NEBOSH INTERNATIONAL FIRE CERTIFICATE - UNITS IFC1 AND ...

NEBOSH INTERNATIONAL FIRE CERTIFICATE - UNITS IFC1 AND IFC2

Fire Safety and Risk Management

NEBOSH INTERNATIONAL FIRE CERTIFICATE UNIT IFC1: FIRE SAFETY AND RISK MANAGEMENT

Element 1: Managing Fire Safety

Element 2: Principles of Fire and Explosion

Element 3: Causes and Prevention of Fires and Explosions

Element 4: Fire Protection in Buildings

Element 5: Safety of People in the Event of Fire

Element 6: Fire Safety Risk Assessment

© RRC International

All rights reserved. RRC International is the trading name of The Rapid Results College Limited, Tuition House, 27-37 St George’s Road, London, SW19 4DS, UK.

These materials are provided under licence from The Rapid Results College Limited. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, electrostatic, mechanical, photocopied or otherwise, without the express permission in writing from RRC Publishing.

For information on all RRC publications and training courses, visit: www.rrc.co.uk

RRC: IFC1.2

ISBN for this volume: 978-1-911002-20-8 Second edition Summer 2016

ISBN for complete set of [2] volumes 978-1-909055-41-4

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

RRC International would like to thank the National Examination Board in Occupational Safety and Health (NEBOSH) for their co-operation in allowing us to reproduce extracts from their syllabus guides.

This publication contains public sector information published by the Health and Safety Executive and licensed under the Open Government Licence v.2 (www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/2).

Every effort has been made to trace copyright material and obtain permission to reproduce it. If there are any errors or omissions, RRC would welcome notification so that corrections may be incorporated in future reprints or editions of this material.

Whilst the information in this book is believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to press, neither the author nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made.

Contributors

Dr T Robson, Bsc (Hons), PhD, CFIOSH, MRSC, CChem

2-3

Contents

Introduction

Element 1: Managing Fire Safety

Moral, Social and Economic Benefits of Good Management of Fire Safety 1-3

Consequences of Inadequate Fire Management 1-3Financial Implications of False Alarms 1-4Size of the Fire Safety Problem 1-4Roles and Responsibilities of the Occupier of a Building 1-5Costs of Inadequate Management of Fire Safety 1-5Study Questions 1-5

Key Features of a Fire Safety Policy 1-6

Responsibility for Fire Safety 1-6Study Questions 1-7

The Role of National Governments and International Bodies in Formulating a Framework for the Regulation of Fire Safety 1-8

International Standards and Sources of Information 1-8Employers’ and Workers’ Responsibilities 1-9Role of Enforcement Agencies and the Consequences of Non-Compliance 1-10Study Questions 1-10

Sources of External Fire Safety Information and the Principles of their Application 1-11

National Legislation and Guidance 1-11Other Fire Guidance 1-12Application of Local Guidance 1-12Study Question 1-13

Investigating Fires in the Workplace 1-14

Purpose of Fire Investigation 1-14Basic Fire Investigation Procedures 1-14Study Questions 1-17

Recording and Reporting Fire-Related Incidents 1-18

Recording and Reporting Fire-Related Incidents and Injuries 1-18Other Internal Recording Systems 1-19Risk Assessment Review 1-22Study Questions 1-22

Summary 1-23

Exam Skills 1-24

Contents

Element 2: Principles of Fire and Explosion

Combustion Process in Relation to Fire Safety 2-3

Fire Triangle 2-3Chemistry of Combustion 2-3Stages of Combustion 2-5Study Questions 2-6

Ignition of Solids, Liquids and Gases 2-7

Definitions 2-7Ignition of Solids, Liquids and Gases 2-9Preventing or Controlling Ignition 2-10Properties and Safe Storage of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) 2-10Study Questions 2-11

Classification of Fires 2-12

Fires Classified According to Fuel Source 2-12Study Question 2-13

Principles of Fire Growth and Fire Spread 2-14

Fire Growth 2-14Fire Growth Rates and Smoke Movement 2-14Methods of Heat Transfer 2-16Development of a Fire 2-18Flashover and Backdraught 2-19Study Questions 2-19

Explosion and Explosive Combustion 2-20

Mechanism of Explosion 2-20Materials Commonly Involved in Explosions 2-21Types of Explosions 2-21Preventing Explosions 2-23Controlling Explosions 2-24Study Questions 2-25

Summary 2-26

Exam Skills 2-27

2-5

Contents

Element 3: Causes and Prevention of Fires and Explosion

Causes of Fires and Explosions in Typical Work Activities 3-3

Introduction 3-3Accidental Fires 3-3Sources of Oxygen 3-5Fire and Explosion Risks from Flammable Materials 3-5Fire Load 3-6Fire Risks in Construction and Maintenance Work 3-6Control of Fire Risk in Construction and Maintenance Work 3-8Arson Attacks 3-8Study Question 3-9

Appropriate Control Measures to Minimise Fire and Explosion Risks 3-10

Introduction 3-10Control of Sources of Ignition 3-11Control of Sources of Fuel 3-11Control of Sources of Oxygen 3-15Management of Control Measures 3-16Study Questions 3-18

Summary 3-19

Exam Skills 3-20

Contents

Element 4: Fire Protection in Buildings

Fire Protection and Prevention of Fire and Smoke Spread Within Buildings 4-3

Elements of Structure 4-3Elements of Structure - Properties for Fire Resistance 4-4Compartmentation 4-4Fire-Resisting Dampers 4-6Internal Fire Growth 4-6Fire-Resisting Walls, Floors and Ceilings 4-8Alarm Systems Linked to Ventilation Systems 4-8Preventing External Fire Spread 4-8Study Questions 4-10

Means of Escape 4-11

Introduction 4-11Principles of Means of Escape and General Requirements 4-11Escape Requirements for Vulnerable People/Those with Disabilities 4-21Study Questions 4-22

Fire Detection and Fire Alarms 4-23

Fire Alarm and Fire Detection Systems 4-23Types of Automatic Detection 4-23Categories of Alarm and Detection Systems 4-25Fire Alarm Zoning 4-25Alarm Signalling 4-26Emergency Voice Communication (EVC) Systems 4-26Alarm Receiving Centres (ARCs) 4-26Manual and Automatic Systems 4-27Selection of Fire Detection and Fire Alarm Systems 4-27Maintenance and Testing of Fire Detection and Fire Alarm Systems 4-29Study Questions 4-29

Selection of Basic Fire Extinguishing Methods 4-30

Provision of Portable Fire-Fighting Equipment and Fixed Installations 4-30Extinguishing Media and Mode of Action 4-30Portable Fire-Fighting Equipment 4-32Fixed Installations 4-34Study Question 4-35

Access for the Fire Service 4-36

Fire-Fighting Vehicle Access 4-36Access to Buildings for Fire-Fighting Personnel 4-37Fire-Fighting Shafts/Stairwells 4-38Liaison with the Fire Authority 4-38Study Questions 4-38

Minimising the Environmental Impact of Fire and Fire-Fighting Operations 4-39

Sources of Pollution in the Event of a Fire 4-39Legal Obligations Related to Environmental Protection 4-39Pre-Planning the Minimisation of Environmental Impact 4-40Site and Damaged Area Clean-Up Considerations 4-40Study Questions 4-41

Summary 4-42

Exam Skills 4-43

2-7

Contents

Element 5: Safety of People in the Event of Fire

Fire Emergency Plan 5-3

Purpose of a Fire Emergency Plan 5-3Content of a Fire Emergency Plan 5-3Multi-Occupied Premises 5-5Compatibility of the Plan with Everyday Use of the Premises 5-5Study Question 5-5

Development of a Fire Evacuation Procedure 5-6

Evacuation Procedures 5-6Evacuation of Vulnerable People 5-10Evacuating Members of the Public 5-10Study Questions 5-11

Perception and Behaviour of People in a Fire 5-12

Principles of Sensory Perception 5-12Time Pressure, Stress and the Decision-Making Process 5-13Individuals Responsible for Others 5-15The Effect of Different Behaviours on Fire and Evacuation 5-15Crowd Flow: Nature, Dangers and Modification 5-16Study Questions 5-17

Appropriate Training Requirements 5-18

Fire Safety Training 5-18Competent Persons 5-19Roles and Responsibilities 5-19Workers with Management/Supervisory Roles 5-20Study Questions 5-21

Summary 5-22

Exam Skills 5-23

Contents

Element 6: Fire Safety Risk Assessment

Aims and Objectives of Fire Safety Risk Assessments 6-3

Hazard and Risk 6-3Objectives of Fire Risk Assessments 6-4Different Types of Fire Incidents 6-5Study Questions 6-6

Principles and Practice of Fire Safety Risk Assessments 6-7

Legal Requirements for Fire Safety Risk Assessment 6-7Fire Hazards 6-9Identifying Hazards 6-9People at Risk 6-10Evaluation of Risk and Existing Fire Safety Measures 6-11Evaluation of Likelihood that Fire May Occur 6-11Hazards to People 6-12Consequences to People 6-12Risk Reduction 6-12Principles of Prevention 6-13Recording 6-14Review 6-16Sources of Information 6-17Relationship Between Fire Risk Assessment and the Fire Safety Policy 6-18Study Questions 6-19

Risk Assessment of Dangerous Substances 6-20

Introduction 6-20What are Dangerous Substances? 6-20Matters to Consider in Risk Assessment 6-21Measures to be Taken to Control Risk in Respect of Dangerous Substances 6-21Preparing Emergency Plans and Procedures 6-22Providing Information, Instruction and Training for Employees 6-23Study Question 6-23

Summary 6-24

Exam Skills 6-25

Revision and Examination Guide

Unit IFC2: Fire Safety Practical Application

Suggested Answers

2-9

Introduction

Course StructureThis textbook has been designed to provide the reader with the core knowledge needed to successfully complete the NEBOSH International Fire Certificate in Fire Safety and Risk Management, as well as providing a useful overview of health and safety management. It follows the structure and content of the NEBOSH syllabus.

The NEBOSH International Fire Certificate consists of three units of study. When you successfully complete any of the units you will receive a Unit Certificate but to achieve a complete NEBOSH International Fire Certificate qualification, you need to pass the three units within a five-year period. For more detailed information about how the syllabus is structured, visit the NEBOSH website (www.nebosh.org.uk).

Unit IGC1: Management of International Health and Safety

Element 1 Foundations in Health and Safety

Element 2 Plan

Element 3 Do

Element 4 Check

Element 5 Act

Unit IFC1: Fire Safety and Risk Management

Element 1 Managing Fire Safety

Element 2 Principles of Fire and Explosion

Element 3 Causes and Prevention of Fires and Explosions

Element 4 Fire Protection in Buildings

Element 5 Safety of People in the Event of Fire

Element 6 Fire Safety Risk Assessment

Revision and Examination Guide

Unit FC2: Fire Safety Practical Application

The Practical Assessment

Completing the Candidate’s Fire Risk Assessment Notes

Criteria for Assessment

UNIT IGC1Management of

International Health and Safety

UNIT IFC1Fire Safety and Risk

Management

UNIT IFC2Fire Safety

Practical Application

NEBOSH International

Certificate in Fire Safety and Risk Management

AssessmentTo complete the qualification, you need to pass two formal written exams (one for Unit IGC1 and one for Unit IFC1), as well as a safety inspection of your workplace, including a short report to management (Unit IFC2).

Each written exam is two hours long and consists of one long question (20% of the marks) and ten short questions (each being 8% of the total marks). You must answer all questions.

To help you prepare, this textbook contains Exam Skills activities at the end of each element of your course. Guidance on how to answer an exam-style question is provided, and suggested answers are provided in a section at the end for you to compare them with your own.

We have also included some guidance on how to go about completing the safety inspection of your workplace so you will be fully prepared for that, too.

Introduction

More Information

As you work your way through this book, always remember to relate your own experiences in the workplace to the topics you study. An appreciation of the practical application and significance of health and safety will help you understand the topics.

Keeping Yourself Up to Date

The field of health and safety is constantly evolving and, as such, it will be necessary for you to keep up to date with changing legislation and best practice.

RRC International publishes updates to all its course materials via a quarterly e-newsletter (issued in February, May, August and November), which alerts students to key changes in legislation, best practice and other information pertinent to current courses.

Please visit www.rrc.co.uk/news/newsletters.aspx to access these updates.

Other Textbooks in the Series• The Management of International Oil and Gas Health and Safety: A Guide to the NEBOSH International Technical

Certificate in Oil and Gas Operational Safety (Second Edition, 2015).

• NEBOSH Award in Health and Safety at Work – ARABIC (First Edition, June 2012).

RRC International is continually adding to its range of textbooks. Visit www.rrc.co.uk/publishing for a full range of current titles.

Learning Outcomes

Once you’ve read this element, you’ll understand how to:

Outline the moral, social and economic benefits of good management of fire safety.

Outline the key features of a fire safety policy.

Explain the role of national governments and international bodies in formulating a framework for the regulation of fire safety.

Outline the main sources of external fire safety information and the principles of their application.

Explain the purpose of, and the procedures for, investigating fires in the workplace.

Explain the requirements for recording and reporting fire-related incidents.

1-1© RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 1 - Managing Fire Safety

Element 1

Managing Fire Safety

1-2 © RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 1 - Managing Fire SafetyUnit IFC1: Element 1 - Managing Fire Safety © RRC International

Contents

Moral, Social and Economic Benefits of Good Management of Fire Safety 1-3

Consequences of Inadequate Fire Management 1-3Financial Implications of False Alarms 1-4Size of the Fire Safety Problem 1-4Roles and Responsibilities of the Occupier of a Building 1-5Costs of Inadequate Management of Fire Safety 1-5Study Questions 1-5

Key Features of a Fire Safety Policy 1-6

Responsibility for Fire Safety 1-6Study Questions 1-7

The Role of National Governments and International Bodies in Formulating a Framework for the Regulation of Fire Safety 1-8

International Standards and Sources of Information 1-8Employers’ and Workers’ Responsibilities 1-9Role of Enforcement Agencies and the Consequences of Non-Compliance 1-10Study Questions 1-10

Sources of External Fire Safety Information and the Principles of their Application 1-11

National Legislation and Guidance 1-11Other Fire Guidance 1-12Application of Local Guidance 1-12Study Question 1-13

Investigating Fires in the Workplace 1-14

Purpose of Fire Investigation 1-14Basic Fire Investigation Procedures 1-14Study Questions 1-17

Recording and Reporting Fire-Related Incidents 1-18

Recording and Reporting Fire-Related Incidents and Injuries 1-18Other Internal Recording Systems 1-19Risk Assessment Review 1-22Study Questions 1-22

Summary 1-23

Exam Skills 1-24

1.1

1-2 © RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 1 - Managing Fire SafetyUnit IFC1: Element 1 - Managing Fire Safety © RRC International 1-3

Moral, Social and Economic Benefits of Good Management of Fire Safety


IN THIS SECTION...

• The three main reasons why an organisation has to maintain good standards of fire safety are moral, social and economic.

• The costs of fire incidents can be substantial, ranging from repair, replacement and investigation costs, to defending legal actions.

• Many of the large number of fire incidents that occur, resulting in human and financial loss, are preventable.

• An occupier of a building has a responsibility for all visitors to the premises.

Consequences of Inadequate Fire ManagementFire safety at work is primarily the responsibility of the employer.

Inadequate management of fire safety can have serious consequences for employers and occupiers of buildings. There may be a need to comply with legal requirements and employers also have a moral responsibility to ensure appropriate working conditions, where risks are minimised. There are also compelling financial reasons for implementing and maintaining high standards of fire safety in the workplace. The stakeholders of an organisation, such as shareholders, employees, clients, suppliers and ‘neighbours’, may all be adversely affected by the negative publicity and loss of ‘corporate image’ which may follow a major fire. Employee morale and motivation are also factors that could be affected by disruption caused by a major fire or explosion incident.

We can summarise the reasons why an organisation has to maintain good standards of fire safety as:

• Moral - relating to the need to:

– Reduce injuries, pain and suffering.

– Promote a positive fire safety culture to help improve morale.

– Contribute to the reduction of fire-related fatalities, injuries and environmental damage.

• Social - relating to the need to:

– Comply with legal requirements.

– Avoid enforcement action or possible prosecution before the courts.

– Meet the social expectations of society regarding responsibilities of employers and occupiers of buildings.

• Economic - relating to:

– Avoiding: – Costs of repairing or replacing damaged buildings and plant. – Uninsured costs of cleaning-up operations after a fire. – Costs arising from damage to the environment. – Costs associated with the investigation of a fire. – Legal costs. – Financial implications of false alarms.

– Improving levels of production and quality from a confident and motivated workforce.

– Enhancing the organisation’s reputation and relationship with the community and other organisations.

Costs of inadequate management of fire safety

1.1



Financial Implications of False AlarmsFalse alarms can arise from the use of automatic fire detection systems and may incur costs by:

• Reducing the availability of the fire and rescue service for real fires.

• Causing lost production time and ultimately increasing evacuation time in real fire situations.

• Increasing the risk of enforcement action being taken against repeat offenders, with the possibility of financial penalties being imposed.

False alarms may be:

• Unwanted alarms, triggered by fumes from cooking processes, steam from bathrooms and showers, tobacco smoke, dust, insects, and aerosol sprays.

• Equipment false alarms, generated by faults within the system equipment.

• Malicious false alarms, triggered when there is no fire.

• False alarms with good intent, triggered when there is no fire.

Size of the Fire Safety ProblemIn the absence of meaningful and comprehensive international data, the following recent UK statistics give an illustration of the extent of the fire safety problem.

In one year, the UK fire and rescue services attended around 722,000 fire and false alarm incidents - a 10% decrease on the previous 12 months.

Total fires fell by 15% to around 325,000.

Total fire deaths decreased by 10% to 430, of which 287 were accidental dwelling fire deaths.

Primary fires fell by 9% to 128,000, and within this:

• Dwelling fires fell by 6% to 49,000.

• Fires in other buildings, including workplaces, were down by 11% to 27,000.

Secondary fires fell by 20% to 185,000.

Attendances to false alarms decreased by 5% to around 396,000.

The general trend is for the number of incidents to steadily decrease, but the statistics are still unacceptably high.

A further impact of fire incidents is the effect on the environment that can arise from pollution. This includes:

• Disposal/run-off of water – contaminated with fire extinguishing agents or decontamination of fire-fighters’ personal protective equipment, particularly following chemical incidents.

• Disposal of contaminated waste materials and debris – such as degradation products arising from combustion of building materials and specific hazardous substances, e.g. lead and asbestos.

• Smoke pollution – consisting of tiny particles of soot, highly toxic gases such as carbon monoxide, and smoke from chemical fires.

Fire incident

DEFINITIONS

The UK classification for fire statistics differentiates:

PRIMARY FIRE

Any fire involving:

• Casualties.

• Rescue or escape.

• Property.

• Attendance of at least five fire appliances.

SECONDARY FIRE

Reportable fires that:

• Did not involve property, casualties or rescues.

• Were attended by four or fewer appliances.

1.1



Roles and Responsibilities of the Occupier of a BuildingThe occupier of a building has a responsibility for the safety of visitors to the premises, in relation to the purposes for which they are invited, or permitted to be there. As you would expect, an occupier should be prepared for children to be less careful than adults, and should pay special attention to any other vulnerable persons.

If the occupier of the building is also an employer, there will be a responsibility to provide a safe workplace for employees, which includes the control of fire risks.

Costs of Inadequate Management of Fire SafetyLosses due to fire can cost countries a significant percentage (1% upwards) of Gross Domestic Product. We listed several financial impacts earlier, but there can also be significant disruption to a business due to:

• Loss of production.

• Injury and loss of life.

• Loss of business continuity with subsequent effects on sales and profits.

• Liability for fines and/or payment of damages in respect of fire-related injuries and losses at work.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Identify:

(a) The three main arguments for maintaining good standards of fire safety.(b) The potential impact upon an organisation that fails to maintain good standards of fire safety.

2. Outline how false alarms might incur cost.

3. Outline the responsibilities of the occupier of a building.

(Suggested Answers are at the end.)


1.2 Key Features of a Fire Safety Policy

Key Features of a Fire Safety Policy

IN THIS SECTION... Responsibility for fire safety within an organisation and the arrangements for ensuring fire safety should be documented in a written Fire Safety Policy which sets out arrangements for:

• Planning.

• Organisation.

• Control.

• Monitoring.

• Review.

• Vulnerable people.

• Degraded systems planning.

Responsibility for Fire SafetyIn order to discharge the responsibilities for fire safety, organisations need to have a comprehensive fire safety management system in place, with arrangements for the planning, organisation, control, monitoring and review of preventive and protective measures, as well as arrangements for vulnerable persons and degraded systems planning.

We can illustrate the key elements of this process for the management of preventive and protective measures in the following way:

The ILO-OSH 2001 Safety Management System

• The fire safety policy statement should set out the general intentions, commitment and approach of the organisation, and may include targets and objectives set for dealing with fire safety issues.

• The organisational structure should show the allocation of roles and responsibilities for fire safety to individuals throughout the organisation, from senior management, to the shop-floor. Specific requirements such as:

– appointment of competent persons to help in carrying out the preventive and protective measures,

– appointment of fire marshals, and

– arrangements for consultation,

need to be considered.


1.2Key Features of a Fire Safety Policy

• The detailed specification of fire safety standards, the preventive and protective measures required in all areas, and the necessary measures to ensure that they are carried out, need to be planned and implemented. It is through this process that control of fire risks is achieved.

Central to this is the concept of risk assessment as the process by which the specific preventive and protective measures are identified.

Responsibility for ensuring that these measures are effectively implemented should lie with a responsible person.

• Implementation of the fire safety policy needs to be monitored on a regular basis, by collecting information about performance against the standards identified, and any failings or incidents.

Typical monitoring information might include:

– Records of inspections and safety tours.

– Audit reports on health, safety and fire management systems.

– Incident reports, including any investigations subsequently carried out.

– Equipment maintenance, testing and defect records.

• This information should be used to assess and review the appropriateness of the current organisational arrangements, the standards being applied, and the way in which they are being operated. Any deficiencies identified by the review process should be corrected by appropriate changes to the policy, organisation and arrangements for implementation.

• Auditing is an additional monitoring process that collects independent information on the efficiency, effectiveness, and reliability of the fire safety management system in the organisation, to ensure that all aspects of the system remain appropriate.

• The fire safety policy should also include arrangements for vulnerable people. This might include groups such as:

– Those with disabilities.

– Young workers.

– People with communication difficulties.

• Degraded systems planning also needs to be considered. There should be a documented management plan that sets out actions to be taken in the event of failure of any building fire safety systems to ensure that faults or failings are identified and rectified as a priority.

STUDY QUESTIONS

4. Outline the management arrangements that should be put in place, in order to ensure fire safety.

5. The implementation of the fire safety policy needs to be monitored on a regular basis by collecting information about performance against the standards identified and any failings or incidents. Outline examples of typical monitoring information.


DEFINITIONS

FIRE MARSHALS/ WARDENSFire marshals (often called ‘fire wardens’) have specific responsibilities in a fire situation.

“Their role may include:

• Helping those on the premises to leave.

• Checking the premises to ensure everyone has left.

• Using fire-fighting equipment, if safe to do so.

• Liaising with the fire and rescue service on arrival.

• Shutting down vital or dangerous equipment.

• Performing a supervisory/managing role in any fire situation.”

UK Department for Communities and Local Government Fire Safety Risk Assessment : Offices and Shops.

Source: Fire Safety Risk Assessment: Offices and

Shops, UK Department for Communities and Local

Government, 2006 (www.gov.uk/government/uploads/

system/uploads/attachment_data/file/14881/

fsra-offices-shops.pdf)


The Role of National Governments and International Bodies in Formulating a Framework for the Regulation of Fire Safety1.3

The Role of National Governments and International Bodies in Formulating a Framework for the Regulation of Fire Safety

IN THIS SECTION...

• The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) is the world’s largest developer of international standards, with ISO Technical Committee 92 responsible for developing fire safety standards.

• The International Labour Organisation (ILO) is responsible for drawing up and overseeing international labour standards, and ILO Recommendation R164 identifies obligations that might be placed on employers and employees in order to achieve the basic goal of a safe and healthy place of work, making specific reference to prevention and control of fires and explosions.

• International frameworks for the regulation of fire safety seek to ensure the safety, in the event of fire, of persons (whether they are employees, residents, visitors or others) by setting out the rights and responsibilities of persons in respect of fire safety, in particular employers and workers.

• Enforcement systems for fire safety vary between countries but common practice is a fire authority with a role in enforcing fire safety legislation and/or advising employers.

International Standards and Sources of InformationThe International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) is the world’s largest developer of international standards.

ISO Technical Committee 92 (ISO/TC 92) is responsible for developing fire safety standards in areas such as:

• Fire safety engineering, design and evaluation.

• Performance under fire conditions of materials, products, elements of structure, structures and systems and their contents.

• Application of fire safety management.

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) is the international organisation responsible for drawing up and overseeing international labour standards and brings together representatives of governments, employers and workers to devise programmes to improve workplace health and safety, including fire safety.

The two primary outputs of the ILO are ‘Conventions’ and ‘Recommendations’. These set international standards and can form the basis of detailed legislation in each member country. The Occupational Safety and Health Convention (C155) describes a basic policy for health and safety at both the national level and the level of the individual undertaking. The Occupational Safety and Health Recommendation 1981 (R164) supplements C155 and provides more detailed guidance on how to comply with the policies of C155. In particular, it identifies obligations that might be placed on employers and employees, in order to achieve the basic goal of a safe and healthy place of work, and makes specific reference to prevention of fires and explosions, and the need for measures to be taken in the event of fire or explosion.


The Role of National Governments and International Bodies in Formulating a Framework for the Regulation of Fire Safety 1.3

Employers’ and Workers’ ResponsibilitiesThere are no truly global legal standards governing workplace health and safety. Countries may have their own laws, developed over the years, to tackle their own issues and concerns, but we often find similar basic approaches to protect against hazards such as fire, with similar underlying principles.

The ILO Recommendation R164 identifies obligations that might be placed on employers and employees in order to achieve the basic goal of a safe and healthy place of work which includes fire safety.

TOPIC FOCUSSpecifically, Article 10 of R164 puts the following obligations on employers:

• Provide workplaces and work equipment, and use work methods, which are safe and of no risk to health.

• Provide appropriate instructions and training.

• Provide necessary supervision.

• Put in place health and safety arrangements adapted to suit the size and nature of the undertaking.

• Provide any necessary personal protective clothing and equipment free of charge.

• Ensure that the hours of work do not adversely affect employees’ safety and health.

• Remove any extreme physical and mental fatigue.

• Stay up-to-date with knowledge in order to comply with the above.

TOPIC FOCUSR164 says that workers should:

• Take reasonable care of their own safety and of other people who might be affected by the things that they do, and the things that they fail to do.

• Comply with safety instructions and procedures.

• Use all safety equipment properly and not tamper with it.

• Report any situation which they believe could be a hazard and which they cannot themselves correct.

• Report any work-related accident or ill health.

In general, international frameworks for the regulation of fire safety will seek to ensure the safety, in the event of fire, of persons (whether they are employees, residents, visitors or others) by setting out the rights and responsibilities of persons in respect of fire safety.

Anyone who has, to any extent, control of the premises (which may be the employer), will have some responsibilities for ensuring that those occupying the premises are safe from harm caused by fire. These responsibilities may be discharged by:

• Carrying out a fire safety risk assessment of the premises.

• Identifying the control measures necessary as a result of the fire safety risk assessment.

• Implementing these fire safety measures.

• Putting in place fire safety arrangements for the ongoing control and review of the fire safety measures.

• Complying with any specific requirements of any fire safety legislation.

• Keeping the fire safety risk assessment and outcome under review.

• Keeping appropriate records.


The Role of National Governments and International Bodies in Formulating a Framework for the Regulation of Fire Safety1.3

Similarly, employees may be required to:

• Take reasonable care to ensure the workplace is safe from harm caused by fire, and do nothing that will increase the risk.

• Inform the employer of anything relating to the premises which could represent a serious and immediate fire safety danger, or any shortcoming in the employer’s fire safety protection arrangements.

• Co-operate with the employer, so far as is necessary, to allow them to comply with their fire safety responsibilities.

Role of Enforcement Agencies and the Consequences of Non-ComplianceEnforcement systems for fire safety, vary between countries but common practice is a fire authority with a role in enforcing fire safety legislation and/or advising employers.

Failure to meet legal standards might lead to:

• Formal enforcement action: an enforcement agency might force an employer either to make an improvement to fire safety, or to stop carrying out high-risk activities. Failure to comply with formal enforcement action is usually considered to be an offence in itself.

• Prosecution of the organisation with punishment in the form of a fine.

• Prosecution of individuals with punishment in the form of a fine and/or imprisonment.

MORE...

Information on standards for fire safety can often be obtained from national bodies who serve to co-ordinate the approach of emergency services and the codes that they operate to.

In the UK the UK Fire Service Resources provides information for all who work within the UK Fire and Rescue Service and those who have an interest in the service at: www.fireservice.co.uk

The London Fire Brigade routinely publish a large variety and volume of information which can be accessed at: www.london-fire.gov.uk/SafetyAtWork.asp

In the USA the US Fire Administration (USFA), part of the Department of Homeland Security’s Federal Emergency Management Agency, aims to provide national leadership for the fire and emergency services in prevention, preparedness, and response.

USFA provides information resources in many formats at: www.usfa.fema.gov/library

The Australasian Fire and Emergency Service Authorities Council (AFAC) is the key body for public sector fire, land management and emergency service organisations in Australia and New Zealand.

The organisation promotes an integrated approach to emergency service operations by sharing knowledge, collaborating and optimising the use of resources at its website: http://knowledgeweb.afac.com.au/home

STUDY QUESTIONS

6. Explain the role of international bodies in formulating standards for the regulation of fire safety.

7. Outline the ways in which a fire authority might regulate fire safety.



Sources of External Fire Safety Information and the Principles of their Application 1.4

Sources of External Fire Safety Information and the Principles of their Application

IN THIS SECTION... The two main sources of external fire safety information are:

• Appropriate national legislation and guidance, such as the fire safety guidance provided by the UK Department for Communities and Local Government.

• Other fire guidance such as:

– British Standards Institution (BSI) for fire safety.

– Confederation of Fire Protection Europe (CFPA-Europe).

– European Fire and Security Advisory Council.

– National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).

– National Insurance Associations, e.g. ABI (Association of British Insurers).

– Journals, e.g. International Fire Protection Magazine.

National Legislation and GuidanceLegislation and guidance relating to fire safety will be provided on a country-by-country basis, some of which will be internationally applicable. In the UK, for example, the Department for Communities and Local Government Practical Fire Safety Guidance provides appropriate national guidance that can also be used outside the UK. Guides relating to the following types of premises have been published to help the responsible person to prevent fires and reduce risk:

• Offices and shops.

• Factories and warehouses.

• Sleeping accommodation, such as hotels, guest houses, residential training centres.

• Residential care premises, such as residential care and nursing homes and common areas of sheltered housing where care is provided.

• Educational premises.

• Small and medium places of assembly, such as smaller public houses, clubs, restaurants and cafés.

• Large places of assembly where more than 300 people could gather, such as shopping centres, exhibition and conference centres.

• Theatres, cinemas and similar premises.

• Open air events and venues.

• Healthcare premises, such as hospitals, doctors’ surgeries, dentists.

• Transport premises and facilities, such as airports, ports, and railway, bus and coach stations.

These guides:

• Set out what needs to be done to comply with UK fire safety law.

• Advise on how to carry out a fire risk assessment.

• Identify the general fire precautions that need to be in place.

National legislation and guidance


Sources of External Fire Safety Information and the Principles of their Application1.4

Other Fire GuidanceThe following organisations produce valuable information on standards of fire safety:

• British Standards publications provide an essential reference for those who draw up specifications, designers and installers with responsibility for fire safety, such as architects, building professionals, building surveyors, consulting engineers, electrical contractors, fire brigades, local authorities and housing associations.

• The Confederation of Fire Protection Europe (CFPA-Europe) has produced publications on: Internal fire protection control; Securing the operational readiness of fire control systems; Fire protection documentation; and Guidance signs, emergency lighting and general lighting.

• The European Fire and Security Advisory Council, based in Brussels, co-ordinates the activities of the European associations active in the field of fire protection and intrusion protection. It develops codes of practice and advisory documents, covering use, application, installation and maintenance of fire and security products and systems, and publishes technical documents when no other European product standards and specifications exist.

• The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) provides codes and standards, research, training, and education on fire prevention and protection.

• National Insurance Associations, such as the ABI (Association of British Insurers), can serve to represent the insurance industry to government, regulators and policy makers driving policy and regulation on, among other things, fire safety issues.

• Journals, such as International Fire Protection Magazine, publish articles relating to industrial fire safety, prevention and protection.

In addition, specific sectors, such as the oil and gas industry, will set their own standards for industrial fire safety.

Application of Local GuidanceThe regulation of fire safety relies on fire risk assessments to:

• Remove or reduce the risk of fire.

• Implement fire precautions to deal with any remaining risks.

The practical means by which this can be achieved can be found in the local guidance documents referred to previously.

When using local guidance to achieve good practice in fire safety, the following issues need to be considered:

• Each set of local guidance will adopt an internally consistent approach to achieving fire safety, and consequently, problems can arise from applying different parts of different guidance documents in order to achieve a solution.

• Although some broad principles apply, guidance tends to be specific to a particular type of premises, for example, the UK Department for Communities and Local Government Practical Fire Safety Guidance series comprises guidance for 12 specific types of premises. It is therefore important to ensure that the relevant guidance is used.

• It is important to remember that guidance is only that – guidance. It should therefore be used in a proportional manner to achieve the level of fire safety required by risk assessment.

• Effective fire risk management requires regular review of fire risk assessments, and keeping up to date with guidance and standards is an important element of this review process.


