets were "pill-tested" in accordancewith the ASTM D-2 859-70T test method. Effects of thedifferent carpet variables and components such as faceyarn arrangement, backing materials and adhesive ma-terials were compared and analyzed. It was found thatcarpets with longer loops , polypropylene primary back-ing , urethane foam secondary backing and ordinary ad-hesive burned most readily. The use of jute as pri-mary of secondary backing and the incorporation ofalumina trihydrate in the adhesive latex exhibitedbeneficial effects.
Testing and StandardizationMattresses
Anon
.
CALIFORNIA SETS STANDARDSBedding Magazine, 100 (11) 21 (1972).
The California Assembly Bill 1522 sets the effectivedate for the manufacture of flame retardant mattres-ses for June 7, 1973 and requires that the Bureau ofHome Furnishings adopt regulations for the flamma-bility of upholstered furniture by April 1, 1975.
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The California mattress standard requires a verticalflame test for all components labelled "fire retar-dant"
.
McKee, C. J. L.
FLAMMABILITY: HISTORY, CIGARETTE TEST, STANDARD, AL-TERATIONS, PRODUCT SAFETYBedding Magazine, 101 (5) 41-43, 66-63, 81 (1973).
The history of the Flammability Standard for Mattresses(DOC FF 4-72) is described. Lighted cigarettes areused as the ignition source in the test. They areplaced on the bare surface as well as between twopieces of cotton sheeting on the mattress, in smoothareas, in quilted channels and tufted depressions (ifany), as well as at the taped edge. The criterion forfailure is a char extending for more than two inchesfrom the cigarette. Several sampling plans cover thenumber of failures permissible in prototype and pro-duction testing.
Roe, R.
THE IMPACT OF THE NEW FLAMMABILITY STANDARDS ON THEBEDDING INDUSTRYStandardization News, STDNA, 1 (5) 23-25 (1973)..
In order to meet the new Federal Flammability Standardsfor Bedding, the industry will have to redesign all mat-tress products to meet necessary resistance to ignitionfrom cigarettes. Each mattress manufacturer must alsoprovide space and equipment to perform required testprocedure, conduct destructive tests on mattresses priorto beginning production in order to certify compliancewith the standards, conduct further on-going tests ac-cording to a work sampling plan and maintain certainrecord keeping for Federal enforcing agencies.
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Testing and StandardizationMiscellaneous
Anon
.
FLAiME RETARDANTS UNDERGO CPIECKAiner. Dyestuff Rep., 62_ (5) 28 (19 73*).
A short description is given of testing according toprocedures specified by the Board of Standards andAppeals, City of New York, "Rules for Tests for Fire-Resistive Flaraeproofed Materials". Ignition is bymeans of a gas burner; the fabric sample is unre-strained; there shall be no more than 3 seconds after-flame time or 20 seconds afterglow time; and thereshall be no flashing at any point on the specimen.The test applies to decorative and acoustical materi-als used in places of public assembly and special oc-cupancy. Chemical systems which produce cotton,cotton/polyester, 100% polyester and triacetate fa-brics that satisfy the requirements are mentioned.
Feller, I., Richards, K. and Crane, K.
THE ROLE OF FLAMI4ABILE FABRICS IN SEVERE BURNINJURIESProc. 6th Annual Meeting ICFF , Nev; York, 16 7-174(Dec. 1972).
Data collected by the National Burn InformationExchange show that clothing ignited in 86% of 4,596flame-burn cases and were compared with those inwhich no clothing item ignited. In the former,mortality was 3 times higher and there were verysubstantial increases in the average areas of totaland of full thickness burns, days of hospitalizationand cost.
Hendrix, J. F., Drake, G. L., Jr. and Reeves, W. A.
SOME FACTORS AFFECTING FABRIC FLAMM.ABILITY AS MEASUREDBY THE OXYGEN INDEX (OlTText. Chem. & Color., 5^ (8) 13-17 (1973).
The use of oxygen index (01) for determining relativeflammabilities of textile materials is discussed interms of variables inherent in the technique and arti-ficial variables introduced for the purpose of this
17
study. 01 values were found dependent on size andconstruction of the sample holder, temperature of thetesting environment, weight, construction, moisturecontent and purity and the sample being tested.
Lehman, H. H.
A REVIEW OF THE FLAME RETARDANT FABRICS STUDY CONDUCTEDAT THE NEW ORLEANS PHS HOSPITALProc. 6th Annual Meeting ICFF , New York, 17 8-19 8
(Dec. 1972)
.