Sources of External Fire Safety Information and the Principles of their Application 1.4

MORE...You can find examples of fire safety publications by accessing the websites given below.

UK Department for Communities and Local Government: www.communities.gov.uk

British Standards Institution: www.bsigroup.com

Confederation of Fire Protection Europe:

• CFPA-E Guideline No 1:2002 – Internal fire protection control www.cfpa-e.eu/wp-content/uploads/files/guidelines/CFPA_E_Guideline_No_1_2002.pdf

• CFPA-E Guideline No 23:2010 F – Securing the operational readiness of fire control systems www.cfpa-e.eu/wp-content/uploads/files/guidelines/CFPA_E_Guideline_No_23_2010_F.pdf

• CFPA-E Guideline No 13:2006 – Fire protection documentation www.cfpa-e.eu/wp-content/uploads/files/guidelines/Guideline_No_13_2006.pdf

• CFPA-E Guideline No 5:2003 – Guidance signs, emergency lighting and general lighting www.cfpa-e.eu/wp-content/uploads/files/guidelines/Guideline_No_5_2003.pdf

National Fire Protection Association:

• NFPA 1: Fire Code – 2012 Edition www.nfpa.org

STUDY QUESTION

8. Identify with examples, and explain the purpose of, TWO sources of external fire safety information.

(Suggested Answer is at the end.)


Investigating Fires in the Workplace1.5

Investigating Fires in the Workplace

IN THIS SECTION...

• The main reason for investigating fires is to identify the underlying causes so that appropriate measures can be developed and implemented, to prevent further occurrences, protect life and reduce fire loss and damage.

• All aspects of an investigation (how the fire was detected, the way the alarm was raised, how the fire was tackled, etc.) can provide information which helps in the development of future fire prevention policies and improved fire safety arrangements.

• Many different agencies may be involved in a fire investigation depending on the type of fire (fatal, accidental, arson, etc.).

Purpose of Fire InvestigationAs with any other workplace health and safety issue, it is essential that fire incidents are investigated in order to learn from the event. The principal reasons for investigating a major fire are to:

• Determine its cause, such as:

– Faulty equipment creating an ignition source.

– Inadequate procedures for hot work or use of flammable substances.

– Arson.

• Develop and introduce remedial measures to prevent a recurrence.

• Establish whether there has been a breach of statutory requirements and gather evidence if subsequent proceedings are instituted.

• Assess damage and gather evidence for insurance claims.

• Find out whether there has been a failure of individuals which could lead to disciplinary action.

• Assess the effectiveness of existing fire safety policies and procedures.

• Reassure stakeholders:

– Financial institutions.

– Insurance companies.

– The general public.

• Identify trends.

• Allay concerns about damage to the environment and determine the effectiveness of procedures currently in place.

Basic Fire Investigation ProceduresA fire investigation may be carried out by a single person or a team of specialists. The approach will depend largely on the nature, severity and consequences of the incident and also if there are any important features involved, e.g. if there are casualties or fatalities. The investigation procedures and the people involved will also be different if arson is suspected.

Fire incidents need to be investigated


Investigating Fires in the Workplace 1.5

TOPIC FOCUS

Matters that must be considered before any fire investigation begins:

• Preserving the fire scene.

• Restricting access to unauthorised persons.

• Making the site safe:

– Isolating gas and electricity.

– Checking condition of walls, floors, ceilings.

– Checking for the presence of chemicals.

• Skills and composition of the investigation team.

• Equipment required:

– Excavation tools.

– Cameras.

• Identifying and interviewing witnesses.

• Studying CCTV footage.

• Communicating with the public and the media.

• Liaising with the police and other external agencies.

Investigation PreparationIt is essential that the safety aspects of the investigation are considered and dealt with from the beginning, such as:

• Potential for collapse of the building or partial collapse of roofs, walls, floors and stairs.

• Isolation of electricity and gas supplies to the building.

• Identification of the presence of gas cylinders or other pressurised vessels.

• Obtaining information on any hazardous substances that may have been stored or used on the premises, or in its construction, e.g. asbestos.

• Provision of basic personal protective equipment (overalls plus head, hand and foot protection as a minimum).

Preserving the Fire SceneAs far as possible, the fire scene must remain untouched so that:

• The investigation team has the best possible chance of identifying the cause of the fire.

• Any forensic evidence required for a successful prosecution in cases of arson can be collected.

Necessary activities can be carried out in a controlled way so that there is minimal disruption to the scene and any evidence is preserved, such as:

• Avoiding unnecessary removal of debris.

• Sheeting up the area.

• Diverting water away from the scene.

• Excluding non-authorised personnel.

Fire investigation


Investigating Fires in the Workplace1.5

TOPIC FOCUS

An investigation into a workplace fire may involve some, or all, of the following external agencies:

• Fire and Rescue Authority - to determine the possible cause of the fire and take any necessary enforcement action.

• Police - if it is thought that the cause might be arson, particularly if injury or death has occurred or fraud is suspected.

• Enforcing authority (such as HSE) - for enforcement under local legislation.

• Environment agency - to help with the mitigation of effects of the fire on the environment.

• Forensic service - to collect scientific evidence in cases of suspected arson or to assist the Coroner where a fatality has occurred.

• Insurance investigators - in relation to insurance claims.

• Utilities companies - may be required to provide specialist input.

Liaison with Other AgenciesArson InvestigationsIt can often be difficult to prove that a fire was caused as a result of arson. An investigation into a deliberate fire is different from an investigation into an ‘accidental’ fire.

TOPIC FOCUS

Key elements of the investigation procedure into a possible arson attack include:



• Locating and investigating the seat of the fire.

• Taking photographs and drawing diagrams of the scene.

• Establishing the availability of evidence from CCTV cameras.

• Obtaining information from witnesses, including the original caller.

• Liaising with external investigators such as the police and those representing insurance companies.

• Obtaining information on any previous vandalism or police activity in the area and attempt to establish a motive for starting the fire.

• Evaluating the evidence obtained, establishing the cause and preparing a report.

DEFINITION

ARSONThe deliberate, malicious attempt to start a fire with the intention of causing damage.


Investigating Fires in the Workplace 1.5

Identifying the Cause of the Fire and Remedial ActionsTo establish the cause of the fire:

• Identify the ‘seat of fire’ - the point of origin from which the fire spread.

• Examine the potential ignition sources in the area to indicate the direct cause of the fire:

– If the fire is not accidental, the process of identifying the cause may be far more difficult and is likely to involve detailed analysis of samples and evidence collected from the scene.

• Identify and understand any underlying causes, such as:

– Unauthorised electrical equipment brought into the workplace.

– Lack of awareness, inadequate training and information.

– Inadequate workplace inspections.

– Poor standards of housekeeping.

– Inadequate systems of maintenance and inspection.

Having identified underlying causes of the incident, the organisation must take action to ensure that remedial actions are taken in the form of additional preventive measures.

Any such measures should be recorded with the other fire safety arrangements, and reviewed on a regular basis to ensure that they remain effective and continue to provide an adequate level of protection.

STUDY QUESTIONS

9. A workplace fire might require the involvement of external agencies. Identify FOUR agencies and give reasons for their involvement.

10. Outline the requirements that will need to be considered before a fire investigation.


Causes of fires can include lack of awareness of training when using

equipment


Recording and Reporting Fire-Related Incidents1.6

Recording and Reporting Fire-Related Incidents

IN THIS SECTION...

• It is important that organisations have internal procedures (accident book, fire logbook, general incident/occurrence book) to record the required information relating to fire incidents.

• An employer may need to report a fire-related incident under local legislation, if it has resulted in a fatality or major injury.

Recording and Reporting Fire-Related Incidents and InjuriesThere may be legal requirements, in respect of reporting fire-related injuries and/or dangerous occurrences, specified by local legislation.

Reportable incidents under UK legislation include:

• Fatalities.• Specified injuries - fire-related examples:

– Serious burns (covering more than 10% of the body, or damaging the eyes, respiratory system or other vital organs).

– Unconsciousness caused by asphyxia.

– Any injury arising from working in an enclosed space, which leads to heat-induced illness, or requires resuscitation or admittance to hospital for more than 24 hours.

• Over-seven-day injuries.• Dangerous occurrences - fire-related examples:

– Electrical short circuit or overload, causing fire or explosion.

– An explosion or fire causing suspension of normal work for over 24 hours.

– Release of flammable liquids or gases (e.g. due to the sudden failure of a storage vessel) where the release, if ignited, would cause a major explosion or fire.

Other Internal Recording SystemsThere is no standard format for the internal records held by individual organisations on accidents/incidents or fire safety arrangements. However, certain information must be recorded and retained:

• Accident Book

This records all work-related accidents and diseases reported by employees and includes the following details:

– Full name, address and occupation of injured person.

– Date and time of the accident.

– Place where the accident happened.

– Cause and nature of injury.

– Name, address and occupation of person giving notice, if other than the injured person.

Reporting fire incidents


Recording and Reporting Fire-Related Incidents 1.6

The Accident Book serves two main purposes. It provides:

– The initial record of the accident, which may then be used as a basis for any investigation.

– A record of any injury (or disease) that could give rise to a claim for compensation.

• Fire Logbook

The fire logbook records the fire safety arrangements; typical contents include details of:

– Persons with specific responsibility for fire safety.

– Basic fire safety advice.

– Specific preventive and protective measures identified in the risk assessment.

– Details of the premises (including location of assembly points, etc.).

– Maintenance and inspection arrangements for all fire-related systems.

– Maintenance work conducted (e.g. service visit or non-routine attention).

– Location and description of all fire equipment.

– Routine tests of: – Fire detection and alarm equipment. – Emergency lighting equipment. – Portable fire-fighting equipment.

– Faults and defects relating to: – Fire detection and alarm equipment. – Emergency lighting equipment. – Portable fire-fighting equipment.

– Significant findings of workplace inspections (e.g. fire doors, escape routes and emergency exits).

– Significant findings (e.g. areas for improvement) of fire drills.

– Staff undergoing fire awareness training.

– Any fire-related incidents in or on the premises.

• General Incident/Occurrence Book

This records non-routine events, occurrences or incidents in a specific logbook; the information can be used to:

– Provide a summary of significant events.

– Help in investigations.

– Identify any trends or patterns of events over a period of time.

• Country Specific Forms

Broad requirements for reporting and recording certain loss events including fire-related incidents are set out in the ILO Occupational Safety and Health Convention (C155) and the accompanying protocol (P155).

Employers should record and notify these types of occupational accidents and dangerous occurrences, inform employees about the recording system and notifications, and maintain records and use them to help prevent recurrence.

The ILO code of practice specifies a minimum recommended notification dataset:

– Enterprise/establishment/employer details: – Employer – name/address, telephone number. – Enterprise – name/address. – Establishment – name/address, economic activity, size.



– Injured person: name, address, age, sex, employment status, occupation.

– Additional information: – Injury – fatal, non-fatal, nature, location; incident and its sequence - location of place of accident, date and

time; type and related agent. – Dangerous occurrence details – date, time, location, type, circumstances.

The following is an example of an official data collection form used in the UK for notifiable accidents.


Recording and Reporting Fire-Related Incidents 1.6

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Risk Assessment ReviewRecords of accidents, incidents and dangerous occurrences provide valuable information that can be used when reviewing and revising fire safety risk assessments.

After a significant or major fire or explosion incident, the relevant risk assessment should be reviewed, and then revised in light of the findings to include additional control measures which should:

• Be fully implemented.

• Take into account all persons who may be affected by the hazard.

• Continue to be effective.

• Provide an adequate level of protection.

For more information on risk assessment review, see Element 6.

STUDY QUESTIONS

11. When might an employer need to report a fire-related incident?

12. List the types of information that are likely to be recorded in a fire logbook.


MORE...See if you can access the official data collection form that relates to your local legislation. You could begin your search by accessing the website for your local enforcing authority.


Summary

Summary

This element has dealt with the consequences of inadequate fire safety management.

In particular, this element has:

• Explained the moral, social and economic benefits of good management of fire safety and in particular the consequences of inadequate management of fire safety.

• Considered the size of the fire safety ‘problem’ and established the roles and responsibilities of the occupier of a building.

• Identified the key features of a fire safety policy and its associated fire safety management system for planning, organisation, control, monitoring and review, as well as arrangements for vulnerable people and degraded systems planning.

• Noted the role of national governments and international bodies in formulating a framework for the regulation of fire safety.

• Considered various sources of external fire safety information and the principles of their application.

• Looked in some detail at the investigation of fires in the workplace by considering basic fire investigation procedures and methods used to help identify the cause of a fire, and remedial actions required to prevent a recurrence.

• Examined the need for recording and reporting fire-related incidents, including the associated procedures and the need for risk assessment review as a possible consequence.


Exam SkillsES

Exam Skills

Introduction

To pass the NEBOSH International Fire Certificate you need to perform well during the exams. You only have two hours and your performance will be related to two key factors:

• the amount that you can remember about the elements you’ve studied; and

• your success in applying that knowledge to an exam situation.

Being good at both aspects is essential. Being calm under exam pressure is pointless if you do not have a good knowledge of the information required to answer the exam questions.

Here we will consider some practical guidelines that can be used to increase success in the exam. You will also find Exam Skills questions to answer at the end of each element, starting with this one.

Exam Requirements

The Unit IFC1 exam consists of two sections:

• Section 1 contains one question which is likely to consist of a number of sub parts. This question in total is worth 20 marks.

• Section 2 contains ten questions, with each question being worth eight marks.

There is no choice of questions in the exam - all questions are compulsory. The exam in total lasts two hours, and NEBOSH recommend that you spend about:

• half an hour on Section 1; and

• one and a half hours on Section 2.

Exam Technique

In the exam, candidates can often struggle because they have not understood the question that is being asked. They can interpret questions wrongly and, as such, provide an answer for the question they think is in front of them, but in reality is not. To try to overcome this issue, let’s look at a step-by-step approach that you can adopt when answering exam questions:

1. The first step is to read the question carefully. Be sure you know exactly what type of information the question wants you to provide. Underline or highlight important words.

2. Monitor the time. The 20-mark question in the first section should take around 25 minutes to answer, with five minutes’ reviewing time. The eight-mark questions in Section 2 should take around eight minutes to answer. This will leave an accumulated time of ten minutes at the end of Section 2 to review your answers. It is really easy to spend more time than you should, churning out a fantastic answer to a question that you are confident about, but this could mean that you don’t have time to attempt one or more questions. Equally, if you find a question particularly tough, sometimes it is better to move on to the next question and come back to it rather than wrestle with it for too long and again risk missing questions out.

3. Next, consider the marks available. For each mark to be awarded, the examiner will expect a piece of information to award the mark against.


Exam Skills ES

4. The next stage is to develop a plan – there are various ways to do this. Remind yourself again of the content of the question. Focus on key words that you have underlined on the examination paper to make sure you answer the question set. The answer plan is your aide-mémoire and can take the form of a list or a mind map that helps you unload information quickly and make sure you have enough factors (or things) in your answer that will attract the available marks. Keep re-reading the question to ensure your answer plan is going to answer the question set.

5. When composing your answer it is essential that you pay proper attention to the command word (e.g. outline, describe, identify, explain) that has been used in the question. Candidates lose marks if the wrong approach is taken. Remember, you made a list to help your memory. NEBOSH will not be asking for a list anywhere on the paper, so if you replicate your answer plan in the answer, you will not gain the available marks. The command word informs you about the amount of information the examiner is expecting you to provide on the factors you have listed.

Command Words and their Meanings

Below are a few of the most commonly used instructions with a translation of their meaning:

Command Word Meaning

DescribeTo give a detailed written account of the distinctive features of a subject. The account should be factual, without any attempt to explain.

Explain To provide an understanding. To make an idea or relationship clear.

GiveTo provide short, factual answers.

NB: Normally a single word, phrase or sentence will be sufficient.

Identify To give a reference to an item, which could be its name or title.

Outline To indicate the principal features or different parts of.

When it comes to the exam, make sure you indicate clearly your Answer Plan and your Final Answer for the examiner.

Exam Skills Practice

At the end of each element there is an Exam Skills question (or two) for you to attempt, with guidance on how to answer in addition to a suggested answer outline. This includes an Answer Plan – all of the points listed in this would attract marks and you will see most of them developed in the suggested answer itself.

Remember that when answering exam questions, information from additional reading and personal experience may be included. Examining bodies encourage this and it will enhance your answers.

There is a time estimate at the beginning of each Exam Skills activity. Don’t worry if the activity takes you a little longer than this - the timings are just there as a rough guide.


Exam SkillsES

QUESTION

Taking into account what we have just covered on exam technique, consider the following question:

Outline the reasons for investigating a major fire that has occurred in a workplace. (8)

Approaching the Question

Think now about the steps you would take to answer the question:

1. The first step is to read the question carefully. Note that this question is about investigating fires in the workplace which is one of the key topics in this element.

2. Next, consider the marks available. In this question, there are eight marks available. It is often easier to pick marks up on questions that are split into sections (this one is split into two sections worth six marks and two marks each) because the signposts NEBOSH use are so much easier to spot. The first part of the question asks for three types of notice and three examples, so clearly the mark allocation will be one mark, for each aspect identified. The question should take around eight minutes to answer in total in an exam situation. Try not to overrun that time. Statistically, most marks are picked up in the first five to six minutes of attempting a question. Generally, it’s better to pick more marks up on other questions than run over time perfecting just one. Remember, if you do not attempt a question because you ran out of time you will get no marks!

3. Now highlight the key words. In this case, they might look like this:

Outline the reasons for investigating a major fire that has occurred in a workplace. (8)

4. Read the question again to make sure you understand it - it relates to a major fire in a workplace, and you have to outline the reasons why it should be investigated.

5. The next stage is to develop a plan – there are various ways to do this. Remind yourself, first of all, that you need to be thinking about reasons for fire investigation. The action verb ‘outline’ means to give the most important features. So, your answer plan should take the form of a bullet-pointed list, and your full answer should contain similar information but with each bullet point expanded.

Your answer must be based on the key words you have highlighted, so here your scenario is a major workplace fire and we need a wide range of reasons to investigate it.


Exam Skills ES

Suggested AnswerPlan

Reasons for investigating a major fire:

• Determine its cause:

– Faulty equipment (ignition source).

– Inadequate procedures for high risk processes (hot work/use of flammable substances).

– Crime (arson).

• Develop/introduce remedial measures to prevent a recurrence.

• Determine whether law has been broken and gather evidence for legal proceedings.

• Assess damage/gather evidence for insurance claims.

• Determine any fault or failure by an individual which could lead to disciplinary action.

• Reassure stakeholders (financial institutions/insurance companies/general public).

• Identify possible trends.

• Allay concerns of possible damage to the environment.

• Determine the effectiveness of procedures currently in place.

Now have a go at the question yourself.

Example of How the Question Could be AnsweredOne of the main reasons for investigating a major fire is to determine its cause. Faulty equipment might have provided the ignition source, there may have been inadequate procedures for high risk processes such as hot work or the use of flammable substances, or the fire might have resulted from a criminal act such as arson. Once the cause has been determined there needs to be action to develop and introduce appropriate remedial measures to prevent a recurrence. If there has been a breach of legal requirements then evidence must be gathered to defend any possible legal proceedings which might be taken. The damage resulting from the fire also needs to be assessed for possible insurance claims and the investigation needs to determine whether there has been a fault or failure by an individual or individuals which could lead to disciplinary action being taken. Following a major fire, stakeholders such as financial institutions, insurance companies and also the general public will need to be reassured and a thorough investigation will serve this purpose. The outcome of the investigation will enable the identification of possible trends and will assist in allaying concerns of possible damage to the environment. Finally the investigation will examine underlying causes and therefore assess the effectiveness of procedures currently in place.

Reasons for Poor Marks Achieved by Candidates in ExamNot providing a wide enough range of reasons and omitting less obvious ones such as identification of trends, environmental concerns and the reassurance of stakeholders.

Learning Outcomes


Explain the principles of the combustion process in relation to fire safety.

Explain the principles and conditions for the ignition of solids, liquids and gases.

Identify the classification of fires.

Describe the principles of fire growth and fire spread.

Outline the principles of explosion and explosive combustion.

2-1© RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 2 - Principles of Fire and Explosion

Element 2

Principles of Fire and Explosion

2-2 © RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 2 - Principles of Fire and ExplosionUnit IFC1: Element 2 - Principles of Fire and Explosion © RRC International

Contents

Combustion Process in Relation to Fire Safety 2-3

Fire Triangle 2-3Chemistry of Combustion 2-3Stages of Combustion 2-5Study Questions 2-6

Ignition of Solids, Liquids and Gases 2-7

Definitions 2-7Ignition of Solids, Liquids and Gases 2-9Preventing or Controlling Ignition 2-10Properties and Safe Storage of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) 2-10Study Questions 2-11

Classification of Fires 2-12

Fires Classified According to Fuel Source 2-12Study Question 2-13

Principles of Fire Growth and Fire Spread 2-14

Fire Growth 2-14Fire Growth Rates and Smoke Movement 2-14Methods of Heat Transfer 2-16Development of a Fire 2-18Flashover and Backdraught 2-19Study Questions 2-19

Explosion and Explosive Combustion 2-20

Mechanism of Explosion 2-20Materials Commonly Involved in Explosions 2-21Types of Explosions 2-21Preventing Explosions 2-23Controlling Explosions 2-24Study Questions 2-25

Summary 2-26

Exam Skills 2-27

2-2 © RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 2 - Principles of Fire and ExplosionUnit IFC1: Element 2 - Principles of Fire and Explosion © RRC International 2-3

2.1Combustion Process in Relation to Fire Safety

Combustion Process in Relation to Fire Safety

IN THIS SECTION...

The combustion process:

• Can be illustrated by the fire triangle, which requires fuel, heat and oxygen to initiate and sustain a fire.

• Is a chemical reaction whereby volatile molecules of fuel react with oxygen, either completely or partially, to generate combustion products.

• Generates heat and is termed ‘exothermic’.

• Progresses through the stages of induction, ignition, fire growth, steady state, and decay.

Fire TriangleTo initiate and sustain a fire, three things need to be present at the same time:

• Fuel - such as wood, paper, plastic, petrol.

• Oxygen - usually from the air, but also from gas cylinders or oxidising agents.

• Heat - from ignition sources such as open flames, friction, chemical reactions, sparks from electrical equipment.

If we remove one element from the triangle, fire will not be initiated or sustained:

• If fuel is not available or removed, the fire will not start or an existing fire will go out.

• If oxygen is absent or removed, the combustion process will not proceed.

• If heat from ignition sources is not available, the fire will not start and if heat is removed by cooling, the fire will be extinguished.

Chemistry of CombustionWhen combustion takes place in solids or liquids, it is the vapours given off that ignite, rather than the solid or liquid itself.

Put simply, volatile (vapourised) molecules of the fuel are combined with oxygen to produce new compounds (combustion products).

For the combustion process to proceed and be maintained:

• Energy (heat) is required to vaporise sufficient fuel molecules and to initiate the reaction.

• Once initiated, the heat produced by the reaction itself will sustain further vaporisation and combustion of fuel without an external heat source.

• To maintain the combustion process, a continued supply of fuel and oxygen is required to replace that consumed by the reaction.

The fire triangle

DEFINITION

COMBUSTION

A type of chemical reaction - a rapid, self-sustaining gas-phase oxidation process which produces heat and light.


2.1 Combustion Process in Relation to Fire Safety

Combustion Products in Relation to Combustion Reaction ConditionsIn complete combustion - fuel reacts with oxygen and both are completely consumed in the reaction to form new products:

• Methane burns in air:

CH4 + 2O

2 → CO

2 + 2H

2O

to produce carbon dioxide and water only.

• Hydrogen burns in air:

2H2 + O

2 → 2H

2O(g)

to produce water vapour only.

In incomplete combustion - fuel reacts with limited oxygen so the combustion of the fuel is not complete:

• Methane burns in limited air:

4CH4 + 6O

2 → CO

2 + 2CO + C + 8H

2O

to produce carbon dioxide and water, but also carbon monoxide and pure carbon (soot or ash) due to the reduced oxygen supply and the inability for full oxidation to carbon dioxide and water.

Exothermic ReactionThe combustion process generates heat as it progresses so this type of chemical reaction is called exo (give out) thermic (heat). However, it is also possible for chemical reactions to require an input of heat to progress and these are called endo (take in) thermic (heat) reactions.

TOPIC FOCUSChemical reactions can be either exothermic or endothermic:

• Exothermic reactions:

– Release energy in the form of heat, light or sound.

– Cause an increase in temperature.

– Can occur spontaneously.

– May produce heat quickly and can cause explosions.

• Endothermic reactions:

– Absorb energy from the surroundings to proceed.

– Cause a drop in temperature.

– Cannot occur spontaneously.

Oxidising Agents/MaterialsCombustion requires the presence of oxygen, so the higher the concentration of oxygen in an atmosphere, the more rapidly burning will proceed.

Whilst the most common source of oxygen is obviously the air, in some workplaces there may also be additional sources which can provide a fire with oxygen and so help it burn. These include:

• Oxygen cylinders.

• Oxidising agents, e.g. chlorates, chromates, hypochlorites, nitrates, nitric acid, peroxides and peroxyacids.

The combustion process


2.1Combustion Process in Relation to Fire Safety

Stages of CombustionYou can see the combustion process illustrated in the following figure:

The stages of combustion

• Induction - heat produces sufficient vapour which can mix with air above the fuel and generate a flammable mixture.

• Ignition - initiates the reaction and, if it becomes self- sustaining (and no longer requires an external heat source), combustion develops very quickly and there is a dramatic increase in temperature.

• Fire growth - the fire may spread through:

– Direct burning.

– Typical mechanisms of heat transmission (convection, conduction or radiation).

The rate, scale and pattern of growth depend on a number of factors, such as:

– Nature, form and amount of fuel.

– Availability of oxygen (open, ventilated versus sealed containment).

– Amount of heat produced by the reaction.

• Steady state - the temperature stabilises and the combustion process reaches a steady state (the reaction between the fuel and oxygen is balanced until all the fuel is consumed).

• Decay - begins when either the fuel or oxygen has been consumed; the fire will then extinguish and gradually cool down.

TOPIC FOCUSThe three basic stages of the combustion process are:

Induction

• Early stages, evidence of combustion starting.

• May be slow process, smouldering.

Fire Growth

• Rapid development of fire as burning materials act as ignition.

• Level of burning and growth depend on levels of oxygen and fuel present.

• Large volumes of smoke and heat generated and possibly spontaneous combustion.

• Growth rate and temperature will eventually reach a plateau.

Decay• Room starved of oxygen and fuel.

• Heat output decreases and fire dies down.


2.1 Combustion Process in Relation to Fire Safety

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Explain, with the use of a sketch or diagram, the fire triangle.

2. Outline the conditions required for combustion to be maintained.

3. Explain the basic stages of combustion.

4. What is an exothermic reaction?



2.2Ignition of Solids, Liquids and Gases

Ignition of Solids, Liquids and Gases

IN THIS SECTION...

• Terms important in understanding how ignition of solids, flammable liquids and gaseous materials occurs include: flash point, fire point and ignition point (kindling point); auto ignition temperature; vapour density; vapour pressure; flammable; highly flammable; upper flammable limit and lower flammable limit; and combustible.

• Conditions required to cause the ignition of solids, liquids and gases relate to their physical form, the ability to form a flammable mixture with air and the presence of a sufficiently energetic ignition source.

• Methods of preventing or controlling ignition of combustible solids, flammable liquids and gaseous materials are based on the fire triangle and the removal of one of its three elements by separating fuels from ignition sources or excluding oxygen.

• It is important that Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is kept in a safe, well-ventilated place, preferably in the open air and away from occupied buildings.

DefinitionsIn order to understand the principles and conditions for the ignition of solids, liquids and gases, you need to know the meaning and relevance of the following terms.

DEFINITIONS

FLASH POINT

The lowest temperature at which there is sufficient vaporisation of a substance capable of producing a flash momentarily when a source of ignition is applied.

FIRE POINT

The temperature at which a fuel will continue to burn after ignition (five seconds or more).

IGNITION POINT (KINDLING POINT)

The temperature to which a material has to be heated for sustained combustion to be initiated by a pilot source.

AUTO IGNITION TEMPERATURE

The lowest temperature at which a substance or material will ignite spontaneously and burn without the presence of a pilot source of ignition.

VAPOUR DENSITY (MASS OF VAPOUR PER UNIT VOLUME) OR RELATIVE VAPOUR DENSITY (DENSITY OF THE VAPOUR RELATIVE TO AIR)

Indicates whether a flammable vapour is likely to rise in the air or, more commonly, sink and accumulate in low-lying areas.

VAPOUR PRESSURE

The pressure exerted by a vapour when the liquid and vapour are in equilibrium (such as in a closed vessel). It increases with temperature and a high vapour pressure at a given temperature means that the liquid is very volatile and more likely to produce a flammable vapour.

(Continued)


2.2 Ignition of Solids, Liquids and Gases

DEFINITIONS

FLAMMABLE, HIGHLY FLAMMABLE AND EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE

These are useful classifications under the EU CLP Regulation (No. 1272/2008 on classification, labelling and packaging of substances and mixtures) as follows:

• Flammable liquid - flash point between 23°C and 60°C (i.e. around ambient temperature).

• Highly flammable - liquids with a flash point of less than 23°C (i.e. below ambient temperature) and a boiling point of 35°C or more and certain reactive substances.

• Extremely flammable - liquids having a flash point less than 23°C and a boiling point of less than 35°C (i.e. very low flash point and low boiling point therefore high volatility).

FLAMMABLE LIMITS (ALSO KNOWN AS EXPLOSIVE LIMITS WHEN APPLIED TO EXPLOSIONS)• Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) or Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) - the minimum concentration of fuel in air

that is sufficient to allow combustion to occur. Below the LFL, the mixture is too lean to burn.

• Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) or Upper Explosive Limit (UEL) - the maximum concentration of fuel in air that is sufficient to allow combustion to occur. Above the UFL the mixture is too rich to burn.

COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS• Solid - capable of igniting and burning, such as wood or paper.

• Liquid - flash point above 37.8°C (100°F), but below 93.3°C (200°F).

• Gas - flammable gases readily form explosive mixtures with air, sometimes at very low concentrations, depending on the explosive range for the substance.

Flammable LimitsThe upper and lower flammable or explosive limits are expressed in units of volume per cent. Between these limits is the flammable (or explosive) range.

Flammable limits

Minimum Ignition EnergyThis is the minimum energy that will ignite a flammable fuel/air mixture and is usually quoted in units of millijoules (mJ).



TOPIC FOCUS

The most useful terms relating to ignition are the:

• Flash point - gives us an indication of the potential flammability of a liquid.

• Auto ignition temperature - indicates how easily building contents will ignite in a fire.

• Flammable limits - define the concentration range within which an explosion is likely to occur.

Ignition of Solids, Liquids and GasesThe physical form of a potential fuel is an important factor in determining the potential for ignition.

• Solids

Combustible solids in massive form are generally far more difficult to ignite than when in finely divided form.

For example, wood shavings catch fire easily, whereas a solid block of the same wood is much harder to ignite because more heat energy is required to raise its temperature enough to generate sufficient flammable vapour to support combustion.

• Liquids

Flammable liquids vary enormously in their ability to produce flammable vapours and the key determining factor is the flash point. If the temperature of the liquid is:

– Above the flash point, it will produce sufficient vapour in air to form a flammable (or explosive) mixture.

– Below the flash point, fine droplet mists (such as those produced during spraying) may still be able to generate flammable atmospheres.

Another important factor is the relative density. Most flammable vapours are denser than air and will tend to collect in low-lying areas, such as pits and trenches.

• Gases

Flammable gases readily form explosive mixtures with air, sometimes at very low concentrations, depending on the explosive range for the substance.

Ignition usually requires only very small energy input, such as a spark from an electrical contact, and the explosive effects will be considerably worse if they ignite under confined conditions such as in a room or sealed bin.

The two principal conditions required for ignition to occur are:

• A flammable mixture - flammable vapours, dusts and gases must mix with air in the right ratios, i.e. between the flammable limits (not too rich or too lean).

• A sufficiently energetic ignition source - ignition requires a minimum energy input. Minimum ignition energy can be quite low for vapours and gases (0.02-0.2 mJ) but much higher for dust clouds (20-60 mJ).

Flammable liquids vary in their ability to produce flammable vapours


2.2 Ignition of Solids, Liquids and Gases

Preventing or Controlling IgnitionThe fire triangle illustrates the method of preventing or controlling ignition of combustible materials by removing one of its three elements. Since it is less practical to exclude oxygen, the fundamental strategy relies on separating fuels from ignition sources. Practical measures include:

• Equipment designed to be used in flammable atmospheres.

• Plant designed to maintain flammable gases/vapours below the lower flammable limit.

• Proper storage of flammables and combustibles.

• Good housekeeping to control the accumulation of rubbish and combustible dust.

• Information, instruction and training in awareness of fire hazards and precautions.

• Safe systems of work, including the use of permits for high-risk or non-routine work.

• Safe operating procedures for routine work, including the use of inerting to exclude oxygen.

Properties and Safe Storage of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)Properties of LPGLiquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a mixture of hydrocarbon gases (propane or butane) used as a fuel. It is a colourless liquid which readily evaporates into a gas. It has no smell, although it will normally have an odour added to help detect leaks.

When mixed with air, the gas can burn or explode when it meets a source of ignition. It is heavier than air, so it tends to sink towards the ground. LPG can flow for long distances along the ground, and can collect in drains, gullies and cellars. It is less dense than water so liquid releases will float on water.

The liquid can cause cold burns to the skin and the gas is slightly anaesthetic and suffocating in high concentrations.

Storage of LPGLPG stored in cylinders should be kept in a safe, well-ventilated place, preferably in the open air, and away from occupied buildings, boundaries and sources of ignition and of heat. Cylinders should be properly secured and kept upright.

LPG can also be stored in bulk in pressurised tanks to keep it liquefied. The tanks can be installed above or below ground. Issues to consider include:

• Siting of the tank and distance from buildings or sources of ignition.