Untreated cotton fabrics and cotton fabrics treatedwith experimental FR treatment, polyester/cottonblends, fiberglass, modacrylics, X-400, and Nomexfabrics were used in hospital sheets, pillow cases,bedspreads, blankets, mattress covers, curtains, andgowns, for a period representing 200,000 patient beddays. No dermatological effects of FR materials couldbe detected, nor were there any significant differ-ences in bacteriological growth on ordinary and FRmaterials. There was a 50% reduction in fire losswhen the FR items were employed. Nomex sheets weredisliked by the nursing staff because of slippage andcolor. Laundering conditions were adjusted for the FRcotton fabrics, which resulted in good resistance ofthe treatments to laundering.
Ignition, Heat Developm.ents
,
Combustion Products
Birky, M. M. and Yeh , Kwan-nan
CALORIMETRIC STUDY OF FLATl^lABLE FABRICS. PART I.
INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTSJ. Appl. Polym. Sci., 17 (1) 239-253 (1973).
A calorimeter has been designed, calibrated, andtested to measure the total amount of heat releasedand the rate of heat released from the combustion offabrics in air. Calibration of the calorimeter gavea reproducibility of ±3% for total heat measurementsand ±5% on rate measurements. Consideration of syste-matic errors gives an expected accuracy of ±7% fortotal heat and ±10% for com.bustion rate measurements.Measurements on cotton show that 90% of the standardheat of combustion is released when cotton is burnedin air. The rate of heat release for cotton is inde-pendent of fabric weight. The constancy of rate of
18
heat release as determined calorimetrically confirmedthe result implied by the 45° test measurements onflame spread rate. The rate and amount of heat re-lease of other commercial fabrics and blends werealso measured.
Birky, M. M.
COMBUSTION PRODUCT ANALYSIS FROM FULL SCALE FLOORCOVERING FIRESPolymer Prepr., Amer. Chem. Soc, Div. Polym. Chem. ,
14 (2) 1011-1016 (1973)
.
Smoke and gas measurements were conducted duringfires in which carpets were burned in a 30 foot cor-ridor. Gas sampling was at the ceiling where theconcentrations were highest. Maximum tolerable con-centration of CO and CO2 and minimum concentrationsof O2 as well as visibility attenuation due to smokewere discussed. Typical times to reach these con-centrations during the fire were listed.
Chouinard, M. P., Knodel, D. C. and Arnold, H. W.
HEAT TRANSFER FROM FLAI#1ABLE FABRICSText. Res. J., 42 (3) 166-175 (1973).
An instrumented mannequin was constructed to measurethe general heat transfer from single- and multi-layergarment systems after ignition by a flame source. Arange of weights in fabrics of cotton, polyester/cotton, acrylic, wool, nylon, and polyester has beenstudied.
Due in large measure to the melt-drip phenomenon,garments of polyester or nylon were found to burnrelatively slowly over a limited area and self-exting^iish, resulting in little heat transfer to themannequin. To supplement the mannequin data, an in-strument was developed to record all modes of heattransfer, including that from melted polymer. Thispaper deals with its application to both single anddouble fabric layers.
Measurements were related to possible physiologicaleffects, using data from the literature and a supple-mentary pathological study.
19
McCarter, R. J.
A NEW TECHNIQUE FOR THERMAL ANALYSIS OF VAPOR PRODUCINGREACTIONSJ. Appl. Poly. Sci., 17_ (6) 1833-1846 (1973).
An apparatus was developed for measuring the rate atwhich vapors are evolved during the thermal degrada-tion of materials and thereby deriving the kinetics ofsuch reactions. Requisite to the operating scheme ofthe apparatus is the provision of a high-temperaturezone to convert condensable or tarry vapors into non-condensable form. The apparatus yields a direct measureof reaction velocity, rather than the integrated indi-cation obtained with thermogravimetric analysis. Thissimplifies the identification and calculation of kine-tic parameters. Increases in sensitivity and operat-ing range are also achieved. Flexibility in operationis obtained that permits the separate recording of re-actions that tend to overlap. Although the apparatusprincipally has been operated using a combustible gasindicator to meter the evolved vapors, a number ofoptions are available for the latter function, includ-ing flowmeters and various continous gas analyzers.Examples of results obtained with untreated and FRtreated cellulose are given.
TVulff, W. , Alkidas, A., Hess, R. W. and Zuber, N.
FABRIC IGNITIONText. Res. J., 42 (10) 577-588 (1973).
The burn injury hazard of fabrics has been conceptuallyrelated to laboratory test methods. The relation is tobe derived from the description of the relevant proces-ses which lead to burn injury. Among these processesstand out the ignition, the burn and the tissue dena-turalization processes as predominately deterministicbecause of predictable fabric response.
Presented here are the results of an experimental andanalytical investigation into the fabric ignition pro-cess. Thermophysical fabric properties relevant tothe description of the ignition process have been pre-sented. Fabric ignition times were measured under ra-diative heating. Modeling rules for the ignition pro-cess are oresented.