• Ventilation and conditions around the tank.

• Tanker access from a dedicated flat parking area.

• Security to protect from unauthorised access.

• Impact protection for motor traffic.

• Emergency arrangements for leakage and/or fire.

(You will be covering LPG and other fuels in greater detail in Element 3.)

DEFINITION

INERTING

A procedure where inert gases replace some or all of the oxygen in a process using flammables.

MORE...

You can find out more on LPG at:

www.uklpg.org



STUDY QUESTIONS

5. State what is meant by the following terms:

(a) The upper and lower flammable limits.(b) Vapour pressure.(c) Relative vapour density.(d) Flash point.(e) Auto ignition temperature.

6. Outline the basic conditions required for ignition to occur.



Classification of Fires2.3

Classification of Fires

IN THIS SECTION...

A useful classification system for fires is based on the type of fuel source, and is therefore valuable in specifying the extinguishing method to be used.

Fires Classified According to Fuel SourceSo that an appropriate method to extinguish a fire can be identified, it is useful to classify fires into different types relating to the nature of the fuel source. Fire classification systems are provided on a regional or national basis and are not globally applicable; as an example we’re going to look at the European system of classification.

TOPIC FOCUS

Classification of fire according to its fuel source:

• Class A - involving solids, usually of an organic nature, such as wood, paper or plastics.

• Class B – involving liquids or liquefiable solids, such as petrol, oil, paint or wax.

• Class C - involving gases, such as LPG, natural gas and acetylene.

• Class D - involving finely divided metals, such as zinc and magnesium.

• Class F – involving cooking fats and oils.

(Note: electrical fires are excluded from this classification system because of the problem of energised equipment. Once the equipment is isolated from the electrical supply it can be treated as appropriate to the burning material (typically Class A).)

Metal fires pose particular problems due to their reactivity with typical extinguishing agents at high temperatures and therefore require special arrangements:

• Metals are likely to ignite in the form of powders and/or swarf.

• They are classed as Class D fires.

• Appropriate extinguishing agents include:

– Special powders (m28 or l2).

– Dry sand or earth.

– Graphite powder.

– Sodium carbonate and salt and/or talc.

• Combustible metals include:

– Lithium, sodium, potassium.

– Magnesium, aluminium, titanium.

– Uranium, plutonium.

Fires must be extinguished


Classification of Fires 2.3

STUDY QUESTION

7. Outline, with examples, the five different classes of fire.



Principles of Fire Growth and Fire Spread2.4

Principles of Fire Growth and Fire Spread

IN THIS SECTION...

• General factors affect the rate at which a fire advances, such as the nature of the fuel and the containment in which the fire occurs.

• Specific factors such as building design, the use of insulated core panels, construction materials, internal linings, ventilation levels and contents of the premises influence fire growth rates and smoke movement.

• Fire spread depends on the principal methods of heat transfer: conduction, convection, radiation and direct burning.

• There are important differences between the development of a fire under free burning conditions and a fire in enclosed conditions; two important phenomena related to enclosed fires are flashover and backdraught.

Fire GrowthThe rate at which a fire advances by consuming available fuel depends on general factors, such as:

• Fuel characteristics:

– Ease of ignition, depending on the material and its physical form.

– Heat of combustion (the amount of heat generated by the exothermic combustion process of that particular fuel) which determines how quickly the temperature will rise (particularly in enclosed spaces where heat can quickly build up).

– Fluidity of liquids (uncontained burning liquids can spread very quickly) and easily melted solids (plastics can become pools and drips of burning liquid which can spread the fire to other areas).

• Fuel separation, e.g. where isolation of pockets of combustible furnishings from each other by non-combustible building components will hinder or prevent fire spread.

• Containment:

– Open fires (those with minimal or no containment) will have a plentiful supply of oxygen to sustain combustion.

– Contained fires (such as in a building) will be restrained by oxygen depletion and if insufficient oxygen is available (through poor ventilation), the rate of growth will slow and may eventually stop.

• Room dimensions, such as ceiling heights and location of walls in relation to the seat of the fire, will affect the course of the fire and its growth.

Fire Growth Rates and Smoke MovementThere are also specific factors that influence fire growth rates and smoke movement related to the structure and contents of the particular building:

• Building design – where smoke generated from a fire may:

– Escape through gaps in doorways, ceilings and walls.

– Spread: – Through vents, lift shafts, staircases, ducts and ceiling voids.

Fire growth rate depends on fuel characteristics such as ease of ignition


Principles of Fire Growth and Fire Spread 2.4

– Horizontally by convective currents under the ceiling. – Vertically between storeys by convective transfer of hot gases and smoke.

• Insulated core panels (containing fire-rated rigid urethane insulation) – which provide effective fire resistance and slow the rate of fire growth.

• Internal linings – materials on the surfaces of walls and ceilings significantly affect the spread of fire and its rate of growth:

– Particularly the potential for fire spread on internal linings in escape routes (rapid fire spread could prevent occupants from escaping).

– Materials used should inhibit development of fire and smoke from the surfaces of walls and ceilings.

TOPIC FOCUS

Spread of fire and its rate of growth on the surface of walls and ceilings:

• Properties of lining materials that might increase the risk of fire spread and its growth:

– Ignitability.

– Rate of surface flame spread and heat release.

– Amount of smoke produced when ignited.

– Tendency to produce flaming droplets.

• Properties that lining materials should have to limit the spread of fire and maximise the time available for escape:

– Resistance to ignition.

– Low rate of surface flame spread and heat release limiting: – Spread of fire. – Production of smoke. – Rate of fire growth.

Examples of such materials include:

– Exposed brickwork.

– Exposed blockwork.

– Mineral fibre board.

– Woodwool slabs.

– Plasterboard and skim.

– Intumescent linings.

– Concrete, stone or ceramic tiles.

• A building’s construction materials have an impact on the potential for, and rate of, fire spread:

– Concrete: – Dehydrates, crumbles and collapses. – Surface spalls at >300°C; this is increased by steel reinforcement. – Loses structural integrity on cooling.

– Steel: – Expands. – Conducts heat. – Loses strength and deforms as temperature increases. – Changes properties on cooling.

DEFINITION

INTUMESCENT LINING

A material that expands when heated to form an insulating fire-retardant barrier that protects the underlying surface.



– Brickwork: – Fired clay bricks exhibit better fire resistance.

– Timber: – Combustible and will be consumed and generate smoke in fire. – Burns in a predictable way and its fire resistance can be improved by increasing thickness, selection of fire-

resistant varieties (dense wood is better) and surface treatment.

– Plastics: – Thermo-setting plastics do not melt but decompose, generating smoke and fumes. – Thermoplastics melt, drip and flow in a fire and generate smoke and fumes.

– Glass: – Generally offers little resistance to fire (but some specific fire-resisting laminated glasses can provide fire

resistance of up to 90 minutes).

– Thermal insulating materials in concealed areas: – Most modern varieties are non-combustible. – Some older buildings used combustible materials (e.g. sawdust).

– Lime-based plaster on internal walls: – If supported by lathing or expanded metal, has good fire resistance.

– Paints: – Most are combustible and will aid surface spread of fire (but there are also flame- retardant paints and

paints that bubble up to protect the timber beneath).

• Ventilation levels determine the oxygen supply to a fire in an enclosed space and, if air is not replenished, the fire will decay. The level may be a combination of:

– Natural ventilation (through doors, windows and other openings).

– Forced ventilation (mechanical air-handling systems).

• Contents of the premises might typically include:

– Paper (wallpaper, books, magazines) - will burn in a fire and aid fire spread.

– Plastics (wall and ceiling linings (expanded foam types), window frames) - some types are self- extinguishing (e.g. unplasticised PVC) and others smoulder, drip and burn.

– Fabrics and furnishings (seating, curtains and other textiles) - natural fabrics tend to smoulder, while synthetic fabrics (mainly thermoplastics) shrink, melt and ignite.

Methods of Heat TransferA fire will initially spread by direct burning, where there is direct contact between the burning material and the new fuel source.

Once established, conduction may allow heat transfer through conducting materials to ignite fuel that is remote from the original fire.

Conduction



Convection currents, generated by heated gases expanding, becoming less dense and rising, will transfer heat to surfaces above the fire, such as ceilings and ductwork.

Convection currents

The heated materials in a fire will radiate heat (thermal radiation or infrared) which can be absorbed by surfaces near the seat of the fire and cause ignition of nearby fuel.

Radiant heat

TOPIC FOCUS

The FOUR methods by which heat may be transferred during a fire are:

• Conduction – Molecule-to-molecule transfer of heat through conducting solids such as metal beams or pipes.

– Heat is transferred to other parts of the building and can ignite combustible or flammable materials.

• Convection – Hot gases rise and become trapped beneath a ceiling or travel through voids and ducts to other parts

of a building.

– The hot gases ignite combustible or flammable materials.

(Continued)



TOPIC FOCUS

• Radiation – Heat is emitted in the form of infrared radiation.

– Radiant heat can raise the temperature of adjacent materials to above their ignition temperatures or flash points.

• Direct Burning – Heat comes in direct contact with combustible materials.

– Direct contact causes ignition.

Development of a FireUnder Free Burning Conditions• Smoke and toxic gases:

– Initially rise and are trapped by the ceiling in the room in which the fire starts.

– Accumulate and spread outwards in all directions at ceiling level, forming an increasingly deep layer throughout the room.

– Eventually escape through gaps in doorways, ceilings and walls and use vents, lift shafts, staircases, ducts and ceiling voids to spread rapidly to other parts of the building.

• Fire in a room can spread to other parts of the building by:

– Convective currents allowing horizontal spread of fire under ceilings, and vertical spread of fire between storeys.

– Radiative heat transmitting to other parts of the room, to other rooms and to other buildings.

– Conduction through steel structural members and services.

– Flames (deflected by the ceiling) to the floor below and general direct burning.

Development of a fire



In Enclosed Conditions• The heat, hot gases/vapours, flames and smoke become trapped, are retained and concentrated by the enclosure,

and so accelerate the fire.

• Within a short time, the temperature may exceed the auto ignition temperature of the remaining fuel in the room and, if there is enough air, cause sudden ignition (sometimes referred to as ‘flashover’).

People are also at greater risk from inhalation of toxic gases and smoke from a fire in enclosed spaces.

Flashover and BackdraughtThese two important phenomena increase the risk in a fire situation:

• A flashover occurs when all the combustible material in an enclosed area simultaneously ignites due to heat build-up to above its auto ignition temperature (typically around 500°C).

• A backdraught occurs when air is introduced into a fire which is decaying through oxygen starvation, causing a rapid and explosive re-combustion.

TOPIC FOCUS

A flashover may occur when:

• A fire is free burning in a room.

• There is a good supply of oxygen from the large size of the room or from a ventilation source.

• The fire generates a high level of radiated heat which is absorbed by other materials in the room, including unburnt gases.

• Materials and gases reach their spontaneous ignition temperatures and ignite even though they are not in direct contact with the flame.

The effect is that the fire has ‘flashed’ from one side of the room to the other.

STUDY QUESTIONS

8. Outline the main factors that influence the rate of fire growth.

9. Describe, with the aid of suitable sketches where appropriate, the following methods of fire spread:

(a) Direct burning.

(b) Conduction.

(c) Convection.

(d) Radiation.

10. Outline the ways in which fire can spread within buildings.

11. Outline the main differences between fires under free burning conditions and fires in enclosed conditions.



Explosion and Explosive Combustion2.5

Explosion and Explosive Combustion

IN THIS SECTION...

• There are two basic categories of explosion (based on reaction velocity): deflagration and detonation.

• Explosions arise from flammable vapours, gases, and dusts, in the form of confined vapour cloud explosions, unconfined vapour cloud explosions, Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosions (BLEVE) and dust explosions.

• Good housekeeping procedures, sufficient ventilation, safe storage and handling of explosive materials, control of detonation sources, cooling, and inerting are methods used to prevent explosions occurring.

• Explosions may be controlled by means of: suppression; venting (using pressure relief valves, bursting discs and explosion venting panels); and containment.

Mechanism of ExplosionAn explosion is a sudden, rapid, violent release of energy accompanied by a pressure blast wave. Explosions may be caused by chemical reactions or by physical changes (such as in a pressure vessel explosion). In the context of fire and explosion, we are concerned with explosions of chemical origin and combustion-type reactions.

TOPIC FOCUS

There are two basic categories of explosion (based on reaction velocity):

• Detonation

– The combustion zone travels at supersonic velocity (i.e. greater than the speed of sound).

– The reaction initiates and rapidly increases to the point where a shock wave develops (like the sonic boom from an aircraft as it exceeds the speed of sound).

– The shock wave compresses the unburnt gas/air mixture as it passes through it, increasing its temperature to the auto ignition point.

– Detonations produce very high temperatures and pressures, and high rates of pressure rise.

– Equipment and building structures have no time to move to relieve pressure, so there can be a great deal of localised damage, with fragments thrown out at high speeds.

• Deflagration

– The combustion zone travels at subsonic velocity (i.e. slower than the speed of sound).

– The pressure rises more slowly, and maximum pressures reached are lower than for detonation.

– Damage from a deflagration tends to be more generalised, and more severe at further distance from the ignition point.

– A more common form of explosion than detonation.

Beware explosions!


Explosion and Explosive Combustion 2.5

Materials Commonly Involved in ExplosionsCombustion explosions principally involve the following types of flammable materials:

• Vapours - from flammable solvents used for cleaning, in paints and adhesives, such as toluene, acetone, ether, hexane.

• Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG).

• Gases - such as acetylene, propane, butane, hydrogen.

• Dusts - in the form of finely divided wood, flour, coal.

Types of ExplosionsFor combustion to take place, a material must first generate sufficient vapour/gas/dust so that, when mixed with air, its concentration lies within the explosive range (between the lower and upper explosive limits).

The explosive range

As well as categorisation in terms of detonation and deflagration, explosions can also be classified into four main types.

Confined Vapour Cloud Explosion (CVCE)A Confined Vapour Cloud Explosion (CVCE) is described as the following:

• Ignition of a flammable gas/vapour is in a confined space, such as a process vessel or building.

• The pressure rise may rupture the containment.

• Only small amounts of flammable gas/vapour are needed, such as a small gas leak in a building or the flammable residue left in a drum.

• There is limited blast damage.

Unconfined Vapour Cloud Explosion (UVCE)An Unconfined Vapour Cloud Explosion (UVCE) is described as the following:

• Ignition of a flammable gas/vapour is in an unconfined, external space.

• The rapid release of large quantities of material with some mixing with air is required to produce a flammable gas/air mixture.

• Ignition must occur before the cloud has sufficient time to dilute below the lower explosive limit.

• The resultant pressure waves and heat generation from the large quantity of material involved cause extensive damage.

Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE)There are several types of Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE), but the most commonly described is that of LPG vessels under fire conditions. In this case, the typical sequence of events is:

• Exposure of a pressure vessel containing LPG to direct heating from open flames.



• Liquid inside the vessel begins to boil/vaporise, and the internal pressure increases. (Note: Although the vessel may be fitted with a pressure relief valve, these are often inadequate under sustained, intense fire conditions.)

• Vessel overheats and its walls begin to lose their strength, become thinner, and eventually rupture against the increasing internal pressure (this is commonly, but not always, in the vapour space above the liquid, because the vapour is less effective at removing heat).

• After rupture, the sudden release of pressure causes the remaining liquid to suddenly vaporise and escape.

• Vapour ignites from heated surfaces and generates flames, explosions, fireballs, missiles, etc.

Dust ExplosionsDust explosions involve the generation of fine dust particles:

• From a combustible substance.

• In dry conditions.

• Dispersed in air within the lower and upper explosive limits.

A dust cloud of this concentration would resemble a dense fog and would not normally be produced outside a process vessel.

It is also necessary to have an ignition source of sufficient energy (e.g. electrical arcing or electrostatic discharge).

A dust explosion initiated inside a process vessel, under conditions of confinement, is called a primary explosion and, unless the plant is designed to withstand the pressure, it will rupture the vessel, ejecting a fire ball of burning dust.

The force of the primary explosion may disturb surrounding dust, forming another dust cloud, which is then ignited by burning particles from the primary explosion. This is called a secondary explosion. Such explosions are generally more destructive than the primary explosion.

TOPIC FOCUS

Upper and lower explosive limits:

• A flammable mixture will only explode in air if the mixture lies between certain limits.

• The upper explosive limit is the highest amount of flammable vapour in air that will just support an explosion.

• The lower explosive limit is the lowest amount of flammable vapour in air that will just support an explosion.

Conditions required for a gas explosion to occur:

• The presence of a combustible gas that is capable of becoming airborne and mixing with air.

• The concentration of gas lies between the flammable limits.

• The atmosphere contains sufficient oxygen to support combustion.

• There is an ignition source present, with sufficient heat energy to ignite the gas.

This:

• Causes an increase in temperature.

• Can occur spontaneously.

• May produce heat quickly and can cause explosions.

Explosions can cause severe damage



Preventing ExplosionsThe main concern is to prevent explosions. This can be achieved by considering such issues as:

• Housekeeping - dust explosions can occur from the accumulation of finely divided combustible material in the workplace, and secondary explosions, where this dust becomes airborne as a result of the primary explosion and also ignites. Good housekeeping is also important when it comes to the correct storage of combustible and flammable materials which reduces the risk of ignition.

• Ventilation - ensures that any concentrations of dust or vapour in the workplace are kept well below the lower explosive limit.

• Safe storage and handling of explosive materials - strict procedures are necessary for explosive solids. Flammable liquids which can generate explosive vapour clouds should be securely stored, with bunding used to contain any leakages or spillages.

• Cooling - can be used to control the potential for an explosion from an uncontrolled exothermic reaction that generates excessive heat and over-pressurisation.

• Inerting - involves the partial or complete substitution of the air in an enclosed space by an inert gas, where the possibility of flammable atmospheres exists, reducing the oxygen concentration, and preventing the formation of a fuel/oxygen level above the lower explosive limit.

Inert gases, if not controlled, can present a risk of reduced oxygen content in the atmosphere that operators are required to breathe. The technique has both advantages and disadvantages:

– It can be employed very effectively to prevent explosions, but is usually only used when the explosive or flammable hazard cannot be eliminated by other means, such as the use of non-flammable materials, or the exclusion of ignition sources.

– It is used in enclosed spaces and plant as a method of explosion control and prevention of fire spread, but plant and spaces that are substantially open, will have varying oxygen concentrations and so cannot be successfully inerted.

– It is used within reactor systems where the possibility of flammable atmospheres exists, and within storage tanks where a material may be above its flash point.

TOPIC FOCUS

Typical rules for the safe storage and handling of explosive materials:

• Identification of all explosive, and potentially explosive, chemicals.

• Correct labelling.

• Maintaining records of opening and discarding dates to prevent chemicals degrading and becoming potentially explosive.

• Keeping explosive chemicals away from all ignition sources, such as open flames, hot surfaces, spark sources, and direct sunlight.

• Designating a special area for explosive chemical use.

• Periodically checking containers of chemicals that could become over-pressurised.

• Making sure that workers using explosive or potentially explosive chemicals are thoroughly trained in safe storage methods, the hazards of the chemical and disposal procedures.



Controlling ExplosionsIn situations where explosions may occur, the consequences can be reduced by controlling the explosion.

SuppressionThis is an active system, whereby the pressure rise from a developing explosion is detected by an appropriate sensor and triggers the discharge of an extinguishing agent to suppress the combustion process.

VentingThe following systems can be used to release any pressure developing from an explosion:

• Pressure relief valves - designed to allow sufficient outflow of combustion products to relieve the pressure generated by the explosion, venting to a safe or sealed area.

• Bursting discs - commonly used for overpressure protection as the weakest point in the system, and designed to fail, and so avoid mechanical damage to the rest of the system.

• Explosion panels - similar to bursting discs, but designed for higher rates of pressure rise (such as happens during an explosion) and for larger capacities of gas to vent.

ContainmentContainment allows the explosion to occur but confines it to a specific area and prevents propagation to the surrounding atmosphere. Explosion-proof enclosures are based on this method and are designed to withstand the maximum explosion pressure likely to occur in the particular facility.

TOPIC FOCUS

Cause and control of dust explosions where powders are handled:

Cause

The primary explosion occurs when:

• The concentration of dust falls within the explosive range.

• The moisture content of the dust is low.

• The particle size is such to propagate a flame.

• A source of sufficient heat energy is available to ignite the dust.

A secondary explosion may occur if:

• Air turbulence from the initial explosion discharges dust from horizontal surfaces, causing an airborne suspension of combustible dust.

• Ignition occurs from the initial source, or from combustion by-products of the primary explosion.

(Continued)

The possible result of unsuccessful explosion prevention techniques



TOPIC FOCUS

Controls

• Sealing joints on powder-handling systems to prevent the escape of dust.

• Providing exhaust ventilation on dust filters and open bag, dust-collecting filter units.

• Regular maintenance of plant, and a high standard of housekeeping, minimising the accumulation of dust on floors and high ledges.

• Insulating hot surfaces, e.g. lagging pipes.

• Ensuring that the surface temperature of electrical equipment is kept below that required to cause ignition.

• Using intrinsically safe electrical equipment.

• Bonding all metal-work to earth.

STUDY QUESTIONS

12. Explain the main difference between a Confined Vapour Cloud Explosion (CVCE) and an Unconfined Vapour Cloud Explosion (UVCE).

13. (a) Outline the main factors and conditions that determine the likelihood of a dust explosion occurring.

(b) Describe the sequence which may trigger a secondary dust explosion.

14. Outline, with examples, three different means of controlling the effects of an explosion.



Summary

Summary

This element has dealt with the principles of fire and explosion.


• Explained the principles of the combustion process, with reference to the fire triangle, the chemical reactivity of flammable materials and the exothermic nature of the combustion process.

• Examined the induction, ignition, fire growth, steady state, and decay of the combustion process.

• Defined the meaning and relevance of key terms relating to potential flammability, such as: flash point, auto ignition temperature and flammable limits.

• Considered the conditions required to cause the ignition of combustible solids, liquids and gases and the methods to prevent or control ignition.

• Set out a classification system for fires based on the fuel source.

• Discussed the factors that influence fire growth rates and smoke movement and, in particular, the methods of heat transfer.

• Examined the differences between the development of a fire under free burning conditions and a fire in enclosed conditions and considered the conditions in which flashover and backdraught may occur.

• Considered the principles of explosion, common materials involved in explosions, and key terms such as deflagration and detonation.

• Explained the mechanism of gas/vapour explosions, boiling liquid expanding vapour explosions and dust explosions.

• Established the principles of preventing explosions and also those for controlling explosions.


Exam Skills ES

Exam Skills

QUESTION

A dust explosion occurred at a bakery and was rapidly followed by a larger explosion causing extensive structural damage to an external wall.

(a) Explain why the bakery may have suffered two explosions in close succession. (4)

(b) Outline measures to be taken to minimise the risk of a recurrent dust explosion. (4)



1. The first step is to read the question carefully. Note that this question asks why the bakery may have suffered TWO explosions in quick succession, and for measures to minimise the risk of a recurrent dust explosion.

2. Next, consider the marks available. In this question there are eight marks, so it is expected that around eight or nine different pieces of information will be provided. This is another question that is split into sections (here two sections worth four marks each). It should not be too difficult to pick up marks here because the signposts NEBOSH use are fairly easy to spot. The question should take you around eight minutes to answer in the exam.


(a) Explain why the bakery may have suffered two explosions in close succession. (4)

(b) Outline measures to be taken to minimise the risk of a recurrent dust explosion. (4)

4. Read the question again to make sure you understand it and have a clear understanding of dust explosions and how to minimise the risk of them occurring. (Re- read your notes if you need to.)

5. The next stage is to develop a plan – there are various ways to do this. Remind yourself first of all that you need to be thinking about ‘dust’. When you see the command word ‘explain’, you need to give a clear account, so your answer plan will need to have more detail added to it for the examiners. For part (b) the examiners would be looking for an ‘outline’, so you will need to supply the most important features of how to minimise risk from dust explosions.

Your answer must be based on the key words you have highlighted, so in this case you need to explain why two explosions occurred and outline measures to minimise risk.


Exam SkillsES


Part (a)

• Primary explosion (1st).

• Secondary explosion (2nd).

• 1st, concentration of dust in explosive range.

• Source of sufficient heat.

• Air turbulence.

• Dust disturbed.

• 2nd explosion normally more severe.

Part (b)

• Seal all joints to prevent escape.

• Exhaust ventilation.

• Dust collecting filters.

• Housekeeping.

• Insulate hot surfaces.

• Intrinsically safe electrical equipment.

• Earth bonding.

Now have a go at the question yourself.

Example of How the Question Could be Answered

(a) The two explosions, typically characterised by a dust explosion, are known as the primary and secondary explosions. The primary explosion requires a concentration of dust to be in air that is within the explosive range for the dust, and a source of sufficient heat to ignite the dust. The secondary explosion usually occurs because dust that has settled on all horizontal surfaces throughout the premises becomes airborne following the primary explosion, and is ignited either by the initial ignition source, or due to combustion caused by the primary explosion. The secondary explosion is often more severe than the primary explosion.

(b) Measures taken to minimise risk of recurrent dust explosions would include ensuring that all pipe work where the product flows has well sealed joints to prevent dust escaping. Dust filters should be fitted with exhaust ventilation to allow dust clouds to disperse safely. Additionally, the dust filters should have enclosed bags to collect dust to prevent it becoming airborne in the event of it being disturbed. There should be good standards of housekeeping using vacuum cleaners to keep horizontal surfaces free from dust exposure and to minimise accumulation of dust. Any potential sources of ignition (heat) should be insulated (i.e. by lagging pipes) to prevent airborne dust coming into contact with them, and the surface temperature of electrical equipment kept below that required for ignition. The use of intrinsically safe electrical tools to prevent sparks from unprotected armatures igniting dust, together with bonding metal work to earth to prevent static discharges of electricity, will further reduce the risk of explosion.

Reasons for Poor Marks Achieved by Candidates in Exam• Providing a list for part (a) of the question without giving sufficient detail to meet the command word criteria of

‘explain’.

• Failing to separate answers into the different subsections of the question. Candidates must clearly indicate which section of the question they are answering.

• If the examiner cannot read the candidate’s answer, marks cannot be awarded.

Learning Outcomes


Explain the causes of fires and explosions in typical work activities.

Outline appropriate control measures to minimise fire and explosion risks.

3-1© RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 3 - Causes and Prevention of Fires and Explosions

Element 3

Causes and Prevention of Fires and Explosions

3-2 © RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 3 - Causes and Prevention of Fires and ExplosionsUnit IFC1: Element 3 - Causes and Prevention of Fires and Explosions © RRC International

Contents

Causes of Fires and Explosions in Typical Work Activities 3-3

Introduction 3-3Accidental Fires 3-3Sources of Oxygen 3-5Fire and Explosion Risks from Flammable Materials 3-5Fire Load 3-6Fire Risks in Construction and Maintenance Work 3-6Control of Fire Risk in Construction and Maintenance Work 3-8Arson Attacks 3-8Study Question 3-9

Appropriate Control Measures to Minimise Fire and Explosion Risks 3-10

Introduction 3-10Control of Sources of Ignition 3-11Control of Sources of Fuel 3-11Control of Sources of Oxygen 3-15Management of Control Measures 3-16Study Questions 3-18

Summary 3-19

Exam Skills 3-20

3-2 © RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 3 - Causes and Prevention of Fires and ExplosionsUnit IFC1: Element 3 - Causes and Prevention of Fires and Explosions © RRC International 3-3

3.1Causes of Fires and Explosions in Typical Work Activities

Causes of Fires and Explosions in Typical Work Activities

IN THIS SECTION...

• Common sources of ignition that cause accidental fires include electrical appliances and installations, lightning, cooking, heating and lighting, smoking materials, overheating of machinery, spontaneous ignition of materials and hot work.

• Sources of fuel found in workplaces include paper, cardboard, furniture, fixtures and fittings, electrical insulation, structural materials, wall and ceiling linings, piped gas supply, cylinders of flammable gas and flammable chemicals, liquids and solvents.

• Sources of oxygen include air, natural ventilation, forced ventilation/air-conditioning systems and oxidising materials.

• The use, storage and transport of flammable materials can lead to fire and explosion in the workplace if contributory risk factors are not dealt with.

• The fire load gives an indication of the fire risk from combustion in an area of a building by measuring the amount of combustible material present.

• Construction and maintenance work involve temporary and changing workplaces; these may be at an increased risk of fire and explosion, due to site storage of combustible and flammable materials, demolition work, use of oxy-fuel equipment and temporary electrical installations.

• Arson is the deliberate attempt to start a fire with the intention of causing damage; factors such as location, security and access control influence the severity and frequency of arson attacks.

IntroductionFire statistics show how fires start. It is useful to classify fires as accidental or deliberate and each account equally for around half of all fires. Of accidental fires, faulty or misused equipment accounts for about three quarters of them.

Remember from the fire triangle that fires occur when sources of fuel (combustible materials) come into contact with sources of ignition.

Accidental FiresCommon sources of ignition of accidental fires include the following:

• Electrical appliances and installations, where faulty equipment or misuse may lead to:

– Electrical faults - short circuits, degradation of insulation, inadequate earthing, loose connections and overloading arising from incorrect fuse rating.

– Obstructed ventilation or cooling, causing overheating.

– Inappropriate use of electrical equipment in an explosive, damp or harsh environment.

– Equipment left running for extended periods when it is not designed to do so.

• Lightning strikes, which can cause fires and require systems such as lightning conductors (a heavy gauge conductive path to earth) to give protection.

Flammable liquids will support combustion if exposed to

an ignition source


3.1 Causes of Fires and Explosions in Typical Work Activities

• Cooking activities, which can result in kitchen fires arising from:

– Unattended equipment.

– Contact of heated surfaces with combustibles such as food spillages, clothing, towels.

– Overheating of food, particularly cooking fat.

– Failure to clean extractor units.

• Heating and lighting, causing fires due to heaters and lamps being too close to combustibles, or damp clothes obstructing heater vents. Even at ambient temperature, materials such as hay or shredded rubber from tyres are susceptible to self-heating and can spontaneously ignite.

• Smoking, traditionally a major cause of fire, but less so now that smoking is prohibited in workplaces and public places.

• Overheating of machinery, caused through lack of lubrication, which can generate hot surfaces that can act as a source of ignition.

• Oil- and solvent-soaked rags can undergo spontaneous combustion as the oil oxidises and releases heat. If the heat is not dissipated, it can build up and ignite the rags.

• Hot work, which comprises work activities that involve the application, or generation of heat, such as cutting, welding, brazing, soldering and the use of blow-lamps. When these activities are carried out in direct contact with, or in close proximity to, flammable or combustible substances, there is the risk of fire.

Sources of FuelCommon sources of fuel include:

• Paper and cardboard - common combustible materials, often found as waste materials in the workplace. These materials often accumulate because of poor housekeeping; shredded paper waste is the easiest of them to ignite.

• Furniture, fixtures and fittings - the general contents of most workplace accommodation and work areas, including seating, workstations, furniture, floor coverings, curtains and blinds. Usually manufactured from carbonaceous material and/or plastics, they are therefore potentially combustible.

• Electrical insulation - usually in the form of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), it has a relatively low melting temperature which will burn when exposed to a flame, and provides a source of fuel in conjunction with overheating electrical equipment.

• Combustible structural materials, which include:

– Timber, which burns, but in a predictable manner, and can give a reasonable time lag before failure occurs, particularly if the timber is protected with plasterboard or other coverings.

– Building boards, such as softboard, hardboard and plastic board, which are not easily ignitable but will provide fuel in a fire.

• Wall and ceiling linings and frameworks fabricated from plastics, widely used inside buildings:

– Expanded cellular plastics (typically urethane foam) are used as wall and ceiling linings as they offer very good insulation properties, but if unprotected present a serious fire hazard.

– Unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride (UPVC) window frames are commonly found in buildings. They are naturally flame-retardant, but added plasticisers can make them combustible, and they produce large quantities of smoke and carbon dioxide in a fire.

• A piped gas supply, which relies on the integrity of the pipework to maintain containment of a flammable gas. The heat or direct flame from a fire close to a gas pipe may be sufficient to cause a gas leak and subsequent explosion. The principal risk associated with the integrity of mains gas supply is the risk of injuries, fatalities, and damage to property caused by failure in the integrity of the pipework.

Waste such as paper is a common combustible material



• Cylinders of flammable gas, which present a significant fire hazard. LPG is stored at pressure to liquefy the gas, whilst other flammable gases such as hydrogen and acetylene are held at even higher pressures. Consequently, even a minor leak from a cylinder under pressure can result in the release of a large volume of gas. Flammable gases form ignitable mixtures with air over a wide range of concentrations that will explode when they come into contact with an ignition source.

• Flammable chemicals, liquids and solvents, including petrol and other fuels, paint, ink, adhesives and cleaning fluids. They tend to have low flash points, produce vapour concentrations above the lower explosive limit at room temperature, and will readily support combustion if exposed to a source of ignition.

Sources of Oxygen• The oxygen content in atmospheric air is 21% by volume, and there is a minimum oxygen concentration required

to propagate a flame. Explosions and fires are preventable by reducing the oxygen concentration regardless of the concentration of the fuel - this is the basis of the prevention technique of inerting discussed previously. When the oxygen concentration falls below about 10% no combustion can occur.

• Natural ventilation provides oxygen by allowing air to enter premises through open doors or windows.

• Forced ventilation systems, e.g. air-conditioning, use mechanical ventilation where the air input is provided by a fan that creates a positive pressure inside the building.

• Oxidising materials are liquids or solids that readily give off oxygen, or react chemically to oxidise combustible materials in a way that increases the chance of a fire or explosion. Consequently, oxidising liquids and solids can be severe fire and explosion hazards, and include materials such as chlorates, chromates, hypochlorites, nitrates, nitric acid, peroxides and peroxyacids.

Fire and Explosion Risks from Flammable Materials

TOPIC FOCUS

The use, storage and transport of flammable materials can easily lead to fire and explosion in the workplace. Common contributory factors are:

• Operator error due to lack of awareness or training.

• Hot work carried out on or close to flammable liquid containers, material containers or spray equipment.

• Inadequate design, installation, inspection or maintenance of equipment and facilities with subsequent equipment failure or malfunction.

• Misuse of flammable liquids in order to burn waste materials or accelerate fires.

• Inadequate control of ignition sources in flammable liquid areas, including electrostatic discharges.

• Allowing materials to be heated above their auto ignition temperature.

• Dismantling or disposing of equipment or containers containing flammable materials or their residues.

• Inadequate containment, allowing leakage from hoses, etc.

• Poor control of contaminated clothing or cleaning rags.

• Inadequate or poor storage areas with failure to segregate incompatible materials properly.

• Lack of control of transfer operations involving:

– Decanting, dispensing, or disposal (unsuitable areas or using unsuitable methods).

– Emptying vehicle fuel tanks.

– Spraying (which generates large vapour concentrations).

– Spillages.



Fire LoadThe fire load gives an indication of the fire risk from combustion in an area of a building by measuring the weight of combustible material per square foot of floor space. The concept is based on the assumption that the endurance of a fire depends on its severity, and its severity depends on the fire load.

Fire Risks in Construction and Maintenance WorkConstruction work often involves temporary and changing workplaces, and work activities that can present a significant risk of fire and explosion.

Similarly, maintenance work may require the need to work with flammable liquids, or carry out hot work, that are not part of routine activities.

Because of this, construction and maintenance work need special consideration with regard to:

• Site storage of flammable and combustible materials, such as:

– Wood and other combustibles stored on site for refurbishment work.

– Solvent-based adhesives used to lay floor coverings, paints and other flammables.

– Fuels such as petrol and diesel that may be stored in significant quantities in drums.

– Fuel gases such as acetylene and LPG which will be stored in cylinders (see Element 2 for more information on the properties and safe storage of LPG).

– Bitumen boilers that could be left unattended.

• Waste disposal, since building sites generate large amounts of combustible waste material, such as wood and other fabrication materials, solvent-soaked rags, empty solvent containers and fuel cylinders.

Unless this rubbish is cleared away regularly, it will accumulate and present a fire risk, either accidentally or through arson.

• Demolition, and the fire risks arising from dismantling and removing tanks and pipes containing flammable residues, and also from the severing of buried gas services.

• Oxy-fuel equipment used in welding and flame cutting with acetylene and propane as fuels. In the UK, the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) Guidance INDG297 lists the main fire hazards associated with portable oxy-fuel equipment as:

– Fire caused by heat, sparks, molten metal or direct contact with the flame.

– Explosion when cutting up or repairing tanks or drums which contain, or may have contained, flammable materials.

– Fire/explosion caused by gas leaks, backfires and flashbacks.

– Fire resulting from misuse of oxygen.

MORE...

You will find additional detail on the causes of, and contributory factors leading to, fire and explosion arising from the use, transfer and storage of flammable liquids in the following UK HSE publications which can be accessed at: www.hse.gov.uk

• HSG51 Storage of Flammable Liquids in Containers

• HSG140 Safe Use and Handling of Flammable Liquids

• HSG178 Spraying of Flammable Liquids

Flammable gas nearby!



• Temporary electrical installations, which may not be of sufficient capacity for their intended use, nor be suitable for the harsher environment of a construction site. Particular problems can arise from:

– Use of a flat twin and earth cable (designed for use in fixed installations) instead of a flex for extension leads.

– Overloading of sockets.

– Deliberate defeating of safety devices.

– Poor routeing of cables, with increased risk of damage.

– Using make-shift connections to join cables rather than proper connectors.

TOPIC FOCUS

The precautions necessary when carrying out oxyacetylene welding in a workplace include:

• User checks on equipment before starting.

• Use of regulators to the appropriate standard.

• Using hoses that are as short as possible.

• Using colour-coded hoses.

• Fitting the torch unit with non-return valves.

• Fitting flashback arrestors to the outlets of the regulators.

• Using crimped hose connections and not jubilee clips.

• Ensuring that the cylinders are not heated by the flame or by stray arcs from adjacent electrical equipment.

• Minimising the amount of combustible material in the area of the welding operation.

• Closing cylinders at the valve when not in use.

• Using trained and competent staff.

• Storing acetylene and oxygen cylinders upright in a well ventilated area and away from sources of heat and sparks.

A useful summary of the fire risks in construction and maintenance work includes the following points:

• Stockpiling of combustible materials.

• Accumulation of combustible rubbish (overfilling of skips).

• Increase in the amount of materials stored, such as paints, solvents and adhesives.

• Work processes producing ignitable dusts or using volatile materials, such as LPG or acetylene.

• Temporary electrical installations with exposed cabling.

• Insufficient security leading to an increased risk of arson.

• Work interfering with the integrity of compartmentation (see Element 4) within the building.

• Use of transient contractors not fully aware of the fire hazards in the building.

Site safety and security is important to reduce the risk of fires



MORE...

The UK HSE publication INDG227 Safe Working with Flammable Substances gives useful guidance on the hazards and basic standards which apply to safe handling and storage of flammable substances at:

www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg227.pdf

HSG168 Fire Safety in Construction gives specific guidance for construction work at:

www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/hsg168.pdf

Control of Fire Risk in Construction and Maintenance WorkFollowing on from the risks we noted above, arrangements to minimise fire risks in construction and maintenance work should be made to cover the following:

• Keeping storage of combustibles to a minimum.

• Arranging for the regular removal of waste and management of skips.

• Minimising the use of flammable products on site and using local exhaust ventilation to control and reduce dust emissions.

• Introducing procedures for hot work.

• Ensuring that electrical equipment is regularly inspected and tested.

• Arranging for the installation of temporary compartmentation when the integrity of the original installation has been affected.

• Ensuring the pre-selection, training and briefing of contractors and arranging for the regular inspection and monitoring of work in progress.

Arson AttacksArson is the deliberate, malicious attempt to start a fire with the intention of causing damage, and accounts for almost half of all fires in buildings other than dwellings.

Arsonists may be:

• Former employees with a grudge against the company.

• Criminals hoping to cover up evidence of another crime.

• Opportunist vandals, especially children during school holidays.

• Serial, dedicated arsonists who are morbidly attracted to fires.

• Irate members of pressure groups demonstrating their cause.

Factors influencing the severity and frequency of arson attacks on buildings or sites include:

• Location/use - two thirds of fires in garages, sheds, and construction buildings, and just over half of fires in schools, are deliberate. In addition, sites in areas with a history of arson and vandalism, such as some inner city locations, are particularly at risk.

• Security and access control:

– Unsecured sites with no perimeter fencing, guard or controlled access points.

– Poor or no security lighting.

– Open windows and unlocked doors.

Any fire, accidental or deliberate, can cause severe damage to people and

property



TOPIC FOCUS

Methods of minimising the risk of an arson attack:

• Secure perimeter of the premises and all entry points to buildings.

• Provide external security lighting and CCTV systems.

• Remove automatic entry rights for persons who have been dismissed.

• Arrange for removal of all combustible rubbish.

• Secure rubbish bins and skips in a separate compound and ensure that they are not adjacent to buildings.

• Secure flammable liquids in a separate compound if possible, away from buildings.

• Monitor security alarm and fire detection systems regularly.

• Fit secure metal letter boxes to buildings to ensure containment of burning materials.

• Prohibit parking of vehicles or storage of goods or materials next to windows and doors.

• Encourage staff to report incidents of people acting suspiciously.

STUDY QUESTION

1. List the factors that should be taken into account when assessing the threat of arson.



3.2 Appropriate Control Measures to Minimise Fire and Explosion Risks

Appropriate Control Measures to Minimise Fire and Explosion Risks

IN THIS SECTION...

• Controls for sources of ignition include: intrinsically safe electrical equipment; controlled use of mobile phones; maintenance and Portable Appliance Testing (PAT); designated smoking areas and use of fire-proof cigarette bins; shielding to block heat/sparks; and separation of ignition and fuel sources.

• Flammable, highly flammable and combustible materials need to be stored in appropriate facilities and used in accordance with a safe system of work.

• The storage of flammable liquids in containers should consider the key factors of Ventilation, Ignition, Containment, Exchange and Separation.

• There are specific requirements for flammable liquids stored in an external open-air storage location, in a facility inside a building, and in a workroom; and also for LPG cylinders.

• Inspection and maintenance programmes for plant and equipment are important in minimising fire risks from flammable liquids and gases.

• After flammable materials have been used in the workplace, safe waste disposal is essential.

• Controls for sources of oxygen include: closing doors and windows; shutting off ventilation systems; and safe use and storage of oxidising materials.

• To support the physical arrangements for the safe storage and use of flammable materials, control measures must be managed by using safe systems of work, safe-operating procedures, planned preventive maintenance programmes, provision of information and training to employees and others, and permits to work.

• Maintenance and construction work can cause disruption to equipment and premises and may lead to particular fire risks. Appropriate controls include proper planning, the management of contractors, daily inspections and the use of permits.

IntroductionA major contributory factor to the risk of fire in the workplace is the use of dangerous substances.

Dangerous substances can be found in most workplaces and include the combustible and flammable materials that we have already considered, such as solvents, paints, varnishes, flammable gases, and flammable dusts.

A useful hierarchy of control measures to minimise fire risks involves:

• Elimination of the risk, so far as reasonably practicable.

• Control of risk by:

– Reducing quantities.

– Avoiding/minimising release.

– Controlling release at source.

– Preventing the development of an explosive atmosphere (e.g. using ventilation).

– Avoiding ignition sources.

– Segregating incompatibles.

DEFINITION

DANGEROUS SUBSTANCES

Any substances used or present at work that could, if not properly controlled, cause harm to people as a result of fire or explosion.


3.2Appropriate Control Measures to Minimise Fire and Explosion Risks

• Mitigation of consequences by:

– Reducing the number of employees exposed.

– Avoiding fires/explosions propagating.

– Using explosion pressure relief.

– Using explosion suppression equipment.

– Constructing plant so that it can withstand the force of the explosion.

– Using suitable personal protective equipment.

• Safe handling, storage, transport (including waste containing dangerous substances).

• Taking general safety measures (including maintenance and safe systems of work).

Control of Sources of IgnitionThis can be achieved in various ways, such as:

• Using intrinsically safe electrical equipment (any arcs or sparks generated in such equipment have insufficient energy (heat) to ignite a flammable or explosive atmosphere).

• Zoning hazardous locations on the basis of the frequency and duration of the occurrence of an explosive atmosphere (gas, vapour, or dust in the air). For example:

– Zone 0 or 20: – A place in which an explosive atmosphere is present continuously, or for long periods of time, or

frequently.

– Zone 1 or 21: – A place in which an explosive atmosphere is likely to occur in normal operation occasionally.

– Zone 2 or 22: – A place in which an explosive atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal operation, but if it does occur,

will persist for a short period only.

• Controlling the use of mobile phones, e.g. in petrol stations, to reduce any risk of ignition from such equipment.

• Maintenance and Portable Appliance Testing (PAT) of portable electrical equipment to reduce the risk of sparking and overheating.

• Designating smoking areas and providing fire-proof cigarette bins to control discarded smoking materials.

• Requiring the use of shielding to block radiant heat and sparks from hot work.

• Applying the principles of fire risk assessment by identifying ignition sources and fuel sources, and maintaining their separation at all times.

Control of Sources of FuelIn order to ensure the safe storage, transport and use of flammable, highly flammable and combustible materials, the following issues need to be considered:

• Storage of incompatible substances and the need for segregation.

• Containment of leaks or spillages.

• Precautions for filling and emptying containers and for dispensing, spraying and disposing of flammable liquids.

• Precautions for the transport of flammable materials:

– Loading and unloading tankers.

– Labelling vehicles.

– Packaging substances.

– Driver training.

Safe storage of flammable and combustible materials is very

important



Safe Storage, Transport and Use of Flammable and Combustible MaterialsVICES is a useful mnemonic from the UK HSE publication HSG51 Storage of Flammable Liquids in Containers (see earlier More… box).

“V Ventilation

Is there plenty of fresh air where containers are stored? Good ventilation means vapours given off from a spill, leak or release will be rapidly dispersed.

I Ignition

Have all sources been removed from the storage area? Ignition sources can vary widely. They include sparks from electrical equipment or welding and cutting tools, hot surfaces, smoking, and open flames from heating equipment.

C Containment

Are your flammable liquids stored in suitable containers? Will a spillage be contained and prevented from spreading to other parts of the storage area or site? A means of controlling spillage would be the use of an impervious sill or low bund. An alternative is to drain the area to a safe place, such as a remote sump or a separator.

E Exchange

Can you exchange a flammable liquid for a less flammable one? This is a basic question you should always ask. Can you eliminate the storage of flammable liquids from your operation altogether?

S Separation

Are flammable liquids stored well away from other processes and general storage areas? Can they be separated by a physical barrier, wall or partition?”

Source: based on HSG51 The storage of flammable liquids in containers (2nd ed.), HSE, 1998

Design and Installation of Flammable Storage FacilitiesFlammable storage facilities are part of the separation strategy and should not be used for other activities, such as decanting, unless strictly controlled. They should be located outside wherever possible, and stocks of flammable liquids should be kept to the minimum possible.

Typical storage area Source: based on HSG51 The storage of flammable liquids in containers (2nd ed.), HSE, 1998



This figure illustrates the main features of an external, open-air storage location, suitable for flammable liquids:

• Secure, impervious, well-ventilated and away from ignition sources.

• Sufficient separation from neighbouring buildings and boundaries:

– 2 metres, for up to 1,000 litres.

– 7.5 metres for quantities above 100,000 litres. These distances can be reduced if fire walls are used as separation.

TOPIC FOCUS

Main design features of an outdoor building used to store flammable liquids in drums:

• Single-storey building constructed of non-combustible materials.

• Lightweight roof for explosion relief.

• Adequate separation from other buildings and the site boundary or firewall protection.

• Good ventilation at high and low levels using air bricks or vents.

• Door sills to contain spillages.

• No potential sources of ignition, such as unprotected electrical equipment.

• Fire extinguishing equipment in or near the store.

• Appropriate signage and prevention of unauthorised access.

Where flammable liquids are stored inside buildings, the storage area should be made fire-resisting by using fire- resisting internal walls and self-closing fire-doors (at least 30 minutes’ fire resistance).

Where flammable liquids are stored in workrooms inside buildings:

• They should be stored in a fire-resisting cabinet.

• The quantity should be limited to:

– 50 litres (for those with flash points below around 32°C).

– 250 litres (for those with flash points above about 32°C).



TOPIC FOCUS

Practical measures to reduce the risk from storage of flammable liquids in the workplace:

• Limit quantities to a maximum of 50 litres inside the working area.

• Keep quantities in excess of 50 litres in a secure, well ventilated and clearly marked storage area outside the workplace and sited a safe distance away from other buildings.

• Use suitable metal containers with non-spill caps for storage.

• Keep containers in a fire-resisting bin or cabinet protected from external damage and with separate storage for incompatible substances.

• Store empty containers away from full ones.

• Prevent ignition sources and use only intrinsically safe electrical equipment.

• Provide appropriate fire-fighting equipment.

• Draw up emergency procedures and bring these to the attention of all employees.

General considerations for any flammable liquid storage facility include:

• Accessibility to fire-fighters.

• Provision of escape routes.

• Fire-fighting equipment (including sprinklers).

• Proper signage.

• Training/instruction of employees on hazards and precautions.

LPG cylinders should be stored:

• Upright.

• With full and empty cylinders stored separately.

• Outside in the open air (but protected from direct sunlight).

• With provision of a dry powder fire extinguisher.

• In a storage area:

– With impermeable hard standing.

– Surrounded by wire mesh security fencing.

– With entry through a locked gate.

– Displaying warning signs such as “HIGHLY FLAMMABLE – LPG” on the fencing.

They should also be segregated from incompatible materials, such as oxidising agents.

Inspection and Maintenance ProgrammesContainment is a key control to minimise risks of fire from flammable liquids and gases, and so inspection for leaks and spillages, followed by prompt maintenance, are important in preventing leaks and maintaining fire precautions. This should include inspection of:

• equipment,

• containers,

• pipework, and

• work areas.



Routine checks are also useful to check that flammable and combustible materials are under control and that fire precaution measures remain effective.

Routine checks

Check Action

Accumulations of combustibles and flammables Empty bins daily and remove litter from spaces below stairs and escalators

Leaks of flammables Ensure that spillages are dealt with

Escape routes, fire exits, fire call points, fire notices, fire detectors and extinguishers/sprinklers

Make sure they are in working order and free from obstruction

Combustibles/flammables Segregate so that rubbish skips are kept away from buildings, paper/card/clothing are not stored next to heaters; strict control of smoking-related materials

Non-essential equipment Turned off when not required

Safe Waste Disposal MethodsAccumulation of flammable waste in the workplace can pose a serious fire risk and should be controlled by preventing its accumulation and making sure that it is disposed of safely. For example:

• Rags contaminated with flammable liquid waste - disposed of in self-closing, fire-resisting bins (paint-soaked rags can sometimes spontaneously ignite).

• Waste flammable liquids (and nominally empty containers) - stored in conditions similar to the original liquid while waiting for disposal by a licensed waste disposal company.

• Different wastes should not be mixed unless compatible.

Site bonfires (only to be used under exceptional conditions) should be well-controlled and:

• Far enough away from any combustibles.

• Limited in size.

• Not contain gas cylinders.

• Not left unattended.

• Not started or accelerated with petrol or other fuels.

Control of Sources of OxygenOxygen is always present in air, but a certain degree of control can be exercised by:

• Closing doors and windows as part of the fire evacuation procedure to limit oxygen supply and attempt to starve the fire.

• Shutting off ventilation and air-conditioning systems which also serve to provide a source of oxygen if fire breaks out. This can be engineered automatically so that the activation of the fire alarm system initiates shutdown of the ventilation system (see also Element 4).

• Safe use and storage of oxidising materials which can give off oxygen or react chemically to oxidise combustible materials and accelerate the combustion process.

Inappropriate disposal of flammable waste can be dangerous



Management of Control MeasuresSafe Systems of WorkTo support the physical arrangements for the safe storage and use of flammable materials, we also need safe systems of work.

Safe systems of work for routine work often involve the use of Safe-Operating Procedures (SOPs). SOPs are written procedures for operating a particular routine process or for dealing with a specific issue (like a flammable liquid spill). They describe a safe method of doing the work, including use of the equipment and tools, and precautions needed. For higher/unusual risk or non-routine activities, safe systems of work usually involve permits to work (see later).

Planned Preventive Maintenance ProgrammesThis type of maintenance programme makes sure that work equipment continues to operate safely and reduces the likelihood of electrical faults or overheating, potential sources of ignition. The planned element means that the frequency of maintenance is specified in advance, and the preventive aspect that it is aimed at preventing breakdowns which may have safety implications.

Safety-critical precautions, such as sprinkler systems, detectors and alarms, also require planned preventive maintenance to ensure their continued reliability.

Management of ContractorsContractors are often involved in maintenance and construction work (see earlier) and require control with regard to:

• Careful selection - (experience, knowledge).

• Induction on to site - (importance of following agreed site rules).

• Co-ordination and monitoring while on site.

Permits to WorkThese are used as part of a safe system of work. A permit to work is a formal document which records that:

• Hazards are identified.

• Precautions are taken.

• All those involved are informed and that the work is authorised.

Permits are commonly used for “hot work” procedures, such as oxy-fuel cutting or welding, and work in confined spaces where a flammable atmosphere may be present.

Safety procedures must be followed

Cutting with an oxyacetylene torch requires a permit to work



TOPIC FOCUS

The safety precautions that should be implemented when using oxy-fuel equipment that relies on the use of a permit-to-work system:

• Train staff (safe use of equipment, precautions, use of fire extinguishers, means of escape, raising alarm).

• Use proper equipment (including means of isolation, pressure regulator, flashback arrester, non-return valves and colour-coded hoses and cylinders).

• Follow a permit-to-work system to include:

– Moving the workpiece to a safe location if possible.

– Removing combustibles within 10 metres of the work, and protecting those which cannot be moved (e.g. use of fire-retardant blankets); don’t forget combustibles hidden in cavities, walls, partitions, and conduction of heat through metal structural members.

– Ventilating spaces where vapours may accumulate.

– Using guards/covers to prevent hot particles passing through openings, e.g. windows, doors and some types of floors.

– Maintaining a continuous fire watch during the process and for at least one hour afterwards.

– Keeping fire extinguishers handy.

– Isolating on a temporary basis any smoke/heat detectors (including provision for reinstatement at the end of the job).

– Work to be authorised by a competent person and time-limited (typically up to one shift with shift handover provision if more time is needed).

Provision of Information and TrainingIn a fire, the immediate actions of those on the premises are critical in preventing loss of life and greatly depend on the information and training that they have received previously. In addition, to ensure that control measures devised to minimise the risk of fire and explosion work effectively, employees and all others in the workplace need information on hazards and controls, and training in safe systems of work and procedures.

Providing health and safety information and training ensures that people know how to work safely, what action to take in the event of a fire and also discharges the legal duty to protect the health and safety of employees and others by providing such information and training.

Building Maintenance and ConstructionMaintenance and construction work involves disruption to equipment and premises and can introduce particular fire risks that need to be carefully controlled. General fire precautions such as:

• escape routes and fire exits,

• fire-fighting equipment,

• alarms,

• emergency plans, and

• fire spread limitation measures such as compartmentation,

must be maintained during the period when the work is carried out.



Disruption can take the form of:

• Detectors and sprinklers left isolated or covered due to hot or dusty work nearby.

• Dismantling of walls that may destroy the integrity of a fire compartment.

• Blocking or re-routing of fire escape routes and exits.

• Temporary storage of combustible building materials and solvents resulting in a higher fire loading.

Management of these control measures will help maintain fire precautions under these circumstances, with particular emphasis on proper planning, the management of contractors, daily inspections, and the use of permits.

STUDY QUESTIONS

2. Outline the precautions to be taken in the storage of flammable substances.

3 Outline the safety measures to impose as part of a hot work permit.



Summary

Summary

This element has dealt with the causes and prevention of fires and explosions.


• Explained the causes of fire in typical work activities with reference to common sources of ignition, fuel and oxygen.

• Examined the fire and explosion risks from flammable materials stored, used and transported within the workplace.

• Considered the specific fire risks associated with construction and maintenance work which arise from site storage of combustible and flammable materials, demolition work, use of oxy-fuel equipment and temporary electrical installations.

• Examined the factors influencing the severity and frequency of an arson attack and the actions necessary to minimise the risk of such an attack.

• Considered the design and installation requirements of storage facilities for flammable materials.

• Examined the requirement for inspection and maintenance programmes to minimise fire risks and the need for safe waste disposal methods.

• Considered the management of control measures to minimise fire risks through the use of safe systems of work, safe-operating procedures, planned preventive maintenance programmes and permits-to-work.

• Examined the requirement to maintain fire protection systems during maintenance and construction work on existing buildings.


Exam SkillsES

Exam Skills

QUESTION

(a) Give TWO reasons why fires started deliberately normally cause more damage than those started accidentally. (2)

(b) Outline the precautions that should be in place to reduce the risk of arson. (6)



1. The first step is to read the question carefully. Note that this question is looking at arson, but you will need to apply your knowledge of the fire triangle to answer part (a). Fires will spread when there is a ready supply of oxygen, fuel and a source of ignition – these are the conditions an arsonist seeks to create.

2. Next, consider the marks available. In this question, there are eight marks, so it is expected that around eight or nine different pieces of information will be provided. This is another question split into sections - this one is split into two sections worth two and six marks respectively. Again, you should find it relatively easy to spot what NEBOSH would require you to include in your answer. The question should take you around eight minutes to answer in the exam.


(a) Give TWO reasons why fires started deliberately normally cause more damage than those started accidentally. (2)

(b) Outline the precautions that should be in place to reduce the risk of arson. (6)

4. Read the question again to make sure you understand it and have a clear understanding of the topic of arson. (Re-read your notes if you need to.)

5. The next stage is to develop a plan – there are various ways to do this. Remind yourself first of all that you need to be thinking about ‘arson’. When you see the command word ‘give’, that’s exactly what you need to do – give without explanation. So, your answer plan will be a word or two. For part (b) the examiners will be looking for an ‘outline’ so you will need to supply the most important features of how to reduce the risk from arson.

Your answer must be based on the key words you have highlighted.

So, in this case, for part (a) you need to give two reasons why deliberate fires cause more damage; for part (b), you need to outline precautions to reduce the risk.


Exam Skills ES


Part (a)

• Accelerants.

• Open windows/doors.

• Unprotected areas.

• Detection defeated.

Part (b)

• Secure perimeter fence/wall.

• External lighting.

• CCTV.

• Authorised staff/visitors only in premises.

• Rubbish bin security and storage.

• Secure flammable liquids/gases.

• Restrict/monitor access keys.

• Parking prohibitions.

• Secure letter boxes.

• Reporting of suspicious behaviour.


(a) Fires started deliberately will cause more damage because accelerants are likely to have been used by the arsonist and windows and doors deliberately left open to fuel the fire.

(b) Precautions to reduce the risk of arson would include having a secure fence or wall around the site to prevent unauthorised entry. External lighting and CCTV cameras fitted around the perimeter of the building will also deter arsonists and reduce risk. The premises should have some form of entry system so that staff no longer employed (particularly through dismissal or redundancy) or unauthorised visitors/contractors are denied access. Rubbish should not be allowed to overflow in external bins, nor should it be stored in an external bin/skip for lengthy periods. Bins/skips should be routinely emptied and stored as far away from the perimeter wall of the premises as possible. Access keys to the premises should be restricted to authorised persons only with a system for recovering any keys if someone is no longer authorised to hold them - restricting access will reduce the risk of arson. Fitting secure metal covers to letter boxes will restrict the ability of the arsonist to post flammable substances through letter boxes, thus reducing risk. Staff members should be encouraged to report suspicious behaviour, i.e. people loitering outside the building or unauthorised to be in the building, to a responsible person to ensure security is maintained.

Reasons for Poor Marks Achieved by Candidates in Exam• Providing excessive detail to part (a) and insufficient detail to part (b) possibly indicating poor time management

or failure to apply the action verbs correctly.

• Failing to separate answers into the different subsections of the question. Candidates must clearly indicate which section of the question they are answering.

• If the examiner cannot read the student’s answer marks cannot be awarded.

Learning Outcomes


Outline the means of fire protection and prevention of fire and smoke spread within buildings, in relation to building construction and design.

Explain the requirements of a means of escape.

Outline the methods and systems available to give early warning in case of fire, both for life safety and property protection.

Outline the selection procedures for basic fire extinguishing methods for both life risk and process risk.

Explain the requirements for ensuring access for the fire service is provided and maintained.

Outline steps to minimise the environmental impact of fire and fire-fighting operations.

4-1© RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 4 - Fire Protection in Buildings

Element 4

Fire Protection in Buildings

4-2 © RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 4 - Fire Protection in BuildingsUnit IFC1: Element 4 - Fire Protection in Buildings © RRC International

Contents

Fire Protection and Prevention of Fire and Smoke Spread Within Buildings 4-3

Elements of Structure 4-3Elements of Structure - Properties for Fire Resistance 4-4Compartmentation 4-4Fire-Resisting Dampers 4-6Internal Fire Growth 4-6Fire-Resisting Walls, Floors and Ceilings 4-8Alarm Systems Linked to Ventilation Systems 4-8Preventing External Fire Spread 4-8Study Questions 4-10

Means of Escape 4-11

Introduction 4-11Principles of Means of Escape and General Requirements 4-11Escape Requirements for Vulnerable People/Those with Disabilities 4-21Study Questions 4-22

Fire Detection and Fire Alarms 4-23

Fire Alarm and Fire Detection Systems 4-23Types of Automatic Detection 4-23Categories of Alarm and Detection Systems 4-25Fire Alarm Zoning 4-25Alarm Signalling 4-26Emergency Voice Communication (EVC) Systems 4-26Alarm Receiving Centres (ARCs) 4-26Manual and Automatic Systems 4-27Selection of Fire Detection and Fire Alarm Systems 4-27Maintenance and Testing of Fire Detection and Fire Alarm Systems 4-29Study Questions 4-29

Selection of Basic Fire Extinguishing Methods 4-30

Provision of Portable Fire-Fighting Equipment and Fixed Installations 4-30Extinguishing Media and Mode of Action 4-30Portable Fire-Fighting Equipment 4-32Fixed Installations 4-34Study Question 4-35

Access for the Fire Service 4-36

Fire-Fighting Vehicle Access 4-36Access to Buildings for Fire-Fighting Personnel 4-37Fire-Fighting Shafts/Stairwells 4-38Liaison with the Fire Authority 4-38Study Questions 4-38

Minimising the Environmental Impact of Fire and Fire-Fighting Operations 4-39

Sources of Pollution in the Event of a Fire 4-39Legal Obligations Related to Environmental Protection 4-39Pre-Planning the Minimisation of Environmental Impact 4-40Site and Damaged Area Clean-Up Considerations 4-40Study Questions 4-41

Summary 4-42

Exam Skills 4-43

4-2 © RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 4 - Fire Protection in BuildingsUnit IFC1: Element 4 - Fire Protection in Buildings © RRC International 4-3

4.1Fire Protection and Prevention of Fire and Smoke Spread Within Buildings

Fire Protection and Prevention of Fire and Smoke Spread Within Buildings

IN THIS SECTION...

• The elements of structure are principally the main load-bearing elements of a building and have a significant influence on structural fire safety.

• The main requirements for fire resistance of elements of structure are resistance to collapse, integrity to prevent fire and smoke penetration, insulation to prevent transfer of excessive heat, and effective fire resistance of fire doors.

• Compartmentation inhibits spread of fire within buildings, but needs to be supplemented with protection of openings in compartment walls and floors, and fire stopping of any gaps.

• Fire-resisting dampers are used in heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning ducts to prevent the spread of fire inside the ductwork.

• Internal fire growth can be increased by building lining materials, and the fixtures, fittings and contents of the building; each of these elements should be considered individually in an attempt to minimise fire spread.

• Fire-resisting walls, floors and ceilings forming escape routes should resist the spread of fire, heat, and the products of combustion for a stipulated period of time.

• Alarm systems linked to forced ventilation systems can automatically shut down the system on activation of the fire alarm.

• External fire spread can be prevented by considering, the construction of external walls and roofs, the distance between buildings, and the activities undertaken at the particular and surrounding premises.

Elements of StructureBuilding construction has a major impact on the spread of fire, and you may find fire safety requirements relating to structural features in local building legislation.

Elements of structure are principally the main structural load-bearing elements of a building with the addition of all compartment walls (which may or may not be load-bearing).

TOPIC FOCUS

Elements of Structure

• Member forming part of the structural frame of a building or any other beam or column.

• Load-bearing wall or load-bearing part of a wall.

• Floor.

• Gallery - a floor which is less than one-half of the area of the space into which it projects.

• External wall.

• Compartment wall - a fire-resisting wall (or floor) used to separate one fire compartment from another.

Planning and designing for fire safety


4.1 Fire Protection and Prevention of Fire and Smoke Spread Within Buildings

Elements of Structure - Properties for Fire ResistanceFor structural elements, fire resistance includes:

• Resistance to collapse:

– Maintenance of load-bearing capacity of load-bearing elements.

• Fire and smoke penetration:

– Maintenance of element integrity to prevent passage of fire/smoke.

• Transfer of excessive heat:

– Maintenance of insulation properties to prevent conduction of heat.

• Resistance of fire doors:

– The period of time a door can successfully hold back the spread of fire.

– Shown as a fire rating, e.g. a fire door with a 30 minute rating, which is the most commonly used in the UK, is shown as FD30.

• Glazing:

– Should hold back the fire without the transfer of flame or hot gases and restrict heat transfer from the fire.

The fire resistance of elements of structure relies on their integrity, and therefore any visible damage that could reduce their effectiveness should be repaired as soon as possible.

CompartmentationCompartmentation reduces the rate of fire and smoke spread and keeps fires relatively small by subdividing the building into smaller fire-resisting units using fire-resisting walls and floors.

The degree of compartmentation needed depends on factors such as:

• Building use/fire load, which determines the likelihood of a fire starting and its severity.

• Building height to the floor of the top storey, which affects ease of evacuation and access by the fire service.

• Presence of sprinklers, which may control and rapidly extinguish a developing fire.

There are situations where compartmentation is necessary:

• A wall common to two buildings.

• Parts of a building largely used for different main purposes, such as an office over a shop.

• Places of special fire hazard (switch rooms, boiler rooms - with enclosure in a fire-resisting structure).

• Storeys with large floor areas in non-residential buildings, such as offices, shops and industrial premises.

• High-rise buildings with storey floors over 30m above ground level (with each floor as a compartment floor).

Compartments should form a complete barrier to fire with:

• No gaps between walls and floors that allow fire to spread between the compartments.

• Sufficient fire resistance of at least 30 minutes, and sometimes considerably longer.

Special types of fire compartment construction are termed protected shafts, such as stairways and service shafts; walls or floors with these features must be made as compartment walls or floors.

DEFINITION

FIRE RESISTANCE

The ability to resist the effects of fire.

Planning and designing for fire safety



Openings in Compartmentation and Fire-StoppingOpenings in compartment walls should be limited to:

• Doors - fire-resistant, with typically at least 30 minutes’ integrity.

• Pipes, ventilation ducts, flues, chimneys, appliance ventilation ducts.

• Refuse chutes - non-combustible.

• Atria.

• Protected shafts.

These openings need to be protected where they pass through the fire compartment wall/floor, in order to maintain the fire resistance of the compartment. Measures include:

• For flues:

– Flue walls are fire-resisting.