20
Yeh, Kwan-nan, Birky, M. M. and Huggett, C.
CAL0Rir4ETRIC STUDY OF FLAMI^IABLE FABRICS. PART II .
ANALYSIS OF FLATIE RETARDANT-TREATFD COTTONJ. Appl. Polym. Sci., 17 (1) 255-268 (1973).
Efficiencies of three flame retardants for cellulose,(phosphoric acid, diairanonium phosphate, and THPOHammonia finish) have been evaluated based on theheat release value and the rate of heat release oftreated fabrics burning in air measured with theisoperibol calorimeter. The results were com.paredand correlated with those obtained previously withthe bomb-calorimetric technique. Complete heatbalances were obtained for the systems studies bycorrelation of the calorimetric data and the measure-ment of combustible gases evolved from the fabricburning in air. The rate of heat release was foundto correlate with the flame propagation rate measuredat a 45° angle. The results from the heat, rate, andcombustible gas measurements v^ere interpretable interms of existing mechanisms of flame-retardant action.
Effect of Laundering on FR Characteristicsof Fabrics
Anon
.
DETERGENTS AND FLAn?-lABILITYText. Chem. & Color., 4 (12) 20-21 (1972).
Nearly 100 persons attended a three-hour meeting ofthe Ad Hoc Committee on Detergents of AATCC . Theentire meeting was devoted to the influence of wash-ing procedures upon the flammability properties offabrics and garments which initially meet the require-ments of DOC FF 3-71. Extensive discussion reviewedthe effects of hard water (calcium and magnesium ions)on washing with sodium soap, sodium carbonate-builtdetergents, low phosphate detergents and high phos-phate detergents. It was the consensus that the useof soap with water hardness above 100 ppm would re-sult in a significant loss of flame resistance onmost if not all of the major fabrics being consideredfor garments which meet the standard initially.
21
Anon
.
EFFECT OF SOIL ON FLAME RETARDANCEText. Chem. & Color., 5^ (3) 25 (1973).
Cominittee RA56, Stain Resistance, of The AmericanAssociation of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC)
,
is planning a study on the effect of soil redepositionand unremoved soil on the effectiveness of flame re-tardant fabrics. An attempt will be made to use amodification of the currently proposed redepositionmethods utilizing the automatic home washer. Co-operative participation in the study by two othercommittees has been invited (Committee RA82, Flamma-bility and Fire Resistance, and Committee RA83,Soiling of Household Textiles other than FloorCoverings)
.
Defosse, T. C.
THE INFLUENCE OF DETERGENT ADDITIVES ON FLATIMABILITYPaper at Meeting of AATCC, Atlantic City, N. J.,(Sept. 1973)
.
The purpose of this study was to present experimentalresults obtained when a variety of fire retardant fa-brics were laundered with a series of detergent typesunder varying water hardness conditions. The mainobjective of the work was to define the effects ofthese detergents on a number of representative fireretardant fabrics and to identify cause of fire re-tardant impairment where applicable. Analytical datarelating to detergent effects and photomicrographs ofwashed fabrics are presented. Fibers and finishesincluded in the study are acetate, cotton, high tem-perature nylon, modacrylics, PVA-PVC matrix fiber andrayon, all fire retardant, either inherently or bychemical finishing.
LeBlanc, R. B. and LeBlanc, D. A.
EFFECTS OF CALCIUM DEPOSITS ON FIRE RETARDANT COTTONAmer. Dyestuff Rep., 62_ (3) 50 (1973).
This paper is a follow-up to the previous citation.Calcium chloride was deposited on FR treated cottonfabrics which were then soaked in trisodium phosphateor sodium carbonate solutions. Fire retardance wasnot lost by deposition of calcium phosphate in. situ
22
at a L?. ievei hcr ly deposition of calcium carbonateat the 1% level, or deposition of calcium chloridewhen 1% calcium is present.
LeBlanc, R. B. and LeBlanc, D. A.
FLAfll^lABILITY OF SLEEPWEAR LAUNDERED WITH VARIOUSDETERGENTSAmerican Dyestuff Rep., 62 (1) 28-30 (1973).
The present work was done to study the effects oflaundering variables on flame retardant fabrics. Thefabrics were laundered in soft and hard water, (therinse water in all cases was approximately 3 5 ppm) andwith high-phosphate detergent, low-phosphate detergentand soap. Flam.e retardance was evaluated by the Chil-dren's Sleepwear Standard DOC FF 3-71.
It was proven that fabrics did not pick up measurablecalcium phosphate during laundering in phosphate deter-gents and the fire retardance v/as not lost.
Calcium soaps did deposit on the fabrics laundered inhard water with soap, and this caused a loss in fireretardance
.