• For pipes:

– Proprietary seal, e.g. a penetration seal to maintain the fire resistance of a separating element at the position where pipework passes through.

– Fire-stopping around the pipe where it passes through the compartment.

– Non-combustible sleeving around the pipe, used in conjunction with fire-stopping.

Fire-stopping materials include:

• Cement mortar.

• Gypsum-based plaster.

• Glass fibre.

• Ceramic/resin binder mixtures.

• Intumescent mastics (which expand on the application of heat/flame).

TOPIC FOCUS

Poor fire-stopping leads to:

• Reduction in the level of fire resistance.

• Passage of heat and combustion products through the holes.

• Potential for fire to spread easily between the fire compartments.

• Potential for heat and combustion products to inhibit employees’ escape.

Other reasons for reduced effectiveness of compartmentation in a building:

• Poorly maintained or badly fitting fire doors.

• Fire doors wedged open.

• Absence of, or damage to, intumescent seals.

• Absence of, or poorly maintained, shutters in ducting.

• Poorly fitting or damaged ceiling tiles in fire-resisting false ceilings.

• Absence of, or damage to, fire-resistant glazing.

• Absence of, or damage to, cavity barriers.

DEFINITION

FIRE-STOPPING

A seal to stop or restrict the progression of fire/smoke (but may need to allow for thermal expansion if necessary).



Concealed spaces/cavities, such as ceiling voids (e.g. above a suspended ceiling), roof/loft cavities, and inside stud partition walls are an easy route for smoke/fire. The principal means of control is by use of cavity barriers which:

• Divide up a cavity to act as a barrier to progression of the fire.

• Must have at least 30 minutes’ fire resistance.

• May contain openings, as described above for fire compartments.

Fire-Resisting DuctworkThe distribution of air through ventilation systems can involve ductwork which may extend through the building and penetrate compartment walls and floors. Without suitable fire precautions, ventilation ductwork can provide a route by which fire, smoke and toxic gases can spread rapidly through a building. Under normal circumstances, compartmentation is maintained by fire dampers within ductwork systems (see below). Where fire dampers are not used however, the ductwork itself must provide the same levels of fire resistance as that afforded by the compartment wall or floor.

There are tests to measure the ability of a ductwork system without the aid of fire dampers to resist the spread of fire and smoke from one fire compartment to another. These tests relate to a complete ductwork installation, and the results are expressed in terms of stability, integrity and insulation.

Fire-Resisting DampersFire-resisting dampers are used in heating, ventilation and air-conditioning ducts to prevent the spread of fire inside the ductwork through fire-resistance-rated walls and floors. In the same way that fire doors are provided within compartment walls, dampers are also provided within compartment walls and floors where ducting passes. These allow free access throughout the ducting system normally, but will shut down and prevent the passage of smoke and flames between compartments in the event of a fire.

When a rise in temperature occurs, a thermal element melts, allowing springs to close the damper blades. Fire dampers can also close on receipt of an electrical signal from a fire alarm system, or incorporate intumescent material that reacts to heat by expanding and closing the damper.

There are two main types:

• Mechanical:

– Employs mechanically driven moving parts activated by a thermal release mechanism or fusible link.

– Incorporates a device electrically driven by smoke sensors.

• Intumescent:

– Closes when activated by heat.

– Expands, fusing the grille into a solid block that stops fire spreading.

Internal Fire GrowthThe speed and significance of internal fire growth can be influenced by building and lining materials and the fixtures, fittings and contents of the building. These should all be considered individually when attempting to minimise fire spread.

Lining MaterialsThese are used to line partitions, walls, ceilings, or other internal structures and should:

• Resist the spread of surface flame.

• Not have an unreasonable rate of fire growth and heat release.



Resistance to surface spread of flame is indicated by a class number, with:

• 0 being the highest rating for brickwork, concrete, ceramic tiles and plasterboard used in most circulating spaces and escape routes, and

• 3 being the lowest rating for timber, plywood, hardboard, glass reinforced polyesters used in small rooms for non-residential accommodation.

Unprotected cellular plastic linings (for walls and ceilings) are a particular fire hazard.

OverpaintingMultiple layers of paint can make a previously non-combustible surface dangerous by increasing its potential to burn and spread fire rapidly. An outbreak of fire in a hospital saw a 50-metre corridor in flames within three minutes. The corridor walls were primarily constructed from Class 0 materials but forty years of paint build-up had made the surface highly flammable, reducing the surface classification to a dangerous level.

TOPIC FOCUS

For surface lining materials:

• The risk of fire spread and its growth depend on:

– Ignitability.

– Rates of surface flame spread and heat release.

– Amount of smoke produced.

– Propensity to produce flaming droplets.

• To minimise the risk from fire, surface lining materials should:

– Resist ignition.

– Have a low rate of surface flame spread and heat release, limiting the amount of smoke produced and the rate of fire growth.

• Examples of low-risk surface lining materials include:

– Exposed blockwork.

– Exposed brickwork.

– Mineral fibre board.

– Woodwool slabs.

– Plasterboard and skim.

– Intumescent linings.

Multiple layers of paint can increase fire spread



Fixtures, Fittings and ContentsSeating, workstations, furniture, floor coverings, curtains and blinds are usually made from carbonaceous material and/or plastics, and will therefore contribute to internal fire growth if a fire breaks out, unless treated to be flame-retardant.

Fire-Resisting Walls, Floors and CeilingsTo ensure the safety of people in buildings, it is necessary to protect escape routes from the effects of fire. For new premises, the fire-resisting structure of escape routes should have been assured by the building control process. In older premises, it is possible that the type of construction and materials used may not perform to current fire standards, or that the internal layout has been changed by replacing internal partitions. The requirements for fire-resistant walls, floors and ceilings are:

• Fire-resistant floors and walls should resist the spread of fire, heat and the products of combustion for a stipulated period of time and be constructed of fire-resistant materials, such as brick, block, concrete, ceramic tiles and fire-resistant glazing.

• Fire-resistant ceilings should be constructed of materials that make a negligible contribution to the development of fire and to the production of smoke, and will not break and collapse during the early stages of the fire when evacuation and rescue operations can still be carried out. They may be required to protect and prevent the collapse of steel beams supporting a floor or roof.

Alarm Systems Linked to Ventilation SystemsWe noted the importance of oxygen in the combustion process and its provision by forced ventilation systems in Element 3. This can be controlled by linking the ventilation system to the fire alarm system to ensure its automatic shutdown on activation of the fire alarm. Fire alarm systems are designed primarily to protect the lives of occupants of a building, but more complex versions will also shut down the ventilation system to prevent smoke and toxic fumes from spreading to other parts of the building.

Preventing External Fire SpreadExternal Walls and Roofs, and Distance Between BuildingsAs well as being concerned about internal fire growth, fire resistance is also required for external walls and roofs to resist the spread of fire over the building itself, and from one building to another.

The likelihood and consequences of fire spread between buildings depends on the:

• Size and intensity of the fire in the building concerned.

• Distance between the buildings.

• Fire protection given by their facing sides.

• Risk to people in the other building(s).

Requirements for external walls include:

• Protection of escape routes.

• Load-bearing parts always required to be fire-resisting - to maintain resistance to collapse.

• 30 minutes’ fire resistance for parts next to an external escape route - to protect those escaping from fire inside the building.

External walls of tall buildings must always be fire-resistant - regardless of distance to the boundary.

Non-load-bearing external walls may have variable levels of fire resistance, depending on the separation distance from the boundary:



• Less than 1m - fire-resisting from both sides.

• Greater than 1m - fire resistance on the inside surface.

Roof requirements include:

• Steep-angled roofs (more than 70° from the horizontal) are treated as external walls.

• Non-combustible roof coverings (natural slate) have no restrictions.

• Combustible roof coverings (thatch, wood shingles) must be at least 6m from the boundary.

Use of Premises and Surrounding PremisesThe use of the building, or the Purpose Group that it falls into, affects the degree of fire resistance required to prevent external fire spread. This use of classification represents different levels of hazard:

• Premises used for office-type work - Group 3.

• Factories and other industrial premises used for manufacturing - Group 6.

Factors Affecting Choice of Building MaterialsIn an ideal world, all buildings would be designed and constructed to give 100% fire resistance and zero risk of internal fire spread and growth. This is, however, unlikely to be technically feasible and would be costly and quite possibly unnecessary. A number of factors will influence the choice of building materials:

• The design, layout and size of the building - open plan, high rise or single storey.

• The intended use of the building - office use, explosives manufacture.

• Type of occupancy - vulnerable persons, hospital with immobile patients.

• The fire properties of proposed materials - ignitability, flammability, fire resistance, speed of smoke spread and behaviour in fire.

• Cost and availability.

TOPIC FOCUS

Fire can spread externally between buildings by:

• Flame spread.

• Radiated heat.

• Burning brands and embers.

• Effect of wind.

Methods of minimising external fire spread between buildings include:

• Adequate distance between buildings.

• External walls constructed from material that prevents or reduces the risk of ignition from an external source and limits the surface spread of fire.

• Roof coverings that offer fire protection to increase their resistance to radiated heat and burning embers.

• Limiting the number of openings in adjacent buildings to reduce the amount of thermal radiation that can pass through the wall and affect the neighbouring building.

• Provision of external drenchers to protect nearby buildings from radiated heat.

A building’s use affects its purpose group classification



STUDY QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by an “element of structure” in relation to buildings?

2. What do you understand by the term “fire resistance” in relation to structural elements?

3. What is “fire-stopping”? What measures might be taken to preserve the fire resistance of a compartment wall where a water pipe passes through it?



4.2Means of Escape

Means of Escape

IN THIS SECTION...

• The means of escape provides an accessible, well lit, signed route, protected from fire and smoke, which allows people to escape to a place of safety outside the building.

• All persons within the premises should be able to reach a place of ultimate safety before life-threatening conditions arise. In order to evaluate this, the concepts of Required Safe Egress Time/Available Safe Egress Time (RSET/ASET) are commonly used in fire safety engineering.

• For effective means of escape there should be alternative escape routes, adequate escape distances and an appropriate number and size of escape routes for the number of occupants in the building.

• Other elements of the means of escape include escape stairs, passageways and doors, suitable protection, emergency escape lighting and signage, design for progressive horizontal evacuation, and provision of a final exit to a place of safety.

• Maintenance, inspection and testing are required to manage the effectiveness of the means of escape.

• Vulnerable people and people with disabilities or mobility problems may need the use of evacuation lifts and refuges, visual (including graphical), aural and tactile way-finding and exit sign systems, and also Personal Emergency Evacuation Plans (PEEP).

• For more detailed information on the development and maintenance of fire evacuation procedures, see Element 5.

IntroductionA means of escape:

• Is part of the structure of the building.

• Provides an accessible, well lit, signed route.

• Has fire and smoke removed/restricted for long enough to allow escape to a place of safety:

– Outside the building.

– Beyond a final exit.

– Far enough away from the building so that a person is no longer at significant risk of harm from fire.

Principles of Means of Escape and General RequirementsNormally, alternative means of escape should be provided. However, it is not always possible to get directly to an ultimate place of safety (i.e. outside the building through a final exit) within a reasonable time/distance.

In such circumstances, buildings should be designed so that people can get to a place of relative safety (e.g. protected stairway, protected corridor, storey exit) on a route to a final exit, within a reasonable distance.

For the first part of the journey, the escaping person will initially travel through an unprotected area, and then through a protected area for the remainder.

DEFINITIONS

MEANS OF ESCAPE

Structural means whereby (in the event of fire) a safe route or routes is, or are, provided for persons to travel from any point in a building to a place of safety.

PLACE OF SAFETY

A safe area beyond the premises.


4.2 Means of Escape

The initial unprotected area should be as short as possible.

Lifts (except evacuation lifts for disabled people), portable ladders, throw-out ladders, fold-down ladders, chutes and the like, are not acceptable means of escape.

Alternative Escape RoutesThese should be:

• Available so that a person can escape from anywhere in the building, even if the first choice route turns out to be impassable.

• In directions at least 45° apart from any point in the room to prevent blocking by the same fire.

Dead-end corridors are not normally acceptable.

Place of Ultimate SafetyAll persons within a building should be able to reach a place of ultimate safety, before life-threatening conditions arise, either unaided or with the assistance of staff, but without Fire Rescue Service (FRS) assistance. In order to evaluate this, the concepts of Required Safe Egress Time/Available Safe Egress Time (RSET/ASET) are commonly used in fire safety engineering:

• Available Safe Egress Time (ASET) is the amount of time that elapses between fire ignition and the development of life-threatening conditions of smoke and heat and can be determined from fire modelling.

• Required Safe Egress Time (RSET) is the amount of time measured from fire ignition that is required for occupants to evacuate a building or space and reach the building exterior or a protected exit enclosure. It is the sum of the:

– Alarm time (when occupants first become aware of a fire through a building’s fire alarm system).

– Evacuation delay time (between activation of the alarm and occupants deciding to begin evacuating).

– Movement time (the time required for occupants to reach a protected exit enclosure or the exterior of the building, once the decision to evacuate has been made).

To ensure safe evacuation, the ASET must be greater than the RSET.

Maximum Travel DistancesThe maximum travel distance depends on the level of fire risk, which is dependent on:

• How many escape routes are provided.

• The building use.

The following table gives illustrative examples for horizontal escape (i.e. travel within a storey).

Acceptable alternative escape routes

DEFINITIONS

ESCAPE DISTANCE

The actual distance to be travelled by a person from any point within the floor area to the nearest storey exit, having regard to the layout of walls, partitions and fittings.

STOREY EXIT

A final exit, or a doorway giving direct access into a protected stairway, fire-fighting lobby, or external escape route.


4.2Means of Escape

Escape distance for horizontal escape

Building UseMaximum travel distance to the nearest exit where escape in one

direction only provided (m)

Maximum travel distance to the nearest exit where escape in more than one

direction provided (m)

Industrial – normal risk 25 45

Industrial – high risk 12 25

Shop and commercial 18 45

Office 18 45

Note: The maximum travel distances are to the nearest exit. Any other exits can be further away.

For dead ends:

• The total travel distance to the storey exit (ABC or ABD) should not exceed the guidance figure for “more than one direction”.

• The maximum dead-end travel distance (AB) should also not exceed the “one direction only” figure.

Number and Size of Escape Routes for Number of OccupantsThe greater the number of persons on the premises, the more the number of escape routes needed.

For known occupancy, the following gives guidance on escape routes/exits:

Number of escape routes per occupancy

Maximum number of persons Minimum number of escape routes/exits

60 1

600 2

>600 3

For unknown occupancy, the number of persons on the premises can be estimated by dividing the floor area by a ‘floor space factor’, discounting stairs, lifts and toilets from the calculation. The floor space factor is simply a figure of roughly how much floor space each person needs in a given area. Some examples are given as follows:

Example floor space factors

Area type Floor space factor (m2/person)

Public bars without seating 0.3

Amusement arcade, assembly hall, bingo hall, club 0.5

Factory production area 5

Office 6

Warehouse 30.0

“Dead-end” escape routes


4.2 Means of Escape

Example

In an office area of 600m2 with a floor space factor of 6m2/person, the estimated capacity would be 600/6.0 = 100 people.

From the earlier table (Number of Escape Routes Per Occupancy), a maximum number of 100 persons would need a minimum number of two escape routes.

Occupancy also determines the minimum width required for each escape route and exit:

• 750mm for up to 50 people.

• 850mm for up to 110 people.

The minimum width is greater for areas accessible to disabled people.

An existing exit width will therefore determine the exit capacity for that route.

For example, three exits, each 850mm wide, will give a total exit capacity of 330 people.

Requirements for Escape StairsSo far, we have looked at horizontal escape. In a multi-storey building, we also need to consider vertical means of escape using escape stairs.

The number of escape stairs required depends on:

• The constraints imposed by the requirements for horizontal escape routes to keep within maximum travel distances.

• Whether independent stairs are required in a mixed occupancy building where there are very different use areas with very different fire risks.

• Whether a single stair is acceptable. For example, if independent stairs are not required (see above), basements and small premises which fulfil certain conditions are permitted to have a single stair.

• Provision of adequate width for escape providing for enough total exit capacity.

• Whether the stairs also need to serve as fire-fighting stairs used in larger buildings by the fire brigade.

The width of escape stairs depends on the:

• Exits which lead to them (of equal width).

• Likely number of people using the stairs in a fire emergency.

• Number of floors served.

• Type of evacuation (phased versus simultaneous).

Also, escape stairs should not:

• Be wider than 1400mm (for stairs with a descent of 30m or more), unless fitted with a central handrail to ensure full use of the available width.

• Reduce in width at any point on the way to the final exit to create a bottleneck.

• Be less than 1000mm wide (although some circumstances may allow 800mm).

Internal Escape Stairs

The following requirements are in place so that an adequate level of fire protection for internal escape stairs is achieved:

• Enclosure - internal escape stairs should generally be protected within a fire-resisting enclosure.

• Protected lobby/protected corridor/smoke control system - may be necessary as additional protection where:

– There is only a single stairway serving a multi-storey building.


4.2Means of Escape

– Phased evacuation systems are in operation.

• Discharge to final exit - or to a protected exit passageway leading to a final exit.

• Adjoining (protected) stairways - need to be separated by an enclosure.

• Use of space – kept free of all sources of ignition and fuel.

• External walls – may need additional protection as shown below:

– The stairwell is situated at an ‘internal corner’ of the building façade with part of the building projecting beyond it.

– A fire in the projecting part may make the stairs unusable.

– Fire protection of the side wall of the stairwell should therefore be continued for at least 1800mm into the external wall of the adjacent projecting façade.

• Gas service pipes - should not normally be incorporated into a protected stairway.

Basement Escape Stairs

These are more likely to be filled with smoke:

• A stairway forming a single escape route from upper storeys must not continue on down into the basement.

• The basement stairway should be separate (protected lobby/corridor) from the upper-storey escape route.

External Escape Stairs

These are allowed, provided there is at least one internal escape stair to escape from every part of each storey.

In areas accessible to the public:

• Doors giving access to external escape stairs must be fire-resisting and self-closing.

• The adjacent external wall of the building must be fire-resisting.

• Weather protection must be provided if more than 6m in vertical height.

Passageways/Corridors and DoorsPassageways, corridors and doors along escape routes should meet the following requirements:

• Openings into rooms off escape corridors should be fitted with doors (these do not need to be fire doors).

• Headroom should be at least 2m (though door frames can project below this height).

• Floor surfaces (including stair treads) should be chosen to minimise slipperiness when wet.

• Ramps should be designed to comply with requirements for access for disabled people.

• Slopes should not be greater than 35° to the horizontal.

• Final exits should be:

– At least as wide as the minimum required for the escape routes that lead to them.

– Sited to aid rapid escape away from the vicinity of the building, e.g. straight onto a street.

• Any doors along the escape route should:

– Be easily opened.

– Open in the direction of escape and to at least 90°.

– Be fitted with vision panels.

– Not be revolving, turnstiles or automatic.

Extended side wall protection of protected stairways


4.2 Means of Escape

Door Release DevicesWhere self-closing fire doors cause serious restriction in the movement of people within a building, automatic door release mechanisms may be installed.

Automatic door releases should be triggered by each, or any, of the following:

• Detection of smoke by automatic detection.

• Actuation of an alarm from a manual fire alarm call point.

• Failure of the fire warning system.

It should then fail to safety (release the door to closed).

Protection of Escape RoutesCorridors must have fire-resistant walls and self-closing fire doors in the following circumstances:

• Corridors serving a bedroom.

• Most dead-end corridors where escape is in only one direction.

• Most corridors common to two or more different occupancies.

Where an escape route needs to be enclosed by a fire-resistant construction, 30 minutes’ fire resistance is generally adequate.

TOPIC FOCUS

Items that should not be located on protected routes:

• Heaters, either portable, gas supplied or with naked flames.

• Cooking appliances.

• Upholstered furniture.

• Coat racks.

• Electrical equipment.

• Lighting using naked flames.

• Gas boilers, pipes or meters.

• Unprotected notice boards and display materials.

• Open shelving with documents.

Fire doors have a minimum fire resistance of 30 minutes’ integrity and resist the passage of smoke.

Where a corridor (more than 12m long) connects two or more storey exits, it needs to be subdivided by self- closing fire doors to prevent being blocked by smoke.

Similarly, dead-end corridors must be fire protected. Where the dead end exceeds 4.5m in length, it must be separated from the main corridor with self-closing fire doors to stop smoke cutting off both alternatives, as illustrated in the figure.

Dead-end and main corridors


4.2Means of Escape

Fire-Resistant DoorsFire-resistant doors prevent the spread of fire and smoke, protect the means of escape, and segregate areas of special risk.

Fire resistance must be complete across the door assembly and all components, including door seal and glazing, must be capable of achieving this.

The fire door must be correctly fitted into the corridor or protected stairwell and this requires that the:

• Frame is of the correct size and material, and installed correctly.

• Gaps between the frame and wall are correctly filled.

• Correct intumescent seals are used.

• Vision panels are correctly formed and glazed.

• Correct closer is fitted.

TOPIC FOCUS

Features of a fire-resisting door set:

• The door is fitted with:

– Three hinges to maintain integrity.

– A positive self-closing device.

– A “keep closed” sign at eye level.

– Intumescent strips and smoke seals to prevent the passage of combustion products.

• The door provides a good fit for the frame and closes correctly.

• If the door contains a window it is made from Georgian wire or insulated glass.

Fire doors should be regularly inspected and maintained to ensure their continued effectiveness, particularly to check that:

• The door closes effectively from any angle of opening using only the door closer.

• There are no foreign bodies or other objects obstructing the door.

• Any smoke seals are correctly fitted and undamaged.

• The door has not dropped on its hinges.

• The door closing arm is effective.

• Glazing is secure and intact.

• Door hold-open devices are working effectively.

• Doors are not wedged open.

Fire doors may not provide the required fire resistance if they:

• Have been incorrectly specified - excessively large gaps around the frame or at the bottom of the door that will allow smoke and fire penetration.

• Are inappropriately used - wedging fire doors open will allow the fire to travel past the fire barrier in which the door is placed.


4.2 Means of Escape

TOPIC FOCUS

A fire-resisting door may not provide adequate protection in the event of a fire because:

• The door is wedged open, possibly with a fire extinguisher.

• A gap exists around the door frame due to incorrect specification or poor fitting.

• Smoke seals are damaged or the intumescent strips have been removed.

• Glazing is damaged or has been replaced with glass of inadequate fire resistance.

• The door is warped or does not close properly due to an obstruction or a damaged closure.

• Fire integrity of the door has been reduced following unauthorised and poor alteration work.

• Door hinges have failed through incorrect installation, poor workmanship and lack of maintenance.

• The door has been repeatedly painted with solvent-based paints.

Emergency Escape Lighting (EEL)Emergency Escape Lighting (EEL) is independent of the main lighting and activated by battery power when the main lighting fails. Batteries are kept on permanent charge under normal conditions and are typically designed to last at least an hour. Lighting supplying escape stairs should be on a separate circuit from any other escape route lighting.

EEL is required in escape routes in workplaces in:

• Underground/windowless areas.

• Internal corridors more than 30m long.

• Open-plan areas more than 60m2.

• Most stairways.

It should:

• Provide enough light to allow people to move along the route.

• Clearly indicate the escape route itself.

• Allow for easy location of fire call points.

Types of emergency escape lighting schemes include:

• Non-maintained:

– Emergency light units only illuminate in the event of a mains failure.

• Maintained:

– Emergency light units are illuminated at all times using the same lamps for both normal and emergency operation.

• Sustained:

– Emergency light units are fitted with two sets of lamps (mains 240V AC supply and battery supply in the event of mains failure).

EEL luminaires should be located at mandatory ‘points of emphasis’ to reveal specific hazards, highlight safety equipment and signs, and provide illumination to assist safe travel along the escape route.

Emergency generators can be used to maintain the lighting system in the event of mains failure, but the time delay in activation makes them an unacceptable alternative to emergency escape lighting.


4.2Means of Escape

TOPIC FOCUS

Positioning of emergency escape lighting:

• Where no natural light occurs or the workplace is used in hours of darkness.

• Along corridors and at corridor intersections.

• At each change of direction.

• Near internal or external stairs so each tread receives direct light.

• Near to any other level change.

• At moving stairways and walkways.

• Near fire-fighting equipment and fire alarm call points.

• At each exit door intended to be used in an emergency.

• Outside and near to each final exit.

• In fire refuges.

• In generator, control and plant rooms.

• In lift cars.

• In large or disabled toilet facilities.

• At exit routes from covered car parks.

Emergency Escape SignageSigns should clearly indicate the escape routes.

Internationally-recognised escape route signs have white pictograms on a green background and are placed on doors, exits and escape routes. Text may be used to supplement the signs.

Progressive Horizontal EvacuationEvacuation is progressive to adjoining compartments on the same horizontal level and it enables evacuation to a place of relative safety.

It is used in places such as residential care homes and hospitals where it would be difficult to evacuate patients to an ultimate place of safety in one move.

Further evacuation to the ultimate place of safety can take place if it should prove to be necessary.

The following figure shows a suitable design:

Examples of emergency escape signs


4.2 Means of Escape

Progressive horizontal evacuation

Final Exit to a Place of SafetyThe purpose of the means of escape is:

• to provide an accessible, well lit/signed route where fire/smoke are removed/restricted;

• for long enough to allow escape beyond a final exit; and

• to allow escape to a place outside the building which is sufficiently far away from the building that a person is no longer at significant risk of harm.

Fire Action Notices will tell people how to get to a place of safety


4.2Means of Escape

Management Actions to Maintain Means of EscapeIn order to be effective, the physical means of escape must be actively maintained to avoid:

• Fire doors left wedged open.

• Corridors and exits blocked with furniture.

• Fire exits left locked/chained.

• Combustibles stored under stairs.

• Failed emergency lighting.

• Damaged wall/ceiling linings.

There are many other examples which might compromise fire integrity.

It is therefore important to have a proactive maintenance, testing and inspection routine as required, such as:

• Weekly/monthly checks of emergency escape lighting.

• Annual full system checks.

• Regular inspections of escape routes to check such things as:

– Housekeeping.

– Unobstructed routes.

– Proper closing of fire doors.

– Adequate signage.

Any deficiencies found should be dealt with promptly.

Escape Requirements for Vulnerable People/Those with Disabilities

TOPIC FOCUS

Vulnerable Person

Commonly defined as:

• Elderly persons (over 60).

• Children under 10 years of age.

• Mentally or physically impaired persons.

• Those who are mentally ill or depressed.

• Persons on medication.

• Known substance abusers (alcohol or drugs).

Disability

Includes impairment to:

• Hearing.

• Vision.

• Mobility.

Access requirements for disabled people may mean that minimum dimensions given for exits and corridors have to be increased, and extra room may be needed in a corridor to turn a wheelchair into the exit doorway.


4.2 Means of Escape

Safe evacuation of disabled people requires a combination of building structural design elements as well as procedural measures. Additional measures which may be required to take account of people with disabilities are:

• Evacuation lifts:

– Specifically for the use of disabled people during an emergency.

– Designed to maintain operation during such an emergency (whereas normal lifts are not).

– Fitted with an override control inside the car so that a person inside can take control of the lift and take it to the floor from which disabled people need to be evacuated.

• Refuges:

– Fire-protected areas which offer temporary relative safety, until full evacuation, if it should be necessary.

– Useful where a disabled person has to wait for help for full evacuation (such as to negotiate stairs) or needs to rest.

– Generally located on each storey, within an enclosure (e.g. compartment or protected stairwell/lobby/corridor) and close to an evacuation lift.

• Visual (including graphical) escape route signage: supplemented with that specifically designed to help people with disabilities, e.g. ‘wheelchair’ pictogram, clearly indicating the route for disabled people.

• Tactile emergency exit signs: with both the words and pictograms in relief and supplemented with braille text.

• Continuous handrails/use of strongly contrasting colours: can help people with visual impairment but who retain some sight.

• Tactile route maps and indications of facilities (ramps/stairs): help recognition of building layout.

• Audible way-finding systems: sound localisation systems.

• Personal Emergency Evacuation Plans (PEEP): specific to the individual with the disability who may need:

– To go to a particular location, such as a refuge or evacuation lift.

– Particular means of being alerted to a fire, such as visual strobes and trembler alarms/pagers.

– Help from specific individuals during the evacuation (e.g. buddy systems).

STUDY QUESTIONS

4. Define a ‘means of escape’:

5. Under what circumstances might you need a protected lobby as additional protection for internal escape stairs?

6. What is meant by ‘progressive horizontal evacuation’ and under what circumstances might it be used?



Fire Detection and Fire Alarms 4.3

Fire Detection and Fire Alarms

IN THIS SECTION...

• Automatic fire detection equipment detects a fire even if the building is unoccupied, or the occupants are asleep and usually initiates an alarm system.

• Fire detection is based on sensitivity to temperature rise, smoke or other combustion products, or radiation such as infrared, visible and ultraviolet.

• Alarm and detection systems are divided into categories which relate to the objective of the system: protection of life, property, or manual operation.

• Zoning divides a building into smaller areas and can help speed up the process of locating the seat of a fire in a large building.

• Alarms may be audible or visual, manual, or automatic systems, and linked into alarm receiving centres.

• An Emergency Voice Communication (EVC) system allows the emergency services and others to communicate with one another during emergency situations.

• The selection of fire detection and fire alarm systems is based on a number of factors, including life risk, process risk, behavioural issues, social behaviour and the need to minimise false alarms, and the requirements for vulnerable people/those with disabilities.

• Fire detection and alarm systems should be routinely serviced at intervals based on the fire risk assessment.

Fire Alarm and Fire Detection SystemsAutomatic fire detection equipment usually initiates some form of alarm system since, the purpose of detection is to alert occupants to the presence of a fire; the simple ‘domestic’ smoke detector which has an integrated alarm is a good example.

Types of Automatic DetectionAutomatic detection systems detect a fire even if the building is unoccupied or the occupants are asleep. Such systems are therefore especially suitable for areas of a building infrequently visited, such as storage areas, and residential properties.

Operation of the detector is based on sensitivity to one or more of the following:

• Heat (i.e. temperature or rate of temperature rise).

• Smoke or other combustion products.

• Radiation emitted by the fire (i.e. electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared (IR), visible and ultraviolet (UV)).

Types of equipment available include:

• Heat Detectors

The two main types of automatic heat sensors are:

– Fusion - where particular alloys melt and either break, or make a circuit and sound an alarm; the alloys have to be replaced each time the detector operates.

MORE...

You may find it helpful to refer to the following publications:

• The UK Building Regulations Approved Document B provides general information on the selection of fire detection and alarm systems.

• BS 5839, Part 1 covers fire detection and alarm system design, installation and maintenance.

• BS 5839 2004, Part 6 relates to fire resistance in dwellings but differentiates the appropriate grades of fire detection systems for dwellings depending on size, number of storeys and use.


Fire Detection and Fire Alarms4.3

– Expansion - where a contained metal, air or liquid sensor expands to create a circuit and sound the alarm. These sensors usually re-set themselves after operation when the conditions have cooled.

Heat detectors may be designed to operate:

– At a pre-selected temperature (fixed-temperature type).

– On a rapid rise in temperature (rate-of-rise type).

With both types, thermal lag (the time it takes for the detector to respond to the fire’s heating effect) needs to be considered when choosing the operating temperature.

• Carbon Monoxide Detectors

Slow, smouldering fires emit detectable levels of carbon monoxide well before they emit smoke; the gas can be detected by an electrochemical cell.

• Smoke Detectors

There are two types of automatic smoke/fumes detector:

– Ionisation devices - ionise the air in a chamber generating a small current that is reduced when smoke particles enter the device, triggering the alarm.

– Optical devices - work in one of two main ways: – Smoke scatters light from a light source held within a chamber

so that it falls onto a photo-electric cell and triggers the alarm. – Smoke obscures a light beam, reducing its intensity at a photo-

electric cell, and triggers the alarm.

• Laser Detectors

These are similar in principle to the optical types (see above) except that they use scattering or obscuration of laser beams.

• Radiation Detectors

Flames from a fire emit ultraviolet and infrared radiation which can be detected by appropriate sensors.

These sensors are capable of very rapid detection, but their effectiveness depends on the detector having a clear ‘view’ of all parts of the protected area.

• Photo-Thermal Detectors

These detect both temperature variations as well as smoke density, and are far less prone to false alarms than smoke detectors.

Not all detectors are equally sensitive in every possible situation and, in some cases, a combination of different detectors may be required. For example:

• Smoke and heat detectors are suitable for most buildings, but may be triggered by other particulates, such as steam or a temperature increase, which may occur routinely, such as in boiler houses.

• Radiation detectors are particularly useful for high-roofed buildings, e.g. warehouses and situations in which clean-burning flammable liquids are kept, but to be effective need a direct view of the source of flame.

• A more robust detector is necessary in an industrial setting than in a hotel, and dusty and damp atmospheres will affect some detectors more than others.

• False alarms quickly reduce the effectiveness of the detection system and it would obviously be undesirable to install a smoke detector set at high sensitivity in a busy kitchen, for example. However, we have seen that combined detectors such as photo-thermal detectors, which detect temperature variations as well as smoke density, are less prone to false alarms.

Smoke detector



Automatic fire detection systems primarily initiate an alarm signal, discussed below, but can be linked into other systems and equipment, such as automatic fire door closure or the activation of fire extinguishing systems.

Categories of Alarm and Detection SystemsAlarm and detection systems can be divided into categories which relate to the objective of the system (the following is from BS 5839, Part 1: 2013).

• Category L (Life Protection)

This category covers automatic fire detection systems with the objective of protecting people from loss of life or injury.

Systems are subdivided into:

– L1: installed throughout the building.

– L2: installed only in defined parts of the building.

– L3: installed only for the protection of escape routes.

– L4: installed only on common parts of the escape routes, e.g. circulation areas such as stairs and corridors.

– L5: installed to satisfy a particular fire safety objective (not already covered in L1 to L4 such as might arise from a fire risk assessment).

• Category M (Manual Alarm Systems)

This category relates to manual systems which are reliant on people in buildings discovering the fire and using manual ‘break glass’ call points and sounders. Such systems are often combined with categories P and/or L to meet insurance requirements.

• Category P (Property Protection)

These are automatic fire detection systems with the objective of limiting potential fire damage to a building and its contents.

Systems are subdivided into:

– P1: installed throughout the building.

– P2: installed only in defined parts of the building.

Fire Alarm ZoningZoning divides a building up into smaller areas and can help speed up the process of locating the seat of a fire in a large building.

For a simultaneous evacuation alarm, no zoning is necessary since everyone needs to be alerted in the same way; the whole building is a single zone.

If alarms need to be operated differently in different parts of the building, then zoning requirements are (BS 5839-1):

• Ensure that alarm zone boundaries coincide with:

– Fire-resisting construction.

– Detection zone boundaries.

• Eliminate confusion that may be caused by signal overlap between zones.

• Use consistent alarm and alert signals throughout a building.

• Make sure that a detection zone does not contain multiple alarm zones.

The zoning system should be recorded in a zone plan to indicate clearly how the building has been divided up. Such



plans provide a valuable record of the system and will aid the Fire and Rescue Service in the event of an emergency.

Alarm SignallingAlarms may be:

• Audible, e.g. sirens, bells, verbal instructions over a public address-type system.

• Visual, e.g. strobes, flashing lights, message boards, video screens used if ambient noise level is very high or as a supplementary measure for those with a hearing impairment.

Verbal message alarms can be used to give very specific instructions and are effective in generating a rapid response when members of the public are involved.

The most common alarm signal is the electric bell or sounder, automatically activated when a fire is detected.

Essential requirements are that:

• The alarm should be capable of being heard throughout the workplace:

– Enough alarms to take account of possible system faults.

– Alarms must be loud enough:

– Generally, at least 65dB (or 5dB above ambient).

– Higher noise levels are required to wake a sleeping person (75dB).

• All signals should be the same, or similar, throughout the building to avoid confusion.

• Alarms/signals requiring mains power to have a backup power supply in case power is cut off during the fire.

It is important to consider the limitations of any alarm:

Audible Visual

May be difficult to hear over background noiseMay not be visible to everyone from their

position

Relies on people to recognise it as a warning and react accordingly May go unnoticed

Inefficient for those with a hearing disability Its significance may not be understood

May be ineffective where a language barrier exists Ineffective for those with a visual impairment

Emergency Voice Communication (EVC) SystemsAn Emergency Voice Communication (EVC) system allows the emergency services and others to communicate with one another during emergency situations. The system also allows communication with disabled persons.

An example is the disabled refuge system where people who cannot easily use fire escapes and evacuation lifts can call for assistance and wait until help arrives at the refuge. The EVC system provides two-way communication to assist rescue teams in determining where assistance is required and reassure people using the refuge that help is on the way.

Alarm Receiving Centres (ARCs)An Alarm Receiving Centre (ARC) receives a message when a fire alarm is activated and calls out the fire brigade. The advantage is that no on-site presence is required, and even if the site is unoccupied, the fire service is quickly alerted.

Alarms must be loud enough to be heard



Manual and Automatic SystemsManually-operated devices, such as gongs or bells, may be adequate for very small or low-risk establishments.

Manually-activated alarms with a ‘break glass’ call point are common in larger workplaces. Manual call points should be located:

• On escape routes near exits.

• Near specific hazards such as flammable liquid stores.

• Within 45m of building occupants (or less, depending on factors such as occupant mobility).

Manual systems are often supplemented with automatic systems, depending on the nature of the risk, to ensure that the alarm is raised regardless of whether the building is occupied.

Selection of Fire Detection and Fire Alarm SystemsSelection of an appropriate fire detection and alarm system depends generally on the level of risk. The following factors need to be considered:

• Life risk and process risk - the objective of the detection and alarm system will determine, to a large extent, the system design:

– If the objective is to protect life, a Category L design will be appropriate (e.g. hospitals).

– If process/building is important for business continuity reasons, a Category P system should be installed (e.g. arson may be a big risk).

The level (L1-L5, P1-P2) will be decided by the outcome of the fire risk assessment.

Note that automatic fire detection is essential in sleeping accommodation or care facilities.

• Behavioural issues and social behaviour - the public react quicker to clear, precise verbal messages rather than to bells/sirens. A ‘staff’ evacuation system may be required, where staff are alerted first by separate alarms/pagers or a coded message so that they can get to pre-arranged positions and then help the public when the general alarm is sounded.

• Minimising false alarms - false alarms in a workplace condition people into thinking that every alarm will be false, which delays evacuation when there is a real emergency.

False alarms occur due to:

– Fire detection equipment activated through fault or accident.

– Intentional hoax calls.

– Mistaken belief that there is a genuine fire when there’s not.

Key factors in reducing the number of false alarms include:

– Detector type/location - not all detectors are suitable for every location.

– Measures to prevent stray signals which might cause unintentional activation.

– Proper commissioning before systems are brought fully online to identify potential faults.

– Incorporation of false alarm filtering systems: – ‘Voting’ systems (i.e. at least two detections from three detectors).

– Time delays (check the genuineness of an alarm before calling the fire service).

– Routine maintenance/servicing.

A common cause of false alarms is the incorrect selection or location of fire detectors. The following summarises the key issues.



Appropriate use of fire detectors

Detector Type Comments

Smoke detector

Optical-type

• Good at detecting dense smoke from slower smouldering fires.

• Not sensitive to low levels of ‘invisible’ smoke.

• Less prone to false alarms than the ionisation type.

• Recommended for escape routes.

Ionisation-type

• Very sensitive to smoke containing small particles from more rapidly developing fires.

• Prone to false alarms from steam or dust.

General

• Not to be used in kitchens.

• Unsuitable in:

– Rooms where toasters are used.

– Locations close to kitchens.

– Rooms in which people smoke.

– Bathrooms and other rooms which are likely to contain steam.

– Areas with high concentrations of dust or engine exhaust fumes.

– Areas close to windows that open.

Photo-thermal detector

• Use in areas which would be unsuitable for smoke detectors (less prone to false alarms).

Radiation detectors (IR, UV)

• Useful for:

– High-roofed buildings (e.g. warehouses).

– Areas where clean-burning fuels kept (so little smoke produced).

• Laser beam IR detectors are useful in tall compartments or long cable tunnels.

Carbon monoxide fire detectors

• Very useful for rapid detection where slow, smouldering fires are likely and where little or no smoke may be produced.

Heat detectors

General

• Good in areas where:

– Smoke/steam/dust are present under normal conditions.

– Fires would burn with little or no smoke.

• The rate-of-rise type is the most sensitive.

• Fixed temperature types are good for areas where there might be frequent rapid temperature swings (kitchens, boiler rooms).

• Requirements for vulnerable people/people with disabilities:

– Manual call points sited at a position that wheelchair users can reach - mounting heights and maximum distances to travel to reach the nearest call point need to be lowered for routes accessible to disabled people.

– The need for trembler and visual alarms would be included in Personal Emergency Evacuation Plans (PEEP).



Maintenance and Testing of Fire Detection and Fire Alarm SystemsFire detection and fire alarm systems should be routinely serviced at intervals, based on the fire risk assessment. This interval should not exceed six months (BS 5839-1), with simpler checks conducted more frequently:

• Daily - check the control panel for any fault indications.

• Weekly - conduct a planned test by operating a different manual call point each week, checking that:

– Personnel are familiar with the sound of the alarm.

– Alarms can be heard (or seen, if visual) throughout the building.

– Message-type alarms can be understood.

• Periodic/routine inspection – carried out every six months to include:

– Visual checks of the equipment.

– Check logs for false alarms.

– Test operation of backup power supply.

– Check controls/indicators/remote signalling equipment.

– Test for correct operation of all call points and fire detectors (this may be scheduled over several visits).

Certification may be necessary to cover design, installation, commissioning, acceptance, inspection and servicing of the fire detection and alarm system.

STUDY QUESTIONS

7. Outline the general modes of operation of fire detection systems.

8. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of the different types of smoke detector:

9. How might false alarms occur in the workplace and how might they be reduced?


Regular checks of all aspects of the alarm system are essential

MORE...

You can access the CFPA-Europe Guideline No 23:2010 F – Securing the operational readiness of fire control systems at:

www.cfpa-e.eu/cfpa-e-guidelines/guidelines-fire-protection


Selection of Basic Fire Extinguishing Methods4.4

Selection of Basic Fire Extinguishing Methods

IN THIS SECTION...

• Fire extinguishers use water, foam, dry powders, special powders and carbon dioxide as extinguishing agents.

• The provision of portable fire-fighting equipment and fixed installations, depends on the classification of fire anticipated, and the floor area and fire loading of the premises to be protected.

• Portable fire-fighting equipment should be sited in appropriate locations, regularly maintained, and likely users trained in its operation.

• Fixed installations, such as sprinkler, gas flooding and drencher systems, and hose reels, provide a permanent means of extinguishing fires in high-risk installations.

Provision of Portable Fire-Fighting Equipment and Fixed InstallationsFires are classified into the following categories to help in the selection of the appropriate extinguishing agent.

Class A

Fires involving mainly organic solids (wood, paper, plastics, etc.).

Class B

Fires involving flammable liquids (such as petrol, paint, oils) and liquefiable solids (such as fats, waxes, greases but excluding cooking oils/fats).

Class C Fires involving gases (such as butane, propane).

Class D Fires involving certain metals (such as sodium, magnesium, aluminium).

Class F

Fires involving commercial deep fat/oil fryers.

Electricity is not considered a separate class since, once isolated, the fire can be treated according to the burning materials (typically Class A). However, water and some foam fire extinguishers should never be used on live electrical equipment, due to the fact that electricity may be conducted from the fire, through water to the fire-fighter’s body resulting in electric shock.

Extinguishing Media and Mode of ActionThe mode of operation of extinguishing media is principally based on the fire triangle:

• Cooling (to remove heat).

• Smothering (to exclude oxygen).

Some extinguishing media work at a more fundamental level by inhibiting the combustion reaction mechanism.

The fire triangle


Selection of Basic Fire Extinguishing Methods 4.4

The main extinguishing agents are:

• Water – The most effective extinguishing agent for Class A fires.

– Cheapest and most readily available extinguishing medium.

– Principally cools the material.

– Small jet restricts coverage.

– Spray types have a reduced throw.

– Not to be used on electrical equipment or flammable liquids.

– Surplus water may cause water damage to materials and property.

• Foam – Particularly good for Class B fires and can also be used on some Class A fires.

– Has the ability to reduce the risk of a fire re-igniting.

– Forms a layer on top of the burning liquid, preventing oxygen reaching it and the further escape of vapour.

– Has the ability to freeze, so avoid locating in cold conditions.

• Dry Powders – Effective on fire Classes A, B and C.

– Can also be used on live electrical equipment.

– Capable of extinguishing fire more rapidly than foam.

– Have a smothering effect on the fire and also chemically inhibit the combustion mechanism.

– Risk of re-ignition because they offer little or no cooling.

– Very messy to use even on a small fire.

– Can disorientate and obscure vision.

– Powder may affect some people medically, e.g. asthma sufferers.

• Special Powders – Developed for use on Class D (metal) fires.

– A variety of specialist powders are available, depending on the metals concerned.

– May have to be shovelled onto fires, as they may be used on bulk storage.

– Operators need to be properly trained.

• Vaporising Liquids – Produce a heavy vapour which extinguishes the fire by excluding oxygen.

– Safe to use on Class A and B fires.

– Effective on fires involving live electrical equipment.

– Halons, widely used in portable fire-fighting equipment, have been banned in many countries since 1994 and are being phased out in others.

– Halotron is a vaporising liquid that has been developed to be ozone-friendly, leaves no residue and requires no clean-up.

• Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

– Very good for use on live electrical equipment (the gas can get right inside the equipment).

– Also works on smaller Class B fires.

– Smothers by displacing the oxygen.

– Does not cause property or material damage.



– Risk of re-ignition because of little or no cooling.

– Oxygen is depleted in the immediate discharge vicinity so there is a danger of asphyxiation if used in relatively confined spaces.

– May be ineffective if used externally because the gas dissipates quickly and re-ignition can easily recur.

– Discharge of the gas can be very noisy and may alarm users.

– The discharge horn can get very cold.

– The gas may be ineffective if the user can’t get close enough to the fire.

• Wet Chemical – Uses an alkaline liquid solution that reacts with the hot fat/oil to produce a soapy layer that traps vapours,

excludes oxygen, and provides some cooling.

– Used on Class F fires.

– If used correctly, reduces the risk of re-ignition.

– Expensive to purchase and refill.

• Fire Blankets – Used on fat or solvent fires.

– Smother the flames and exclude oxygen.

– Risk of re-ignition because of little or no cooling.

– Siting is critical as they need to be readily available.

– Operator training is important in the technique required to place the blanket safely onto the fire.

Class C (Flammable Gas) Fires• Extinguished by isolating the supply (e.g. closing the supply valve), so removing the fuel.

• Usually left to burn until the supply can be isolated.

Portable Fire-Fighting EquipmentPortable fire extinguishers are made up of the following main parts:

• Container (some form of cylinder).

• Extinguishing medium, e.g. water.

• Discharge/operating valve.

• Hose (or horn) for directing the discharge.

• Some form of pressurisation system to propel the extinguishing medium out of the cylinder:

– Stored pressure (i.e. kept under constant pressure).

– Pressurising cartridge (which, when punctured, releases a gas which pressurises the cylinder).

The cylinder body is coloured red but the UK also uses an additional colour-coded label, depending on the contents (local regulations may vary):

• Water (red).

• Foam (cream).

• Carbon dioxide (black).

• Dry powder (blue).

• Wet chemical (yellow).

Pressure gauge on cylinder



TOPIC FOCUS

Points to consider when positioning portable fire extinguishers:

• Place in conspicuous positions, clearly indicated, along escape routes and near exit doors.

• Where possible, group with other extinguishers into a ‘fire point’.

• Mount properly with the top around 1m off the ground, or stand on a base plate.

• Locate special extinguishers, such as for Class D metal fires, close to their respective risk.

• Site extinguishers in multi-storey occupancies at a similar location on each floor.

• Avoid placing them in locations where there are extremes of temperature or corrosive environments.

When deciding how many extinguishers are needed, there is a system of extinguisher ratings which describe the ability of the extinguisher to do its job. This can be used along with floor area, or likely spillage of flammable liquid, to determine the number of extinguishers required.

The maintenance requirements for portable fire extinguishers involve a system of checks:

• Monthly visual inspection to ensure the extinguisher:

– Is still where it is supposed to be.

– Is not obstructed.

– Has not been discharged, lost pressure or suffered damage.

• Basic annual service carried out by a competent person to include:

– An internal check of the extinguisher contents, any internal corrosion, the means of pressurisation.

– Checks on hoses for blockages and on the working of any internal mechanisms.

• Extended service or overhaul:

– Testing the intended operation of the extinguisher by discharging the contents, generally every five years (10 years for primary sealed powder type).

– For carbon dioxide extinguishers an overhaul every 10 years to test discharge and also a pressure test of the extinguisher body.

It is generally recommended that fire extinguishers should be replaced when they are 20 years old.

Portable extinguishers are not designed to be used on anything other than very small fires, but people still need to be trained in how to use them. Training should cover:

• The principles of how to operate an extinguisher.

• The importance of using the correct type of extinguisher for the correct class of fire.

• How to discharge different types of extinguisher.

• Recognition that raising the alarm takes precedence over fighting a fire.

• When, and when not, to tackle a fire (the importance of size).

• When to leave a fire that has not been extinguished.



Fixed InstallationsFixed systems are permanent design fixtures of a building, may be automatic or manual, and are made up of a system of pipes together with discharge heads at fixed points in the workplace. They tend to be installed in high-risk situations:

• Sprinklers have independent, sealed discharge heads and only the sprinkler(s) in the vicinity of the fire is/are actually activated. Water and also foam sprinkler systems are in common use:

– In wet riser systems, the pipes are permanently charged with water in a state of constant readiness.

– In dry riser systems, the pipes above the main control valve are filled with compressed air which holds back the pressurised water below until a sprinkler head is activated and the water flows. These systems are used where frost damage is likely, such as in cold stores.

Both types are connected to the mains water supply and use sprinkler heads which are activated by the presence of fire (e.g. fusible link).

• Gas flooding systems make the atmosphere inert by the displacement of oxygen with inert gas, such as carbon dioxide. Such systems may be used where water or foam might otherwise damage sensitive equipment or valuable archives.

• Drencher systems provide a curtain of water to protect parts of a building from the radiant heat of a nearby fire.

• Hose reels are permanently connected to a water supply and are used in addition to portable water fire extinguishers. The valve controlling the water supply may be opened automatically as the hose is unwound and the flow rate can be adjusted using a separate valve on the outlet nozzle. Hose reels:

– Should be conspicuous and accessible, and placed in recessed locations where possible to avoid obstruction.

– Use water and can only be used on Class A fires.

– Are limited by the length of the hose together with the discharge range.

– Can be heavy to pull and move and, when fully unwound, may present an obstacle for fire door closure and for people to trip over.

– Should be subject to: – Regular monthly visual checks (hose condition, damage, leaks, valve operation). – An annual check (fully unwound to check the condition of the hose, flow rate, operation of nozzle valve

and for leaks).

TOPIC FOCUS

Sprinkler systems may be ineffective due to:

• Lack of water supply.

• Freezing of a wet riser system.

• Sprinkler heads obscured or damaged.

• Incorrect system installed.

• Fire load beyond the capacity of the system installed.

• Power supply failure to the pumps.

• Sprinkler valves turned off during maintenance.

• General lack of maintenance.



MORE...

You may find it useful to look at NFPA 10: Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers, 2010 Edition, published by the US National Fire Protection Association

www.nfpa.org

STUDY QUESTION

10. (a) What are the main factors you should consider when siting fire extinguishers?

(b) Describe suitable arrangements for the maintenance and inspection of fire extinguishers in the workplace.



Access for the Fire Service4.5

Access for the Fire Service

IN THIS SECTION...

• Fire engines need to be able to get close to the perimeter of a building to be able to use high-reach equipment.

• The requirements for vehicle access differ depending on the presence of fire mains, building size and the type of fire-fighting appliance.

• For high-rise buildings a protected ‘fireman’s shaft’ may be needed with provision of a fire mains water supply.

• Basements present a high risk to fire-fighters and require smoke and heat venting.

• A nominated and competent person should be designated to liaise with the fire authority on arrival, and provide information on the contents of the building and any hazardous materials or processes and facilities.

Fire-Fighting Vehicle AccessFire engines need to be able to get close to the perimeter of a building so that they can use high-reach equipment, such as turntable ladders, hydraulic platforms and pump appliances with fire hoses.

The requirements for vehicle access differ depending on the presence of fire mains, building size and the type of fire-fighting appliance:

• For small buildings without a fire main, access for a pump appliance should be provided to 15% of the perimeter or to within 45m of every point on the building surrounds.

• For large, high-rise buildings, the entire perimeter will need to be accessible to fire-fighting appliances.

(Note that fire mains are of two basic types:

• Dry fire mains do not normally contain water; they consist of the fire main together with inlet connections at vehicle access level to enable charging with water from fire service pumping appliances. They then have ‘landing’ valves (a combined outlet and valve) at specific points for connection with fire-fighting hoses. These outlets are situated in each fire-fighting lobby of the fire-fighting shaft.

• Wet fire mains are permanently charged with pressurised water; they, too, have landing valves at specific points. They may also be fitted with inlets for emergency replenishment of a wet system.)

In general, where dry fire mains are fitted, pumping appliances should be able to approach to within 18m of each inlet connection point. For wet fire mains, the appliance should be able to approach within 18m of an entrance giving access to the main.

Overhead obstructions on the access route should be avoided, and turning facilities are also needed where the route includes a long dead-end and would otherwise require excessive reversing distances.

The fire service need access to buildings

DEFINITION

FIRE MAIN

A water supply pipe installed specifically for fire-fighting purposes within a building.

The term ‘rising’ fire main (or ‘riser’) is used where it serves floors above ground level.


Access for the Fire Service 4.5

Access to Buildings for Fire-Fighting PersonnelFor high-rise buildings a protected fireman’s shaft may be needed that combines facilities such as a fire-fighting lift, fire-fighting stairs and fire-fighting lobbies. The number of fire-fighting shafts required depends on the building use, size and design and the presence of automatic sprinklers throughout the building. You can see a diagram of the main components of fire-fighting shafts in the following figure:

Main components of fire-fighting shafts

Fire main outlets should be situated within each fire-fighting lobby, but the fire-fighting lift is only required where floors are situated more than 18m above, or 10m below, the vehicle access level.

Fire Mains/Water SourceBuildings with a fire-fighting shaft need fire mains installed in the shaft, with the outlets accessible in each fire-fighting lobby.

Wet systems are required where storey floors are >60m above the vehicle access level, otherwise either wet or dry systems are acceptable.

(Note that the distances that we have quoted above are based on UK regulations – required distances may differ according to local legislation.)

Venting of Smoke/Heat from BasementsFighting fires in basements is different from ground level and above because heat and smoke rise, and so fire-fighters have to descend through it. Smoke vents or outlets should be installed in every reasonably-sized basement space in areas where the external walls don’t have windows or doors.

Natural smoke outlets relying on convection currents can be set at ceiling level in basement compartments, on the perimeter, so that they can discharge directly into the open air above. An example is shown in the figure.

The outlet ducts need to be fire-resisting.

Mechanical smoke extraction is an alternative to natural ventilation, but is only permitted if the basement is protected with a sprinkler system.

Smoke outlets in a basement


Access for the Fire Service4.5

Fire-Fighting Shafts/StairwellsThe Building Regulations Approved Document B (Fire Safety) requires that any building more than 18m high, measured from the fire brigade access level to the top floor, or which has floors more than 10m below ground, must be provided with ‘fire-fighting shafts’. They must also be provided in some buildings with a floor level of 900m² or more in area where the floor is at a height of more than 7.5m above fire service vehicle access level, for example shops, commercial, storage and non-residential buildings.

These shafts:

• Provide the fire brigade with a safe area from which to fight a fire in the building.

• Usually have stairs and a protected, well-ventilated lobby.

• May be provided with a fire-fighting lift.

The installation of sprinklers allows the distance between fire-fighting shafts to be increased from 45m to 60m. This is due to the fact that sprinklers prevent fire growth and therefore allow more time for fire-fighters to attack a fire. This effectively translates into increased allowable travel distances.

Liaison with the Fire AuthorityThe organisation’s Emergency Plan should include arrangements for nominated and competent persons to liaise with the fire service on their arrival.

This is likely to involve designation of the senior person on duty at the scene of any incident involving a fire as a Nominated Officer, with duties such as:

• Providing practical assistance to the fire service and any other of the emergency services when they are in attendance.

• Taking overall control of the scene in a fire situation in conjunction with the fire service.

• Co-ordinating and directing staff actions.

• Liaising with fire service officers.

• Making sure that the chief fire officer is satisfied that there is no danger before allowing re-entry to the building.

Contents of BuildingIn the event of a fire emergency, the fire and rescue service need to have information relating to the contents of the building and any hazardous materials or processes and facilities that might create a risk to fire-fighters carrying out their duties.

A risk assessment will identify the individual features of a building and the activities carried out there that could present a fire risk. This information can be presented on premises plans marked up with relevant information, and made available to the fire service on arrival. This information will be specific to the nature of the building and the activities carried out within it but would need to include details relating to matters such as the presence of:

• Hazardous materials - flammable, explosive, oxidising, reactive, toxic, corrosive, pathogenic, radioactive.

• Hazardous facilities - x-ray, high pressure, high voltage, dangerous machinery, lasers, microbiological.

STUDY QUESTIONS

11. Explain what is meant by a ‘fire main’ and describe the two main types.

12. Outline the duties of a Nominated Officer for a fire or emergency incident.



Minimising the Environmental Impact of Fire and Fire-Fighting Operations 4.6

Minimising the Environmental Impact of Fire and Fire-Fighting Operations

IN THIS SECTION...

• Sources of pollution in the event of a fire arise primarily from toxic and corrosive smoke, and run-off of contaminated fire-fighting water.

• In their emergency plans, sites should consider the polluting effects of fire; and to ensure that fire sites are cleaned up satisfactorily, collected contaminated run-off must be disposed of properly, in accordance with appropriate waste regulations.

Sources of Pollution in the Event of a FireEnvironmental damage can result from two basic sources:

• Toxic and/or corrosive smoke:

– The nature of the smoke depends on the fuels being burnt and the extent of the combustion process.

– Airborne contaminants can later contaminate land, crops and water.

• Contaminated fire-fighting water run-off:

– Such run-off can carry large amounts of chemicals and make its way into drains, rivers and sewage treatment works.

– Groundwater contamination may take several months to become apparent, and may persist for many years.

Legal Obligations Related to Environmental Protection There may be local legislation which protects ground and surface water and regulates discharges that might arise from the run-off of contaminated fire-fighting water. For example, UK legislation regulates discharge to surface and ground water, with the law stating:

“A person must not, except under and to the extent authorised by an environmental permit ... cause or knowingly permit a water discharge activity or groundwater activity.”

A water discharge activity mainly includes discharge to:

• Territorial waters extending to three nautical miles.

• Coastal waters.

• Inland freshwaters, e.g. rivers, streams, lakes, etc.

• Groundwater.

However, it is essential that there is co-operation between fire services and environmental regulators to ensure a co-ordinated effort in the event of fire incidents that have the potential to pollute such controlled waters and the disposal of any associated waste, such as contained, contaminated fire-fighting water run-off.

Run-off of contaminated fire-fighting water can have devastating results


Minimising the Environmental Impact of Fire and Fire-Fighting Operations4.6

Pre-Planning the Minimisation of Environmental ImpactSites should consider the polluting effects of fire in their emergency plans. If a fire occurs, the most likely sources of pollution of groundwater, freshwater or coastal waters are:

• Atmospheric deposition of smoke/vapours.

• Escape of contaminated fire water:

– Directly to surface run-off into rivers and the ground.

– Via the site’s surface water drainage system.

– Via the foul sewage system and out unaltered through the treatment works.

To mitigate the effects of an incident, containment methods must be pre-planned, and containment depends on the:

• Hazardous nature of substances on site.

• Risk of fire.

• Sensitivity of the receiving environment.

• Reasonable practicability of the solution, such as dimensions of the site and the cost involved.

Permanent Remote Containment Systems‘Built-in’ permanent remote containment systems for a site include:

• Lagoons - earth-banked containment basins which are effective at containing fire water run-off provided they are impermeable and incorporate some sort of isolation from the drainage system.

• Purpose-built tanks - to intercept run-off:

– Can be placed below or above ground.

– Include as a last resort the possibility of using storm tanks at the sewage treatment works.

• Shut-off valves - to isolate part of a site’s drainage system.

Emergency Remote Containment SystemsEmergency remote containment systems (used when permanent solutions are not practicable) include:

• Sacrificial areas - run-off is directed to a designated ‘sacrificial’ area. This involves use of permeable soil or porous media with an impermeable lining.

• Temporary bunding of impermeable car parks, etc. - using, for example, sandbags.

• Portable tanks and tankers - blocking of the site drainage system to set up a temporary sump from which the run-off can be pumped into the tank; also allows the possibility of re-use of the run-off as fire-fighting water.

Site and Damaged Area Clean-Up ConsiderationsHaving contained the fire-fighting water run-off, the last stage in minimising the environmental impact of fire and fire-fighting operations is to make sure that the area is cleaned up satisfactorily. This will principally rely on ensuring that collected contaminated run-off is disposed of properly, in accordance with the appropriate waste regulations.

Proper disposal of contaminated run-off is essential


Minimising the Environmental Impact of Fire and Fire-Fighting Operations 4.6

TOPIC FOCUS

Pathways by which pollutants from the site of a fire can enter the water ecosystem:

• The surface water drainage system on-site.

• Through the foul drainage system contaminating the sewage works beds.

• By water run-off to ground and into brooks, streams and rivers.

• By airborne contaminants deposited in the precipitation.

Methods of containment for fire-fighting water run-off produced at the site of a fire:

• Bunds.

• Drain covers.

• Mats and sand bags.

• Interceptors.

• Provision of a sacrificial area and/or trenches.

• Diverting and directing the flow of water taking advantage of the lie of the land.

• Secondary containment reservoir or lagoon.

• Portable containers or tanks.

STUDY QUESTIONS

13. Outline the pathways by which pollutants from the site of a fire can enter the water ecosystem.

14. Outline the means that can be employed to contain fire-fighting water run-off produced at the site of a fire.



Summary

Summary

This element has dealt with fire protection in buildings.


• Considered the fire safety requirements concerning structural features of buildings and the main requirements for fire resistance of elements of structure.

• Examined the need for compartmentation to inhibit the spread of fire within buildings.

• Discussed how internal fire growth can be propagated by building lining materials, fixtures, fittings and the contents of a building.

• Examined the means of preventing external fire spread by considering the construction of external walls and roofs, the distance between buildings, and the use of or activities carried out at the particular premises.

• Explained the requirements of a means of escape including alternative escape routes, escape distances, and the number and size of escape routes for the number of occupants.

• Examined the requirements for escape stairs, passageways and doors, protection of escape routes and emergency escape lighting and signage.

• Considered the management actions required to maintain means of escape.

• Identified the requirements for means of escape for vulnerable people and people with disabilities and/or mobility problems.

• Discussed fire alarm and fire detection systems that are available to give early warning in case of fire, both for life safety and property protection.

• Examined fire alarm zoning, alarm signalling and the use of alarm receiving centres.

• Considered the factors involved in the selection of fire detection and fire alarm systems.

• Explained the requirements for maintenance and testing of fire alarm systems.

• Considered the factors involved in the provision, design and application of portable fire-fighting equipment and fixed installations.

• Explained the relevance of the classification of fires when choosing fire-fighting equipment and the range of available extinguishing media.

• Examined the requirements relating to fixed installations (such as sprinkler, gas flooding and drencher systems and hose reels).

• Considered the requirements for ensuring that access for the fire service is provided and maintained.

• Considered sources of pollution in the event of a fire which arise from toxic and corrosive smoke and contaminated fire-fighting water.

• Examined the need for site emergency plans to consider the polluting effects of fire, and for fire sites to be cleaned up satisfactorily with contaminated run-off disposed of properly in accordance with waste regulations.


Exam Skills ES

Exam Skills

QUESTION

Explain the requirements for ensuring that access to premises and facilities for the fire service are provided and maintained. (8)



1. The first step is to read the question carefully. Note that this question asks about access to premises; it is not specific about the type of premises, so you need to provide a range of factors.

2. Next, consider the marks available. In this question, there are eight marks, so it is expected that around eight or nine different pieces of information will be provided. The question should take around eight minutes to answer in an exam. Statistically, candidates score most marks in the first few sentences of their answer; they may then spend several minutes on long rambling explanations that may score the extra few remaining marks available, but may cause them to run out of time and leave some questions unanswered. You are unlikely to get many extra marks for long rambling answers. Also, remember that for any questions not attempted, you get nothing.


Explain the requirements for ensuring that access to premises and facilities for the fire service are provided and maintained. (8)

4. Read the question again to make sure you understand it asks a two-pronged question about access to premises AND facilities, and then asks another two-pronged question about provision AND maintenance. (Re-read your notes if you need to.)

5. The next stage is to develop a plan – there are various ways to do this. Remind yourself first of all that you need to be thinking about ‘access’ that is provided and maintained to facilities and premises. When you see the command word ‘explain’, you need to give a clear account. Your answer plan will therefore need to have more detail added to it to produce a full answer for the examiners.

Your answer must be based on the key words you have highlighted so, in this case, you need to explain access to premises and facilities and their provision and maintenance.


Exam SkillsES


Access to premises and facilities

• Roadways clear.

• Access and parking for fire appliance.

• Turning circles.

• Persons at the premises to assist.

• Plans of premises showing facility location.

• No storage in front of facilities.

• Signage above facilities.

• Facilities maintained in good working order.

• Relevant regulations.

Provision and maintenance

• Ventilation from basements.

• Fire-fighter lifts/shafts.

• Dry/wet risers.

• Adequate water supply.

• Adequate supply of specialist equipment if required.

• Maintained in efficient state/order and good repair.

Example of How the Question Could be AnsweredAccess to the premises must be in accordance with any relevant regulations and be maintained for fire tenders to attend an emergency; this means that roadways must not be blocked (either by parked cars or vehicles being unloaded) and that provision should be available for turning circles to avoid the need for reversing. Fire tenders must be able to park sufficiently close to hydrants to enable the shortest possible connections. Access to such locations should be cross hatched to prevent unauthorised use. On attending a premises a key holder should be available to provide access, and plans of the premises should be available with facilities, access and egress routes marked on them. Inside premises, access to facilities should be unrestricted, so the responsible person for the premises must ensure that items are not stored in front of facilities and that facilities are maintained in an efficient state, efficient working order and in good repair. Facilities should also have suitable signage near them so that fire fighters can easily locate them. The facilities that may be provided, include ventilation from basements or other areas where fumes may accumulate. High rise buildings may have a fire-fighters’ lift or shaft to enable easy access to upper storey levels. Dry risers (water supply connected by attending fire fighters) or wet risers (already charged with water) should be available. The water supply to the premises should be adequate to enable the fighting of fires. If the premises is involved in special risk operations (i.e. a metals factory) then a suitable supply of specialist fire-fighting equipment may need to be provided.

Reasons for Poor Marks Achieved by Candidates in Exam

• Providing more of a list without giving sufficient detail to meet the action verb criteria of ‘explain’.

• Taking a narrow view of ‘provided’ and not mentioning fire-fighters’ lifts in tall buildings or dry and wet risers.

• If the examiner cannot read the candidate’s answer marks cannot be awarded.

Learning Outcomes


Explain the purpose and requirements of a fire emergency plan.