Calcium salts v/ere padded onto FR cotton and it wasfound that these calcium salts did not cause a loss infire retardance.
It was also found that stearic acid affected the fireretardance of FR cotton as much as did calcium stearate.
FR Fiber and FR Finish Identification
Ellzey, S. E., Jr. and Connick, W. J., Jr.
GASOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF THPCAmer. Dyestuff Rep., 62_ (6) 47-48 (1973).
A procedure was developed for the analysis of com-mercial solutions of THPC. The method involves thecollection and measurement of the volume of hydrogenevolved from the reaction of THPC and excess NaOH.The measurement requires inexpensive equipment and isreasonably rapid and precise. Accuracy with solutionsof known concentrations is quite good.
23
Morris, R. N. , McCall, E. R. and Tripp, V. W.
IDENTIFYING FINISHES BY INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY :
FLUOROCHEMICALS AND FLAME RETARDANTSText. Chem. & Color., 4 (12) 39-42 (1972).
An extraction procedure to successively remove vari-ous additives from the fabric undergoing analysis isdescribed. The resulting extracts are examined byinfrared spectroscopy and identified by comparisonwith a catalog of infrared spectra. In this studyfluorochemical and flame retardant finishes are addedto the functional categories previously examined. Acomparison of extraction techniques is discussed andthe need for a reliable catalog of reference spectrais emphasized.
Nelson, K. H. and Kelly, H. J., Jr.
NONDESTRUCTIVE DETERMINATION OF PHOSPORUS FLAI-IE
RETARDANTSText. Chem. & Color, 5 (6) 29-31 (1973).
Woven and knit polyester, polyester/cotton and cottonfabrics can be analyzed for phosphorus flame retardantsby nondispersive x-ray fluorescence. Commercial instru-mentation incorporating an Fe-55 isotope source, a heli-um atmosphere, a proportional counter and a single chan-nel analyzer is used. The fabric is placed over theirradiation source and counted. A background correctioncount is obtained with untreated fabric and the milli-grams phosphorus is read from a current calibrationcurve prepared with permanent fabric standards. Thenthe percent phosphorus is calculated after the weightof the counted area is derived from the total fabricarea and weight. After analysis, the intact fabric isavailable for burning rate studies or further tests.With an alternative procedure, disks cut from the fabricwith a circular die can be analyzed. Errors from chlor-ine and other elements are eliminated with a balancedfilter.
24
Perkins, W. S.
A METHOD FOR QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF COTTON/KOHJINBLENDSText. Chem. & Color., 5 (8) 18, 19 (1973).
Blends of cotton and Kohjin fibers are analyzed quan-titatively by dissolution of the Kohjin portion bysuccessive treatments with 40% (w/w) formic acid andN , N-dimethylformamide . Analysis of the moisture re-gain of the blend also gives an indication of theblend composition, since the moisture regain is di-rectly proportional to the percentage of cotton. Theaccuracy of the dissolution method appears to be about±1%, that of the moisture determination about ±3%.
25
NBS-n4A !HL V ;. 7 i)
U S. DEPT. OF COMM.BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA
SHEET
1. rUHI li A 1 ION OR Rl- roR 1 NO.
NBSIR 74-455
2, ( lov 't A(-t (- s s ion
No.3, Kcc ipiciK A. (.fssion No.
4. n i l, I- AND .suin l l l.l.
Abstracts of Papers on Testing and Analysis ofFlammable Fabrics October 1972 to October 1973
J. 1 11 bl K at 1 on 1 )mv
March 19746. Performing (Vganization < ode
7. AU rilOR(S)
John F. Krasny8. Performing Organ. Report No.
NESIR 74-4559. PKRI-ORMIN(i ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRHSS
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDSDEPARTMENT OF COMMERCEWASHINGTON, D.C. 20234
I-
10. Proiect/Task/Work Unit No.
490339011. ( ontract/Cirant No.
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Complete Address (Street, City, State, ZIP)
same as no. 9
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15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRAC T (A 200-word or less factual sumrrjary of most si^ificant information. If document includes a significant
bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.)
This collection of abstracts covers papers on textile flammabilitytesting and analysis of flame retardant fibers and finishes, for theperiod October 1972 to October 1973. It is hoped that this collectionwill facilitate research in this area in which there has been greatinterest in connection with the introduction of fabric and garmentflammability standards by the Federal and several state governments.Similar collections appear in the Proceedings of the Annual Meetingsof the Information Council on Fabric Flammability, available from theCouncil, Room 510, 14 57 Broadway, New York, N.Y., 10036.
17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper
name; separated by semicolons
)
Burn injuries; carpets; clothing; fabrics; fire retardants; flamma-bility testing. ' •
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