Describe the development and maintenance of a fire evacuation procedure.

Outline the perception and behaviour of people in the event of a fire.

Outline appropriate training requirements.

5-1© RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 5 - Safety of People in the Event of Fire

Element 5

Safety of People in the Event of Fire

5-2 © RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 5 - Safety of People in the Event of FireUnit IFC1: Element 5 - Safety of People in the Event of Fire © RRC International

Contents

Fire Emergency Plan 5-3

Purpose of a Fire Emergency Plan 5-3Content of a Fire Emergency Plan 5-3Multi-Occupied Premises 5-5Compatibility of the Plan with Everyday Use of the Premises 5-5Study Question 5-5

Development of a Fire Evacuation Procedure 5-6

Evacuation Procedures 5-6Evacuation of Vulnerable People 5-10Evacuating Members of the Public 5-10Study Questions 5-11

Perception and Behaviour of People in a Fire 5-12

Principles of Sensory Perception 5-12Time Pressure, Stress and the Decision-Making Process 5-13Individuals Responsible for Others 5-15The Effect of Different Behaviours on Fire and Evacuation 5-15Crowd Flow: Nature, Dangers and Modification 5-16Study Questions 5-17

Appropriate Training Requirements 5-18

Fire Safety Training 5-18Competent Persons 5-19Roles and Responsibilities 5-19Workers with Management/Supervisory Roles 5-20Study Questions 5-21

Summary 5-22

Exam Skills 5-23

5-2 © RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 5 - Safety of People in the Event of FireUnit IFC1: Element 5 - Safety of People in the Event of Fire © RRC International 5-3

5.1Fire Emergency Plan

Fire Emergency Plan

IN THIS SECTION...

• The Fire Emergency Plan ensures that people on the premises know what to do in the event of fire and that appropriate action is taken to allow safe evacuation of the premises.

• All procedures relating to alerting people to a fire emergency and the actions they should take regarding evacuation and the fire and rescue services should be detailed in the Fire Emergency Plan.

• In multi-occupied premises the plan should be compiled in consultation with all occupiers.

• For the plan to be effective the responsibilities and actions specified must be compatible with the routine use of the premises.

Purpose of a Fire Emergency PlanThe purpose of a Fire Emergency Plan is to ensure that the people in premises know what to do if there is a fire, so that the premises can be safely evacuated.

The Fire Emergency Plan provides a training and guidance document which ensures that people understand the actions they need to take in the event of a fire, and how to implement the adopted evacuation strategy.

The Fire Emergency Plan:

• Will be derived from the findings of a fire risk assessment.

• Should be recorded.

• Should be made available to relevant persons such as:

– Employees.

– Employee representatives.

– Any relevant enforcing authority.

Content of a Fire Emergency PlanA Fire Emergency Plan should cover a number of issues:

• How people will be warned: – The type of fire alarm system on the premises.

– How it alerts people.

• What action people should take on discovering a fire: – Immediate evacuation of the building.

– Actions to be taken to deal with the fire.

• Action people should take in the event of a fire: – Actions necessary to safeguard the situation before following the means of escape to a place of safety.

• Arrangements for calling the fire and rescue service: – What individuals may have to do to contact the fire and rescue service.

– Details of any automatic calling system.

Preparation of a Fire Emergency Plan is essential for all workplaces


5.1 Fire Emergency Plan

• Isolations: – Any actions required to safeguard the situation by isolating hazardous plant or equipment.

• Fire alarm activities: – Special actions that individuals might have to take on hearing the fire alarm, e.g. checking alarm panels,

disabling lifts, directing people to the exits, preparing vertical, horizontal or phased evacuation, operating the public address/tannoy systems, providing assistance for the disabled.

• Evacuation procedure: – Procedure to be followed in order to evacuate the building and assemble at a place of safety.

– Arrangements to ensure the safe evacuation of any vulnerable persons.

• Assembly points: – Location and description of designated assembly points.

• Fire-fighting arrangements: – Provision of both portable and fixed fire-fighting equipment.

– Details of the individuals expected to use such equipment.

• Procedures for meeting the fire and rescue service on arrival (including access arrangements): – Designation of persons on duty at the scene of any incident involving a fire and their role in liaising with the

fire service.

– Arrangements for vehicle and building access for the fire service.

• Provision of information on the incident: – On the contents of a particular building.

– On any hazardous materials or processes and facilities that might create a risk to fire-fighters carrying out their duties.

• Vulnerable people and those with disabilities

Under current fire safety legislation, the person(s) having responsibility for the building must provide a fire safety risk assessment that includes an emergency evacuation plan for all people likely to be in the premises, including vulnerable people and those with disabilities. This includes:

– Electric wheelchair users.

– Wheelchair users.

– Mobility-impaired persons.

– Visually-impaired persons.

– Hearing-impaired persons.

– Those with:

Dyslexia/orientation disorders.

Learning difficulties/autism.

Mental health problems.

Dexterity problems.

Asthma or other breathing health issues which could be aggravated by smoke inhalation.


5.1Fire Emergency Plan

Multi-Occupied PremisesIn multi-occupied, more complex, premises, the Fire Emergency Plan has to take into account the various groups of persons occupying the premises. It can therefore only be compiled after consultation with other occupiers and those who have control over the building.

This means that, in most cases, for the plan to be effective, a single Fire Emergency Plan covering the whole building will be necessary.

Compatibility of the Plan with Everyday Use of the PremisesThe Fire Emergency Plan provides a training and guidance document which ensures that people understand the actions they need to take in the event of a fire, and how to implement the adopted evacuation strategy. So, for the plan to be effective, the responsibilities and actions specified must be compatible with the routine use of the premises. For example:

• Persons with specific responsibilities must be available at all times or provision made for deputies.

• Equipment, facilities and means of escape must be available whenever the premises are in use.

STUDY QUESTION

1. Outline the key elements of a Fire Emergency Plan.


The fire emergency plan should detail the evacuation procedures for the

premises


5.2 Development of a Fire Evacuation Procedure

Development of a Fire Evacuation Procedure

IN THIS SECTION...

• The nature of the workplace and the workforce determine the content of a fire evacuation procedure which should plan for safe evacuation from the building.

• Individuals with sensory impairment and other vulnerable people may need special help when the building is being evacuated.

• The evacuation procedure may need to be simultaneous, phased (vertical or horizontal) or staged, depending on the nature of the workplace and the occupants of the building.

• Members of the public will not be familiar with the evacuation procedures or assembly points and so need special consideration.

• The fire evacuation procedure must be maintained by ensuring that equipment is reliable, and people know what to do.

Evacuation ProceduresThe purpose of a fire evacuation procedure is to ensure that people know how to evacuate safely from the building.

The evacuation procedure will depend a great deal on the nature of the workplace and the workforce:

• Small premises are likely to need only a simple plan (perhaps just part of the ‘fire action’ notices, displayed on notice boards).

• Larger, complex premises require a more detailed plan.

• Employers who share premises must co-operate with each other in order to co-ordinate their procedures.

Elements of an Evacuation ProcedureAny evacuation procedure should consider and plan for the following aspects of an emergency evacuation:

• How people are warned of a fire: the alarm system.

• How the evacuation should proceed:

– Routes to take, including alternatives available if the main route is blocked by fire.

– Operation of emergency fire exits.

– Closing of fire doors on leaving the various parts of the building.

– Leaving belongings in the building.

– Not using the lifts except those specially designated for use by the disabled.

• Arrangements for specially vulnerable people, such as:

– The disabled.

– Members of the public.

• Arrangements for special groups of people, such as:

– Contractors, cleaners and others who are not employees.

– Those who may be working outside normal working hours.

Special arrangements are in place for non-employees such as contractors


5.2Development of a Fire Evacuation Procedure

• Where people should assemble after evacuating from the building.

• How to ensure that everyone has been evacuated: by use of roll-call.

• How people are informed and trained/retrained in the procedure:

– Information during induction/refresher training.

– Displays on notice boards and at call points.

– Regular fire drills to practise, and familiarise persons with the procedures.

– Additional training for fire wardens.

• How to allocate responsibilities to individuals, such as fire wardens.

TOPIC FOCUSFactors to consider when developing an evacuation procedure for a shared occupancy building:

• Number of people to be evacuated.

• Number of available exits and the travel distances to them.

• Location of assembly points.

• Arrangements for accounting for personnel.

• Action to be taken on discovering a fire.

• Arrangements for contacting the emergency services.

• Possibility of arranging a phased evacuation.

• Procedure for visitors and contractors.

• Liaison necessary with other occupiers.

• Identification of facilities for the disabled, such as lifts, refuges and evacuation equipment.

• Number of fire wardens to be appointed.

• Clarity of signage in all areas.

• Training to be given to employees.

• Arrangements for testing fire alarms and practising fire drills.

Types of Evacuation ProceduresSimultaneous evacuation is the normal type of evacuation when, as soon as the alarm is heard, everyone leaves the building at the same time and assembles in a safe place.

Phased evacuation allows the evacuation to be controlled with selected persons evacuated first, and further evacuation taking place later if necessary.

In complex buildings, this may be implemented in the following ways:

• Vertical Phased Evacuation

This takes place floor by floor to:

– Avoid congestion on the staircase.

– Allow people not at immediate risk to evacuate later.

The floor where the fire is located and the one directly above it are evacuated first. The remaining floors are alerted and the rest of the people are evacuated if it is necessary to do so.



The fire warning system gives two distinct signals (warning and evacuation).

Total evacuation takes quite a time so such buildings should have additional built-in fire precautions, such as sprinklers, to extend the time available.

• Horizontal Phased Evacuation

This is used in hospitals and care homes, and divides floors into a number of fire-resisting compartments.

Occupants are moved from the compartment involved in the fire to adjacent compartments.

Depending on the fire situation, it may eventually be necessary to consider vertical evacuation.

Because of the extra time this type of evacuation takes, other fire precautions may be required, such as:

– Voice alarm systems.

– Fire control points.

– Sprinklers.

TOPIC FOCUSReasons for implementing a phased evacuation system:

• Allows controlled evacuation of a large number of people.

• Helps reduce congestion and panic that might be caused during the evacuation.

• Ensures that those nearest the fire and most at risk can be evacuated first.

Operation of a phased evacuation system:

• Occupants on the floor affected and the floor immediately above to be alerted first then evacuated.

• Those on other floors to be alerted and kept on standby and evacuated later, depending on how the fire develops and spreads.

• Use of different alarm systems to indicate evacuation or standby.

• Fire s communicate the evacuation status to a senior .

• Provision of regular training and fire drills for occupants and wardens.

Staged evacuation is a type of phased evacuation activated by a staged fire-alarm system, common in larger workplaces:

• The area closest to the fire is evacuated initially.

• The rest of the workforce/occupants are put on standby, so that they are prepared to evacuate.

• The remaining people are evacuated only if necessary.

Again, the two stages of the evacuation are distinguished by two different types of alarm signal.

Alarm evacuation can result from different types of alarm, but all must be distinctive and clearly audible throughout the premises.

In small workplaces, the person detecting the fire may:

• Shout “fire”.

• Operate a gong or bell.

In larger premises, electrically-operated alarm systems, with manually-activated alarm call points activating bells, sirens or hooters are required.



In more complex workplaces (and unoccupied areas), automatic alarm systems activated by automatic fire detection systems are more appropriate.

Audible message systems are very useful, especially where members of the public are involved, since the public react quicker to specific verbal instructions over a messaging system, than they do to bells or sirens.

The alarm may be:

• Given in several stages.

• Used to alert only those individuals given specific fire duties, such as fire wardens or designated members of staff.

Such a ‘staff alarm’ procedure could be by means of personal pagers or a coded tannoy message, and allows the appropriate staff to get to their allocated positions before the general alarm is started to initiate an evacuation.

Fire DrillsThese are part of any fire evacuation training and allow people to practise the fire procedure. They should be carried out at least once a year, but more frequently where the situation demands it, such as in care homes, hotels and schools.

TOPIC FOCUS

• Comply with any local legal requirements for means of escape from buildings.

• Ensure that employees are familiar with escape procedures.

• Enable employees to react calmly in the event of an emergency.

• Secure a rapid evacuation if a fire were to occur.

• Ensure that evacuation procedures are effective, particularly for visitors and the disabled.

• Test the physical adequacy of fire escape routes.

• Allow fire wardens to practise their roles.

• Enable identification of deficiencies in the fire alarm system.

• Monitor response and evacuation times to ensure that evacuation procedures remain effective.

Roll-Call SystemsRoll-call systems can be used to identify whether everyone has been evacuated during a fire emergency, and involve everyone:

• Gathering at an ‘assembly point’ in a safe place.

• Having their names checked off on a list by a fire warden.

In locations where employees swipe in and out of a building, with a computer automatically recording their presence on/off site, there should be an accurate list of who is on the premises.

Fire WardensThe fire warden system involves:

• The building being split into smaller areas, with a fire allocated to each area.

• The fire warden ‘sweeping’ their allocated area to check for stragglers, and directing them to the nearest safe exit.

• The warden reporting their area as ‘all clear’ to a co- ordinator at the central assembly point.

Fire wardens are easily identifiable by the high visibility, or ‘hi-vis’, jackets they are given to wear in an emergency.

It is important to monitor the evacuation process in a practice

situation



Evacuation of Vulnerable PeopleIndividuals with a hearing impairment may take longer to be alerted, and the visually impaired may have greater difficulty finding their way out of a building. So, it may be necessary to provide special aids and procedures, such as:

• Personal trembler alarms that ‘vibrate’ at the same time as the alarm.

• A buddy system, where someone is allocated the task of helping a person with a sensory impairment.

• Visual alarms for the hearing impaired, such as a flashing beacon.

• Tactile/braille signs for the visually impaired, providing the person can locate the sign and read braille.

Those with severe mobility impairment may require help during a fire evacuation from building design elements and accessories, such as:

• Evacuation lifts - designated for the use of the disabled, and continue to operate during a fire.

• Evacuation chairs - lightweight, manoeuvrable, specialised wheeled chairs for evacuation down stairs and along corridors.

• Refuges - fire-protected areas (minimum 30 minutes’ fire resistance) which offer temporary relative safety where a disabled person waits for assistance for full evacuation, or has the opportunity to rest. They are generally located within a protected stairwell and close to an evacuation lift/chair.

Many of the methods we have noted as helping people with mobility and sensory impairment are also appropriate for assisting the broader category of ‘vulnerable persons’.

TOPIC FOCUSAdditional aids for the evacuation of people with sensory impairment and/or physical disability:

• Trembler or aural and visual alarms.

• Use of ‘evac chairs’ for those with impaired mobility.

• Provision of refuges.

• Tactile way-finding and exit signs for the visually impaired.

• Provision of dedicated evacuation lifts.

• Use of buddy systems for those with impaired hearing or vision.

• Appointment of staff trained to supervise at refuges and to evacuate those with impaired mobility.

Evacuating Members of the PublicMembers of the public are unlikely to be familiar with the alarm system, escape routes, evacuation procedures or assembly points.

In areas where the public have access, such as retail premises, it may be necessary to:

• Appoint staff to direct people to the exits.

• Use public address/tannoy systems (instead of alarms).

• Use a separate ‘staff alarm’ procedure to make sure staff are in place in good time to direct the public to the exits.

• Provide assistance for the disabled (those with hearing, visual or mobility impairments).

People with mobility problems will require extra assistance when an

emergency evacuation is necessary



Maintenance of a Fire Evacuation ProcedureThe fire evacuation procedure relies on:

• The actions of persons: – Responding to alarms.

– Following the means of escape.

– Assembling at a place of safety.

These actions should be maintained by:

– Information, instruction, training.

– Simulations and drills.

• The reliable operation of fire safety equipment such as: – Detectors.

– Alarms.

– Doors and exits.

– Lighting.

– Fire-fighting equipment.

– Signage.

This equipment should be regularly maintained and tested.

STUDY QUESTIONS

2. What are the benefits of having regular fire drills in the workplace?

3. (a) What should you take into account when assessing the provision of means of escape for the disabled?

(b) What specific assistance would you need to provide for the safe evacuation of those with visual, hearing and mobility impairment?



Perception and Behaviour of People in a Fire5.3

Perception and Behaviour of People in a Fire

IN THIS SECTION...

• In order to recognise fire in its early stages, sensory signals of sight, smell and heat have to be interpreted using previous experiences, training and expectations.

• Individuals respond to different forms of audible and visual warnings in different ways; these responses need to be considered when selecting alarm systems.

• Time pressure and stress have a significant effect on the decision-making process during fire emergencies; people may have difficulties with spatial orientation and way-finding in large and complex locations.

• How individuals choose exits in fire emergencies and the implications of exit choice behaviour is a factor to consider in designing for fire safety.

• Individuals responsible for others, such as parents, nurses, and teachers, exhibit specific behaviour in a fire due to their feelings of responsibility and attachment.

• Crowd flow can cause danger and prevent safe escape; modification of crowd flow by physical design and messages may be necessary to combat this.

• The behavioural problems that arise during a fire evacuation can be overcome by better definition of roles and responsibilities, clear alarms, well practised drills, clear escape routes, aid for vulnerable people and contingency plans to deal with sleeping people within the evacuation strategy.

Principles of Sensory PerceptionFire can be detected in its early stages by the smell/taste of smoke, visible plumes of smoke and/or flame, and possibly the sensation of heat.

To recognise that these sensory signals represent a threat of fire, individuals have to interpret them using their previous experiences, training and expectations in order to understand what it all means (situational awareness).

Audible alarms and similar, indirect signs, require more interpretation:

• It may not be obvious what an alarm actually means.

• False alarms and drills may obscure the link between an alarm signal and a genuine fire.

Perception is the process of:

• gathering,

• filtering,

• interpreting,

• organising, and

• making sense of, sensory data.

It is the perception, rather than the reality, of a situation which is the basis of a person’s actions, and perception is not always the same as reality.

An individual’s actions in a fire can be rationalised on the basis of their perceptions of the situation, even if these actions do not at first appear to be rational.

Individuals use their senses to detect the early indicators of fire


Perception and Behaviour of People in a Fire 5.3

In practice, people have limited time and information with which to interpret the situation they are faced with in an emergency.

Response to Different Forms of Warning

• Bells/Sirens/Gongs – Can be ambiguous, leading to confusion and uncertainty and may well be ignored.

• Verbal (Public Address/Tannoy Systems) – Able to give very specific instructions (either live or recorded) that are particularly effective in buildings to

which members of the public have access, reducing reaction time.

– Less effective in reaching people who may not speak the language(s) in which the message is given and in places where public address systems are routinely used for non-emergencies.

• Combined Siren/Verbal – An attention-grabbing siren is initially heard, supplemented with verbal messages.

• Strobe Lights – Used in conjunction with audible warnings, rather than on their own.

– Particularly useful for: – Individuals with a hearing impairment. – Attracting the attention of people where there are high background noise levels and/or personal hearing

protection is being used.

– Must be carefully sited to be noticed.

– Individuals need to be familiar with their specific meaning in order to elicit the right response.

• Information Boards – Provide unambiguous written messages on a screen - the visual equivalent of the spoken messages from public

address systems.

– May be meaningless to people who do not understand the language(s)/symbols in which the message is given.

Time Pressure, Stress and the Decision-Making ProcessIn an emergency fire situation, there is rarely time to analyse all the data, the available options for action and their consequences, and then decide on the best solution. Individuals tend to adopt a much more rapid process, based on previous experiences and training, to recognise a pattern. Pattern recognition is based on having a range of expectations and evaluating the new data against them.

On recognising a fire, people quickly execute the emergency plan, based on previous experience and training, but this can be difficult if they have little experience of such a situation.

As stress increases, perceptions of the threat level become increasingly distorted from reality, and people frequently make poor judgments and inappropriate decisions (a higher-risk alternative may be chosen).

This all underlines the importance of practice (fire drills), experience, training and the availability of unambiguous information.

Spatial Orientation and Way-FindingSpatial orientation relates to a person being aware of where they are in a building. The more complex the building, and the less familiar the individual is with it, the more difficult it becomes for the person to realise where exactly he/she is in the premises, relative to a final exit. People can become fixated on following one escape route to the exclusion of all others (which they may not even notice).



Patterns of Exit ChoiceExit choice behaviour is affected by a wide range of structural and personal factors, which include:

• Smoke obscuration (irritancy and toxicity).

• Fire characteristics, e.g. heat and smell.

• Familiarity with escape routes.

• Personal characteristics, e.g. age, disability.

• Advice provided prior to the fire.

• Lighting levels.

• Role in occupancy, e.g. public versus staff.

• Group dynamics and attachments, e.g. families.

• Location and proximity to exit.

• Information/communication on fire in progress.

• Fire exit signs.

The following table includes some common, but mostly incorrect, assumptions made about exit choice behaviour.

Assumption Reality

People may ‘panic’ and take apparently irrational routes (such as a much longer, but more familiar, escape route).

Many instances of ‘panic’ are actually due to delays in receiving information about the fire. In the light of this compressed timescale and lack of information, the ‘panic’ can seem quite rational.

People begin to move as soon as they hear the alarm. Such alarms do not instantly cause people to move.

The evacuation time is largely determined by the time taken to physically get to the exit.

The reaction time to the alarm is equally important.

Movement in fires is characterised by the aim of escaping.

The early stages are actually taken up by people investigating.

People mostly move towards the nearest exit.People actually tend to use the exit route with which they are most familiar (even if it is further away), provided it is not blocked.

People’s movements are largely independent (unless in a tightly-packed crowd).

People move towards and with groups (especially if there are emotional attachments).

Fire exit signs help people to escape. Such signs can be forgotten or just not noticed at all.

People would not choose a smoke-filled escape route.People are prepared to move through smoke (especially if they are familiar with what lies ahead), unless visibility is extremely poor (less than a few metres).

Everyone is equally capable of physically moving to an exit.

Movement is very dependent on the physical ability of the individual (elderly versus young, etc.).

In an emergency, people may ignore the most obvious exit



TOPIC FOCUS

Different ways in which people react when alerted to a potential fire situation:

• Sound the alarm, call the fire and rescue service and:

– fight the fire;

– investigate its causes; or

– evacuate the building in accordance with instructions.

• Freeze and do nothing because of:

– Fear.

– Previous bad experiences.

– Lack of information and guidance.

• Take no action because of:

– Indifference.

– Complacency.

– The belief that it is a fire drill.

• Instruct, direct and help others, particularly the disabled.

• Remain where they are and:

– Await further instructions.

– Watch the outcome of the fire.

Individuals Responsible for OthersPeople who are responsible for others may seem to behave irrationally in a fire emergency because of their feelings of responsibility and attachment. For example:

• Parents may go in the opposite direction to the exit (or even enter the building) in order to collect their children.

• Nurses are likely to rush to the aid of their patients in their escape.

• Teachers will concentrate on the evacuation of the children in their charge.

The Effect of Different Behaviours on Fire and EvacuationEven if adequate fire safety systems are installed in buildings, they can fail to work as planned when an actual fire occurs. Problems can arise during fire incidents because systems have been put in place without considering the likely behaviour of occupants during a fire.

The behaviour of building occupants in a fire situation is likely to be determined by three key factors:

• Characteristics of the occupant.

• Design and layout of the building.

• Nature of the fire.

These three elements are important in determining the development and outcome of the event.

Factors that have an impact on occupant behaviour during a fire include:

• Age and mobility.

• Knowledge and experience (familiarity with the building, past fire experience, fire safety training, etc.).



• Condition of the person at the time of the event, which determines their potential to react promptly and appropriately (alone or with others, under the influence of drugs, alcohol or medication, etc.).

• Personality and decision-making style (copy the reactions of others or adopt a leadership role).

• Occupant’s role in the building (owner, employee, visitor).

Crowd Flow: Nature, Dangers and ModificationCrowds in a fire emergency are made up of a large number of individuals with a shared goal of trying to get out of the building. Crowds do not move as a single entity unless very dense. There will be bottlenecks (such as at doorways) where crowd densities may surge to dangerous levels. Even in open spaces, people form clusters and ‘herds’ as a consequence of different movement speeds and associations (such as family groups). There is considerable interaction between the individuals in the crowd which can sometimes make it look as if people have become robots and totally lost their ability to make individual choices.

The danger with dense crowds is that people may die of compressive asphyxia, caused by severe crushing pressures: a person who trips and falls or who is forced against a wall or barrier may be crushed to death.

To avoid the dangers caused by poor crowd flow, close attention should be given to the:

• Physical design of buildings:

– Sufficient exit routes, of sufficient width.

– Avoidance of confusing dead ends along routes.

– Clear signage.

– Flow dividers, such as additional handrails in the central portion of wide staircases.

• Presentation of clear messages:

– Precise.

– Clear.

– Logical.

– Telling people: – Exactly what positive actions they should take. – In what order to take the actions.

Overcoming Behavioural IssuesThere is a number of measures that can be used to overcome behavioural problems arising from inaccurate perception of the reality of the fire situation:

• Make sure that those recognised as ‘designated persons’ in a fire emergency have been allocated clear roles and responsibilities. These should have been:

– Specified in the Fire Emergency Plan.

– Communicated to the relevant persons.

– Reinforced through training.

• Install clear, unambiguous alarms to avoid uncertainty and confusion.

• Practise fire drills frequently as training exercises in rapid building evacuation.

• Ensure that escape routes are clear, signed and adequately lit.

• Introduce measures to help vulnerable people and people with disabilities and/or mobility problems:

– Adequate staff allocated to help.

– Refuges.

– Evacuation lifts.



– Additional escape routes.

– Ramps.

– Evacuation chairs.

– Contingency plans to deal with sleeping people who will be disorientated and slow to respond.

TOPIC FOCUS

Factors that make people slow to respond in a fire:

• Poor perception of the danger involved:

– Lack of understanding of the hazards of smoke.

– Limited knowledge of how the fire might spread.

• The fact that people do not generally respond to a single stimulus and often wait for others to respond first.

• Lack of awareness of the significance of the alarm:

– Misinterpretation of the alarm.

– Assumption that it is a false alarm.

• Desire to finish tasks and collect belongings.

• Fright and panic causing people to freeze.

STUDY QUESTIONS

4. Explain what is meant by the term ‘perception’.

5. Outline the structural and personal factors that might affect the choice of exits that a person makes in a fire situation.

6. What are the factors that might make people slow to respond in a fire emergency situation?



Appropriate Training Requirements5.4

Appropriate Training Requirements

IN THIS SECTION...

• Fire safety training information should be provided for workers and all other persons on the premises such as temporary and agency staff and volunteers, so that they know what to do if there is a fire and how to evacuate the premises safely.

• Competent persons with suitable training, knowledge and experience are needed to help employers or persons responsible for buildings, with implementing preventive and protective measures.

• Fire wardens and workers with management and supervisory roles play an essential part in the fire safety programme and require appropriate training.

Fire Safety TrainingIn a fire, the immediate actions of those people on the premises are key in preventing loss of life. Actions taken will greatly depend on the information, instruction and training that those involved have received previously. Fire safety training is therefore an essential requirement that supports the Fire Emergency Plan.

Fire safety training information needs to be provided for workers and everyone else on the premises, such as temporary and agency staff, and volunteers, so that they know:

• What to do if there is a fire.

• How to evacuate the premises safely.

The information and instruction given should be based on the Fire Emergency Plan, and include:

• The significant findings from the fire risk assessment.

• The measures in place to reduce the risk.

• What action staff should take if there is a fire.

• The identity of persons nominated with particular responsibilities for fire safety.

• The importance of closing fire doors to prevent smoke and fire spread.

• Any special arrangements for serious or imminent danger to persons from fire.

Fire safety training should be tailored to the particular features of the premises, but should at least:

• Explain the emergency procedures.

• Take account of the work activity and explain the duties and responsibilities of staff.

• Be tested by fire drills.

Training in fire safety procedures is essential for all staff


Appropriate Training Requirements 5.4

TOPIC FOCUSThe content of the fire safety training should include:

• What to do on discovering a fire.

• How to raise the alarm.

• What to do upon hearing the fire alarm.

• Procedures for alerting contractors and visitors, including directing them to exits.

• Arrangements for calling the fire and rescue service.

• Evacuation procedures for everyone to reach an assembly point at a place of total safety.

• Location and use of fire-fighting equipment.

• Location of escape routes.

• How to open emergency exit doors.

• Importance of keeping fire doors closed to prevent the spread of fire, heat and smoke.

• How to stop machines and processes and isolate power supplies if a fire occurs.

• Why lifts should not be used.

• The risk from, and safe use of, highly flammable substances.

• Importance of general fire safety, which includes good housekeeping.

Competent PersonsCompetent persons with suitable training, knowledge and experience are needed to help employers or persons responsible for buildings with implementing preventive and protective measures.

In order to be competent, the person must have sufficient:

• training;

• knowledge; and

• experience.The competent person should therefore have the necessary skills, expertise and available equipment to carry out their responsibilities.

The key function for the competent person is to help with the fire risk assessment.

The level of competency required will depend on the complexity of the premises:

• For simple premises - basic fire safety training and familiarity with the organisation.

• For complex premises:

– A higher level of competency (such as this IFC qualification).

– External specialists and consultants.

Roles and ResponsibilitiesTo ensure that fire emergencies are dealt with effectively, fire wardens will be expected to help with the evacuation procedure as necessary; because of this, they require more comprehensive training.

Their role includes:

• Helping members of the public, visitors and/or disabled persons leave the premises.

• Checking designated areas to make sure everyone has evacuated.

DEFINITION

COMPETENT PERSONA person who has sufficient training and experience or knowledge and other qualities to enable them to properly assist in undertaking the preventive and protective measures.


Appropriate Training Requirements5.4

• Using fire-fighting equipment.

• Liaising with the fire and rescue service.

• Shutting down vital or dangerous equipment.

• Performing a supervisory/managing role in any fire situation.To carry out these functions, fire wardens will need training, which should include:

• Detailed knowledge of the fire safety strategy of the premises.

• Awareness of human behaviour in fires.

• How to encourage others to use the most appropriate escape route.

• How to search safely and recognise areas that are unsafe to enter.

• The difficulties that some people, particularly if disabled, may have in escaping.

• Any special evacuation arrangements that have been pre-planned.

• Additional training in the use of fire-fighting equipment.

• An understanding of the purpose of any fixed fire-fighting equipment such as sprinklers or gas flooding systems.

• The importance of reporting faults, incidents and near misses.

TOPIC FOCUSUse of a fire warden system involves:

• The building being split into small areas of responsibility.

• Each area being allocated to a specific fire warden.

• The wardens being designated people who, in the event of a fire:

– Search and check their allocated area.

– Ensure that all people have left the building.

– Direct anyone who has not left the building to an appropriate fire exit and safe assembly point.

– Report to a co-ordinator that their area has been checked and is clear.

• Benefits of the system: – Use of trained people who know the premises to evacuate others who may not be familiar with the

layout.

– Wardens can compensate for any adverse human behaviour which might hinder or delay the evacuation.

Workers with Management/Supervisory RolesManagers and supervisors are required to adopt a more strategic approach to fire safety. Because of this, they will need supplementary training on:

• The Fire Emergency Plan: – Content.

– Formulation from the fire risk assessment.

– Means of implementation.

• The fire alarm control panel: – Fire zones.

– Indicator warnings.

– Interpretation.

– Procedure for testing and maintaining effectiveness.

• Special evacuation arrangements for persons with disabilities.


Appropriate Training Requirements 5.4

STUDY QUESTIONS

7. Outline the:

(a) Purpose of fire safety training

(b) Principal groups of persons for whom training should be provided.

8. Explain the operation of a fire warden system.



Summary

Summary

This element has dealt with the safety of people in the event of fire.


• Examined the Fire Emergency Plan and its purpose in ensuring that people on the premises know what to do in the event of fire, and that appropriate action is taken to enable the premises to be evacuated safely.

• Considered the content of the Fire Emergency Plan (in both single and multi-occupied premises) and noted that it explains: how people will be warned, actions people should take on discovering and in the event of a fire, arrangements for calling the fire and rescue service, evacuation procedures, assembly points, fire-fighting arrangements, procedures for liaising with the fire and rescue service and arrangements for vulnerable people and those with disabilities.

• Discussed the need for compatibility of a Fire Emergency Plan with the everyday use of the premises.

• Explained the purpose of a fire evacuation procedure (to ensure that people know how to evacuate safely from the building), and considered the special aids that may be required to help vulnerable people and special arrangements that may be necessary for evacuating members of the public.

• Examined the various types of evacuation procedure: simultaneous, phased (vertical or horizontal) or staged, and arrangements for maintaining the evacuation procedure.

• Discussed the principles of sensory perception and how fire is recognised in its early stages by sensory signals, and the interpretation of such signals using previous experiences, training and expectations.

• Considered the individual’s response to different forms of audible and visual warnings and the effects of time pressure and stress on the decision-making process during fire emergencies.

• Examined how individuals choose exits in fire emergencies, how persons responsible for others such as parents, nurses and teachers exhibit specific behaviour patterns in a fire, the effects of different behaviours on fire and evacuation and how crowd flow can cause danger and prevent safe escape.

• Discussed the need for fire safety training information for workers and all other persons on the premises, such as temporary staff, agency staff and volunteers, so that they know what to do if there is a fire and how to evacuate the premises safely.

• Examined the need for competent persons to help in implementing preventive and protective measures, and for fire wardens and workers with management and supervisory roles to be suitably trained in order to play their essential part in the fire safety programme.


Exam Skills ES

Exam Skills

QUESTION 1

Outline the factors to be considered when developing an evacuation procedure for a shared occupancy office building. (8)

QUESTION 2

A recently developed multi-storey commercial building is to be occupied by a large business employing approximately 500 employees.

(a) Give reasons why it may be appropriate to develop a phased evacuation system for the building. (2)

(b) Outline how a phased evacuation system might operate. (5)

(c) Explain the issues to be addressed when determining the adequacy of the means of escape within the building. (8)

(d) Outline additional provisions the business may consider in order to assist persons with sensory impairment and/or physical disabilities to be evacuated safely in the event of a fire. (5)

Approaching Question 1


1. The first step is to read the question carefully. Note that this question asks about the factors to consider in an evacuation procedure for a shared occupancy office, so co-operation and co-ordination will be important.

2. Next, consider the marks available. In this question there are eight marks so it is expected that around eight or nine different pieces of information should be provided. It is often easier to pick marks up on questions that are split into sections because the signposts NEBOSH use are so much easier to spot. However this question gives no such clues so we are looking for an evacuation procedure for a shared occupancy office building. The question should take around eight minutes to answer in total in an exam situation. Try not to overrun that time. Statistically most marks are picked up in the first five to six minutes of attempting a question. Generally it’s better to pick more marks up on other questions than run over time, perfecting just one. Remember, if you do not attempt a question because you ran out of time you will get no marks!

3. Now highlight the key words. In this case, this might look like this:

Outline the factors to be considered when developing an evacuation procedure for a shared occupancy office building. (8)

4. Read the question again to make sure you understand it is asking about evacuation procedures. If you are unsure about the word ‘factors’, substitute it for ‘things’. (Re-read your notes if you need to.)

5. The next stage is to develop a plan – there are various ways to do this. Remind yourself first of all that you need to be thinking about ‘evacuation procedures’ in ‘shared occupancy offices’. When you see the command word ‘outline’, you need to give the most important features, so your answer plan will need to have more detail added to it in order to provide a full answer for the examiners.


Exam SkillsES


Evacuation procedure

• Co-operation and co-ordination (RRFSO, Article 22) with other occupiers.

• Number of people.

• Number of available exits.

• Location of assembly point.

• Arrangements for accounting for personnel.

• Arrangements for contacting emergency services.

• Phased evacuation.

• Visitors and contractors.

• Vulnerable groups.

• Fire wardens.

• Signage.

• Testing alarms and practice drills.

Example of How the Question Could be AnsweredThe responsible persons in each organisation that occupies the building should co-operate with each other and co-ordinate their response to emergency situations. The assembly points for personnel who evacuate the building need to be considered in terms of location and size for the number of people likely to be involved in an evacuation. The number of available exits and escape distances to them also need to be considered in the emergency procedure. The procedure must cover how the fire alarm is raised and actions personnel must take on hearing the alarm. The alarm may trigger a phased evacuation, i.e. those nearest the trigger point evacuate first or one wing of a premise is evacuated first. The procedure must then cover the actions those in vulnerable groups take, such as those with disabilities. The procedure may indicate that persons in wheel chairs use refuge areas to allow the main flow of occupants to leave before the use of specialist equipment to evacuate the disabled persons. The premises may have fire safe lifts for the evacuation of disabled people, but generally the use of lifts must be made clear in emergency procedures because often they do not form part of the escape routes from a building. The emergency procedure must also cover the frequency at which the alarm system is tested; this may need to take into account the different working hours of the occupants of the building and the frequency of practising fire drills.

Reasons for Poor Marks Achieved by Candidates in Exam• Providing more of a list without giving sufficient detail to meet the action verb criteria of ‘outline’.

• Being unable to apply basic knowledge. Most candidates should have a working knowledge of emergency procedures they can outline from their own experiences.

• If the examiner cannot read the candidate’s answer marks cannot be awarded.


Exam Skills ES

Approaching Question 2


1. The first step is to read the question carefully. Note that for part (a) of the question, you are required to give reasons why a phased evacuation may be used, so you need to provide, without explaining, these reasons. Part (b) requires an outline, so you will need to pick the most important features of how a phased evacuation system operates. Part (c) requires you to explain, or give a clear account of, the issues when determining the adequacy of the means of escape. Part (d) requires an outline, or the most important features of, additional provisions made for persons with a disability.

2. Next, consider the marks available. In this question, there are 20 marks available. Questions that are split into parts (this question is split into four parts worth two, five, eight and five marks respectively) are often easier to pick up marks on, because the signposts NEBOSH use are so much easier to see with the question broken down into smaller sections. In part (a) of the question, you are asked to ‘give’ reasons why it may be appropriate to develop a phased evacuation system which is worth two marks, so you should be able to provide this answer in one sentence. Part (b) is worth five marks so you need to outline at least five factors to gain all the marks available. Part (c) is worth eight marks and since an ‘explanation’ of the issues to be addressed when determining the adequacy of the means of escape will take the form of sentences you will need to write between four and six sentences. Part (d) is worth a further five marks for outlining additional provisions for the disabled, so you will need to outline five or six factors. This question is worth a third of the marks towards a creditable pass, but only accounts for a quarter of the time, so it is really worth focusing on the 20-point questions to try to score highly, even more so when they are divided up into smaller sections like this question. The whole question should take around 25 minutes to write up and five minutes to read through and make any minor changes or additions.


(a) Give reasons why it may be appropriate to develop a phased evacuation system for the building. (2)

(b) Outline how a phased evacuation system might operate. (5)

(c) Explain the issues to be addressed when determining the adequacy of the means of escape within the building. (8)

(d) Outline additional provisions the business may consider in order to assist persons with sensory impairment and/or physical disabilities to be evacuated safely in the event of a fire. (5)

4. Read the question again to make sure you understand it and have a clear understanding of the safety of people in the event of a fire. (Re-read your notes in Element 5 if you need to.)

5. The next stage is to develop a plan – there are various ways to do this. Remind yourself first of all that this question is about getting the occupants safely out of a multi-storey office block in an emergency situation.

To construct your sentence for part (a), list the reasons why we may use a phased evacuation and then write them into a sentence. For part (b), again, list the key factors of how a phased evacuation system operates and change the factors listed into a sentence. Using examples to illustrate your answer will help convince the examiner that you understand how a phased evacuation might operate. For part (c), you will need to list the issues to be considered when determining the adequacy of escape routes; each bullet-pointed item on this list should have related subsections to give you the depth that is required to meet the requirements for an ‘explanation’. For part (d), again, list the key factors of additional provision for the disabled and change the factors listed into a sentence. So, your answer plan will take the form of bullet-pointed lists that you need to develop into a full answer.

Your answer must be based on the key words you have highlighted. So, in relation to phased evacuations, you need to (a) give reasons why they are appropriate and (b) how they operate. For part (c) you need to explain the issues when determining the adequacy of the means of escape (remember the scene set is a multi-storey office block) and for part (d) outline additional provisions for persons with a disability.


Exam SkillsES

Now have a go at the answer plan. Provide this in table form, listing the factors that you would then develop into an answer. Check your answer plan with the one suggested below. If you have more factors in your lists, then re-read the question to make sure you are answering what has been asked. If you have fewer factors than in the suggested answer plan, you may need to revise your course material to remind yourself of the breadth of factors influencing phased evacuations, emergency escape routes and provision for the disabled.

Key hint: do not confuse your part (c) answer, where you should be considering general means of escape, with the part (d) answer where you are covering the additional specific requirements for the disabled.


Part (a) Part (b) Part (c) Part (d)

• Control.

• Congestion.

• Proximity.

• Panic.

• Alert and evacuate.

• Alert, place on standby.

• Different alarm systems.

• Role of fires.

• Regular training.

• Floor design.

• Number of exits and alternative choices.

• Protected escape routes/compartmentation/fire resistant.

• Width.

• Illumination/ unobstructed/signage.

• Doors/open outwards/ no keys/easy access to assembly point.

• Instruction/information.

• Visual alarm.

• Sensory alarm (vibrate).

• Evacuation chairs.

• Refuges.

• Tactile signage.

• Evacuation lifts.

• Buddy systems.

• Staff training.

When you have an answer plan that meets the requirements of the question, have a go at providing a full answer under examination conditions. Give yourself 20 minutes to write the answer (this time-frame assumes you have spent five minutes on the answer plan). Your handwriting must be legible - if the examiner cannot read what is written then it cannot be marked. You will not be penalised for poor grammar or spelling, as long as your answer is clear and can be understood.

Remember, you can always contact your tutor if you have any queries or need any further guidance on how to answer this question.

When you have finished your answer, read the suggested answer below and compare it to yours.


(a) A phased evacuation system would be appropriate for this building because it allows for the controlled evacuation of persons in closest proximity (and therefore at highest risk) to the fire which will reduce panic and congestion on escape routes.

(b) A phased evacuation system might operate with occupants on the floor in which the emergency has arisen and the floor immediately above the incident being evacuated, whilst occupants on floors higher and lower than the incident and adjacent floor are placed on alert. This may mean the fire alarm has a different sound on each floor or an announcement is made over a public address system following the alarm sounding. Fire s, on hearing the first warning, may be required to go to a fire control panel and follow procedures on designating floors to be evacuated. The system in use would need to be practised at regular intervals to ensure employees are familiar with the actions to be taken. The phased evacuation of personnel would also be reflected in the building design taking into account compartmentation.


Exam Skills ES

(c) Issues that will need addressing in determining the adequacy of escape routes include ensuring that the number of exits provided are sufficient to evacuate all the occupants of the building in a timely manner and to give alternative routes out of the building, should one exit be unavailable due to the emergency. The escape routes from the premises need to be of sufficient width to accommodate the number and type of people (i.e. wheelchair users, the elderly and children) escaping from the building and also suitably protected from fire spread by using compartmentation and/or fire resistant materials in their construction. Escape routes must be clearly signed with ‘running man’ signs and arrows indicating the direction of travel and illuminated so users can see where they are going. Escape routes should be provided with emergency lighting systems to ensure routes remain illuminated even if mains power is lost. Escape routes must be kept free from obstructions at all times and free from combustible materials. Doors on the escape routes must open in the direction of travel when exiting the building and not require the use of a key to open them. Exit routes must give easy access to the fire assembly points. The occupants of the building must be provided with instruction in the means of escape and information on what to do in an emergency.

(d) Additional provision for occupants or visitors to the premises who may have a sensory or physical impairment may include fire alarms that operate on a trembler (vibrating pager) system or visual (flashing strobe lighting) system to warn of an emergency. Those with a visual impairment may be further aided by tactile way-finding signage or the use of a ‘buddy’ system to aid escape. For those with impaired mobility, the use of evacuation chairs with operators properly trained in their use and the provision of dedicated evacuation lifts in the building will aid escape. The provision of refuges on escape routes can allow for those needing an assisted escape to wait in relative safety for assigned persons to come and support them. Refuges are often sited within a normal escape stairwell but in a manner that does not impede the flow of other persons escaping the emergency.

Reasons for Poor Marks Achieved by Candidates in Exam• Concentrating in part (c) on means of escape for the disabled, leaving nothing to say for part (d).

• Not having a clear enough understanding of how phased evacuation systems work.

• Providing insufficient detail to meet the requirements of ‘outline’ or ‘explain’.

• Not being sufficiently well prepared; you must read and re-read your course material.

© RRC International © RRC International Unit B: Element B1 - Managing Occupational HealthUnit FC1: Element 5 - Safety of People in the Event of Fire © RRC International

Learning Outcomes


Explain the aims and objectives of fire safety risk assessments.

Outline the principles and practice of fire safety risk assessments, including principles of prevention (measures to remove and reduce risk).

Outline matters to be considered in a risk assessment of dangerous substances.

Outline measures to be taken to control risk in respect of dangerous substances.

6-1© RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 6 - Fire Safety Risk Assessment

Element 6

Fire Safety Risk Assessment

6-2 © RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 6 - Fire Safety Risk AssessmentUnit IFC1: Element 6 - Fire Safety Risk Assessment © RRC International

Contents

Aims and Objectives of Fire Safety Risk Assessments 6-3

Hazard and Risk 6-3Objectives of Fire Risk Assessments 6-4Different Types of Fire Incidents 6-5Study Questions 6-6

Principles and Practice of Fire Safety Risk Assessments 6-7

Legal Requirements for Fire Safety Risk Assessment 6-7Fire Hazards 6-9Identifying Hazards 6-9People at Risk 6-10Evaluation of Risk and Existing Fire Safety Measures 6-11Evaluation of Likelihood that Fire May Occur 6-11Hazards to People 6-12Consequences to People 6-12Risk Reduction 6-12Principles of Prevention 6-13Recording 6-14Review 6-16Sources of Information 6-17Relationship Between Fire Risk Assessment and the Fire Safety Policy 6-18Study Questions 6-19

Risk Assessment of Dangerous Substances 6-20

Introduction 6-20What are Dangerous Substances? 6-20Matters to Consider in Risk Assessment 6-21Measures to be Taken to Control Risk in Respect of Dangerous Substances 6-21Preparing Emergency Plans and Procedures 6-22Providing Information, Instruction and Training for Employees 6-23Study Question 6-23

Summary 6-24

Exam Skills 6-25

6-2 © RRC International Unit IFC1: Element 6 - Fire Safety Risk AssessmentUnit IFC1: Element 6 - Fire Safety Risk Assessment © RRC International 6-3

6.1Aims and Objectives of Fire Safety Risk Assessments

Aims and Objectives of Fire Safety Risk Assessments

IN THIS SECTION...

• ‘Hazard’ and ‘risk’ are important terms to understand in relation to a fire.

• The objectives of fire safety risk assessments are to eliminate, or reduce, the risk of harm from fire in the workplace for moral, social and economic reasons. To achieve these objectives, an effective management system is required.

• Fire incidents can be subdivided into: injury accidents, ill health, dangerous occurrences, near-misses and fire damage only.

Hazard and RiskBefore considering the aims and objectives of fire risk assessments, we need to be clear about what we mean when we use the terms hazard and risk.

DEFINITIONS

HAZARD

An article, substance or situation that has the potential to cause harm (injury, loss or ill health; damage).

Example: A flammable, liquid-based paint presents a fire hazard in that it is a potential source of fuel for a fire.

RISK

The likelihood of harm occurring; the degree of risk is based on likelihood and severity.

Example: A flammable, liquid-based paint is kept in sealed containers so that vapours are contained and sources of ignition are controlled:

• The risk of fire is low.

A flammable, liquid-based paint is sprayed and ignition sources are not controlled:

• The risk of fire is high.

How complicated the fire risk assessment is depends on the hazards and risks in the workplace.

In complex, high-risk industries, the level of detail and the regularity of review will clearly need to be much greater than in low-risk workplaces.

Hazard and risk are important in all aspects of health and safety


6.1 Aims and Objectives of Fire Safety Risk Assessments

TOPIC FOCUS

Risk in relation to the occurrence of fire in a workplace depends on:

• The likelihood of a fire occurring.

• Its potential consequences for the safety of persons, such as death, injury or ill health.

Types of physical harm that could be caused to persons by a workplace fire include:

• Smoke inhalation, causing burning to the lungs, and triggering conditions such as asthma.

• Suffocation or respiratory difficulties caused by depletion of oxygen.

• Poisoning by inhalation of toxic gases and other combustion products.

• Burning by heat, flames or explosion.

• Injury from falling or collapsing structures.

• Falls from a height or on the same level, caused by panicking and crushing.

• Injury from broken and flying glass.

• Mental or physical trauma.

• Death.

The fire risk assessment should be carried out by someone who is competent to do it, i.e. who has sufficient knowledge, experience and other qualities to know what they are doing.

The level of expertise required depends on the complexity of the task.

A training course for staff expected to help in carrying out fire risk assessments might include the following topics:

• Legal requirement for fire risk assessments, and the interpretation of regulations and standards.

• Process of fire risk assessment:

– Identifying fire hazards.

– Evaluating risks.

– Selection of control measures.

– Sources of information such as guidance and in-house documentation.

• Awareness of individual’s own limitations, and when support from specialists is required.

• Dissemination of the completed assessment.

Objectives of Fire Risk AssessmentsFire safety risk assessments are carried out in order to eliminate or reduce the risk of harm from fire in the workplace by:

• Identifying fire hazards in the workplace.

• Identifying who is at risk.

• Evaluating the level of risk.

• Deciding what further measures to take to remove hazards and control risk.

• Implementing those measures.

DEFINITION

FIRE RISK ASSESSMENT

An organised and methodical look at the premises, the activities carried out there and the likelihood that a fire could start and cause harm to those in and around the premises.


6.1Aims and Objectives of Fire Safety Risk Assessments

The three main reasons for assessing and managing fire risk are to:

• Prevent harm to people: there is a moral duty on employers to take appropriate steps to ensure the safety and health of their employees, and others.

• Comply with the law: employers have legal obligations regarding fire safety which, if unfulfilled, may give rise to severe penalties.

• Minimise the costs of fires at the workplace: most businesses that suffer a major fire do not fully recover from its effects and if a factory burns down it may never be re-built, with the loss of all jobs.

Fire safety risk assessment also has an impact on the overall risk magnitude of the organisation:

Risk magnitude = Frequency × Severity.

The greater the likely severity, such as:

• human harm,

• building damage,

• damage to reputation through prosecution,

• bad publicity, and

• inability to fulfil orders,

the greater the business risks if no action is taken to control it to acceptable levels.

In order to reduce the risks to persons from fire, these risks must be effectively managed by having a fire management system in place.

An organisation should have a fire safety policy set out in writing which covers such topics as:

• Who has the responsibility for fire safety at Board level.

• Who the Responsible Person is for each premises.

• Arrangements for managers, where necessary, to nominate in writing, specific people to carry out particular tasks if there is a fire.

• Arrangements for senior managers to monitor and check that individual managers are meeting the requirements of fire safety legislation.

Different Types of Fire IncidentsThe aim of fire safety risk assessments is to minimise the possibility of incidents occurring. The different types of incident can be categorised as:

• Accidents - undesired and unplanned events which result in:

– Harm to individuals (either injury or ill health).

– Production loss.

– Damage to property, plant, products or the environment.

– Increased liabilities.

– A combination of any or all of these potential outcomes.

You can see that the term has a very broad meaning.

• Injury accidents - those accidents which result in injury (including fatalities).

• Ill health - may be caused by physical, chemical or biological agents and includes mental ill health, such as long-term mental trauma after surviving a serious fire.

• Dangerous occurrences - includes explosions and fires causing significant suspension of normal work.


6.1 Aims and Objectives of Fire Safety Risk Assessments

• Near-misses - incidents that do not result in injury or loss but have the potential to do so.

• Fire damage-only incidents - those where there is no resulting injury or ill health to people, but where property or equipment may be affected by fire.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Why is the distinction between hazards and risks so important to fire management?

2. State the purpose and objectives of fire safety risk assessments.



6.2Principles and Practice of Fire Safety Risk Assessments

Principles and Practice of Fire Safety Risk Assessments

IN THIS SECTION...

• Laws, regulations and guidance need to be considered when carrying out fire safety risk assessments.

• Fire hazards arise from the combination of sources of ignition, fuel and oxygen and can be identified using methods, such as inspections and job/task analysis and by referring to legislation, manufacturers’ information and Safety Data Sheets and incident data.

• Those at risk from fire include workers, maintenance staff, cleaners, contractors, visitors, the general public, young persons, vulnerable people and people with disabilities and/or mobility problems.

• The evaluation of risk and the adequacy of existing fire safety measures examine the likelihood that a fire may occur and the consequence to people if it does occur.

• The aim of fire risk assessment is to reduce the risk by avoiding or reducing hazards that may cause a fire and putting in place fire safety measures to reduce the risk to persons from fire.

• The principles of prevention set out an important hierarchy of control which includes the avoidance of risk, as well as evaluation of risks that cannot be avoided. When prevention methods have to be implemented, collective fire safety protective measures should take priority over individual protective measures.

• The significant findings of a fire safety risk assessment should be recorded and the assessment reviewed on a regular basis as well as after occurrences such as changes to buildings, procedures, materials and equipment.

Legal Requirements for Fire Safety Risk AssessmentLaws, regulations and guidance need to be considered when carrying out fire safety risk assessments.

Where legal frameworks for fire safety exist, they tend to take a similar approach, requiring:

• Fire risk assessment.

• Identification of fire hazards and risks and persons at risk.

• Removal and reduction of risks as far as reasonably practicable.

• Fire precautions to deal with any remaining risks, including emergency procedures.

• Recording and review of the risk assessment.

Local guidance may be available on the application of the broad principles of fire safety in a range of different types of workplaces and premises. Identify fire hazards


6.2 Principles and Practice of Fire Safety Risk Assessments

MORE...

Useful guidance on fire safety risk assessment can be found in the following UK and European references:

Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005

www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2005/1541/pdfs/uksi_20051541_en.pdf

UK Department for Communities and Local Government Fire Risk Assessment Series

www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-communities-and-local-government/series/fire-safety-guidance

Guidelines for assessing the fire threat to people, BS ISO 19706:2011

Fire Risk Assessment - Guidance and a recommended methodology, PAS79:2007, ISBN: 978 0 580 59398 7

CFPA-Europe Guideline No 4:2010 – Introduction to qualitative fire risk assessment

www.cfpa-e.eu/wp-content/uploads/files/guidelines/CFPA_E_Guideline_No_4_2010_F.pdf

The process of fire safety risk assessment follows the standard five-step approach to risk assessment.

Step 1: Identify Fire Hazards

• Sources of ignition.

• Sources of fuel.

• Sources of oxygen.

Step 2: Identify People at Risk

• People in and around the premises.

• People especially at risk.

Step 3: Evaluate, Remove, Reduce and Protect from Risk

• Evaluate the risk of a fire occurring.

• Evaluate the risk to people from fire.

• Remove or reduce fire hazards.

• Remove or reduce the risks to people by:

– Detection and warning.

– Fire-fighting.

– Escape routes.

– Lighting.

– Signs and notices.

– Maintenance.

Step 4: Record, Plan, Inform, Instruct and Train

• Record significant findings and action taken.

• Prepare a Fire Emergency Plan.

• Inform and instruct relevant people; co-operate and co-ordinate with others.

• Provide training.



Step 5: Review

• Keep the assessment under review.

• Revise the assessment when necessary.

We will now look at these risk assessment elements in more detail.

Fire HazardsFire hazards comprise:

• Sources of ignition:

– Naked flames.

– Sparks from burning products.

– Vehicle exhausts.

– Heaters (electrical, gas or oil-fired), fixed or portable.

– Hot processes and hot work, such as welding.

– Cooking equipment and activities.

– Steam pipes.

– Frictional generated heat from mechanical equipment.

– Static charge from mechanical equipment.

– Poor electrical installations and faulty or misused electrical equipment.

– Light fittings and lighting equipment.

– Hot surfaces and overheating equipment.

– Arson.

• Sources of fuel:

– Flammable liquids: paints, varnishes, thinners, adhesives, petrol, white spirit, methylated spirit.

– Flammable gases: Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), gas propelled aerosols.

– Plastics: polyurethane-foam-filled furniture, polystyrene-based display materials.

– Paper products: stationery, packaging materials.

– Textiles and soft furnishings: curtains, carpets.

– Waste products.

• Sources of oxygen:

– Air, which includes: – Natural ventilation, such as doors and windows left open. – Mechanical air ventilation.

– Oxidising agents: hydrogen peroxide, sodium perchlorate and nitric acid.

– Oxygen cylinders or piped systems.

Identifying HazardsFire hazards can be identified using the following methods:

• Inspection - a form of active monitoring, involving the examination of premises, plant and equipment and the way in which they are used.

• Job/task analysis - a systematic analysis of a work activity to identify the hazards.

• Legislation - information about hazards and risks may be contained in the legal requirements which apply to the workplace or to specific jobs.

Sparks can be a source of ignition



• Manufacturers’ information and Safety Data Sheets - contain important, relevant information.

• Incident data (fire-related injuries, ill health, near-misses) - provides information about the fire hazards that caused the occurrence.

People at RiskThose at risk from fire include:

• Workers directly involved with the activity or working nearby, and may include skilled workers, trainees or young or new workers.

• Maintenance staff, who may work under very different conditions from those which apply during normal operations, and so face different hazards.

• Cleaners, who may be unaware of the safety measures associated with particular hazards in an area and working outside normal hours. Cleaning operations also present their own hazards.

• Contractors, who may not be fully aware of all the hazards or control procedures at the workplace in which they are working, and as such, the assessment should consider any additional measures that will provide them with the same level of protection as employees.

• Visitors, as they are unlikely to be aware of the hazards or control measures at the workplace they are visiting. • Members of the public, who may be affected by different hazards from those that affect workers, and are

unlikely to be expected to take any safety precautions themselves. Children on the premises need special consideration.

• People using establishments for accommodation purposes and, in particular, sleeping accommodation for workers.

• Young workers, which constitute a special category for consideration, since they are often inexperienced, lack training and perhaps give insufficient attention to safety. A fire situation which could be dealt with effectively by experienced adults could well be an increased risk to young persons.

TOPIC FOCUS

Matters to be taken into particular account in risk assessment regarding young workers include:

• Inexperience, lack of awareness of risks and immaturity.

• Fitting-out and layout of the premises.

• Nature, degree and duration of exposure to physical and chemical agents.

• Form, range and use of work equipment and the way in which it is handled.

• Organisation of processes and activities.

• Extent of the safety training provided, or to be provided.

• Specific risks to young workers from agents, processes and work.

• Vulnerable persons such as elderly persons (over 60), children under 10, mentally or physically impaired persons, mentally ill or depressed persons, persons on medication and known substance abusers (alcohol or drugs); a fire situation which could be dealt with effectively by experienced and fit adults may be an increased risk to such people.

• Disabled persons who may have impaired hearing, vision or mobility and be unable to recognise a fire and sound the alarm, report the fire to a responsible person, and then evacuate unaided to a place of safety.



Evaluation of Risk and Existing Fire Safety MeasuresFire risk is best evaluated in two separate stages:

• Risk of Fire Breaking Out

Factors that will increase the chances of a fire starting and/or increase its severity include:

– Poor housekeeping allowing combustibles to accumulate.

– Poor storage and inadequate segregation of incompatible materials and large inventories of fuel.

– Poorly maintained equipment.

– Smoking.

– Inappropriate management of building alterations.

– Use of portable heating appliances.

– Poor security and external lighting to deter arsonists.

• Risk of People Actually Being Harmed by the Fire

Important factors are:

– The location of people in relation to likely fire starting points: – The only escape route from an upper floor may be blocked by

smoke/fire. – There may be a risk of fire in an unoccupied space at a point along an escape route that people have to use

to get out of the building.

– The possibility of fire/smoke spread to remote parts of the building due to poor building design/maintenance, such as:

– Voids, ducts, and poorly maintained walls. – Combustible structural elements allowing a fire to spread.

– Fire/smoke spread due to poor fire precautions: – Fire and smoke control doors poorly installed/maintained or wedged open. – Lack of fire stopping where services penetrate compartments.

The adequacy of existing fire safety measures can also be assessed against the sector-specific guides available from the Department for Communities and Local Government, and listed in Element 1.

Evaluation of Likelihood that Fire May OccurFires start in one of three ways, by:

• An Accidental Event

Examples of this might be:

– Smoking materials not being properly extinguished.

– Accidental damage to lighting displays.

• An Act or Omission

Examples include:

– Electrical equipment not being properly maintained.

– Waste packaging being allowed to accumulate near a heat source.

– LPG being stored next to an electric fire or other source of heat.

MORE...

The UK Department for Communities and Local Government

www.communities.gov.uk/fire/firesafety/firesafetylaw/aboutguides

CFPA-Europe Guideline No 4:2010 – Introduction to qualitative fire risk assessment

www.cfpa-e.eu/wp-content/uploads/files/guidelines/CFPA_E_Guideline_No_4_2010_F.pdf



• Deliberate Intent

An example would be an arson attack involving external rubbish bins placed too close to the building being set alight.

A simple, practical approach to reduce hazards and the risk of a fire starting, involves separating flammable materials from ignition sources.

The key factor that governs the likelihood that a fire might occur is the adequacy of existing controls.

Hazards to PeopleAn evaluation of the hazards to people in the event of fire, should consider the following possibilities:

• Loss of visibility - a fire in a building with modern fittings and materials can generate thick, black smoke which can obscure vision and block escape routes.

• Elevated temperature - the combustion process generates heat as it progresses and if a fire becomes self-sustaining and no longer requires an external heat source, combustion develops very quickly and there can be a dramatic increase in temperature.

• Toxic gases - smoke produced by a fire also contains toxic gases which are harmful to people.

• Oxygen depletion - the combustion process consumes oxygen and if the oxygen concentration in air decreases, a situation can rapidly arise where the risk of asphyxiation is significant.

Consequences to PeopleAn evaluation of the consequences to people from a fire starting in a building must consider the:

• Effects on persons on or near the premises if a fire starts and spreads from the locations identified in the assessment.

• Ways in which fire spreads.

• Effects of smoke produced by the fire:

– Difficulty in breathing due to toxic gases.

– Obscured vision effectively blocking escape routes.

Issues to consider might include fire starting and spreading through a building:

• On a lower floor and affecting the only escape route for people on upper floors or those with disabilities.

• Because of combustible structural elements and/or large quantities of combustible goods.

• Via routes such as vertical shafts, service ducts and ventilation systems.

• Due to poorly maintained and damaged fire doors or fire doors being wedged open.

Risk ReductionRisk reduction involves removal or reduction of fire hazards and risks to people.

Fire Hazards• Reducing the risk caused by potential sources of ignition:

– Enforcing the smoking policy.

– Replacing naked flames and radiant heaters with convector heaters or a central heating system.

– Ensuring electrical, mechanical and gas equipment is installed, used, maintained and protected in accordance with the manufacturers’ instructions.

– Strictly controlling hot work by operating permit-to-work schemes.

– Ensuring that no one uses any source of ignition while searching for an escape of gas.



– Taking precautions to avoid arson.

• Reducing the risk caused by potential sources of fuel:

– Reducing stocks of flammable materials, liquids and gases to a minimum.

– Keeping stocks of flammable materials, liquids and gases in dedicated storerooms or storage areas.

– Using non-combustible building materials for building modifications.

– Removing or treating large areas of highly combustible wall and ceiling linings, such as polystyrene or carpet tiles, to reduce the rate of flame spread across the surface.

– Developing a formal system for the control of combustible waste.

• Reducing the risk caused by potential sources of oxygen:

– Closing all doors, windows and other openings not required for ventilation.

– Shutting down ventilation systems which are not essential to the function of the premises.

– Not storing oxidising materials near or within any heat source or flammable materials.

– Controlling the use and storage of oxygen cylinders, ensuring that they are not leaking and that where they are located is adequately ventilated.

Risks to PeopleReducing the risk to persons from fire by ensuring that adequate fire precautions are in place to:

• Warn people in the event of a fire to allow them to safely escape.

• Ensure the following:

– Means of detecting fires.

– Means of escape.

– Means of fighting fires.

– Arrangements for action to be taken in event of fire.

Principles of PreventionThe following principles should be applied when controlling risks:

• Avoiding risks.

• Evaluating the risks which cannot be avoided.

• Combating the risks at source.

• Adapting to technical progress.

• Replacing the dangerous by the non-dangerous or less dangerous.

• Developing a coherent overall prevention policy which covers technology, organisation of work and the influence of factors relating to the working environment.

• Giving collective protective measures priority over individual protective measures.

• Giving appropriate instructions to workers.

We can summarise these principles as:

• Elimination of the fire hazard:

– Removal of fuel, ignition source, oxygen.

• Using physical or engineering controls which:

– Reduce the risk at source.

– Provide general protection, rather than individual protection.

Means of fighting fire must be available



• Control of the person by: – Job design.

– Management:

– Safe systems of work.

– Training and instruction.

– Supervision.

– Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).

RecordingRecords of fire safety risk assessments should include the following:

• The fire hazards that have been identified.

• Persons who may be at risk and particularly those especially at risk.

• The actions taken to reduce the risk to people from the spread of fire and smoke (protective measures).

• The actions taken or which will be taken to remove or reduce the chance of a fire occurring (preventive measures).

• The actions people need to take in case of fire, including details of any persons nominated to carry out a particular function as specified in the Fire Emergency Plan.

• The required information, instruction and training that has been identified and how it will be given.

Do I Need to Record My Fire Risk Assessment?This may depend on local requirements. It is entirely sensible to record “significant findings”, just like you would with most other risk assessments, because it is then easy to retrieve and refer back to. It can also be used as evidence to demonstrate compliance, but, there are sometimes very specific circumstances that require it to be recorded. For example, in the UK, “significant findings” MUST be recorded by law if:

(a) You employ 5 or more employees.

(b) The premises are required to be licensed (this applies to specific types of premises).

(c) The premises are subject to an alterations notice (this is a legal measure that requires business owners to notify the fire authority before they make alterations to the premises).

The following is an example of the recording of significant findings, taken from the UK Communities and Local Government guidance document Fire Safety Risk Assessment – Offices and Shops.

A thorough fire risk assessment of the workplace should be carried out

and recorded



(Source: Fire safety risk assessment - offices and shops, DCLG, 2006 www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/422175/9449_

Offices_and_Shops_v2.pdf)



TOPIC FOCUS

Type of information that should be included in the records of the findings of fire risk assessments:

• Name of the person carrying out the assessment, date it was carried out and the date set for its review.

• Details of the person responsible for fire safety of the premises.

• Information on significant fire hazards.

• Persons who may be at risk, and those who might be especially so, because of special needs or disabilities.

• Measures to reduce the likelihood of fire occurring, such as removing or reducing sources of ignition and fuel.

• Measures taken to reduce the risks to persons, such as the provision of detection and warning systems and emergency escape routes.

• Information on the actions that people need to take in the event of a fire.

• Requirements for the provision of information, instruction and training.

ReviewA fire risk assessment should be reviewed under the following circumstances:

• Change in the number of persons present or persons with disabilities: increased occupancy and especially the possible presence of disabled people not previously considered.

• Any alterations to the building, furniture and fittings: changes to building structure (including internal layout) and internal furnishings.

• Changes to work procedures, introduction of new equipment: alterations to work practices and processes, including installation of new machinery and equipment.

• Introduction of, or changes to storage of, dangerous substances: change of use or increased inventory.• Becoming aware of shortcomings in fire safety measures or need for improvements: a fire or near-miss could

imply that the original assessment was inadequate and information gained from these incidents may indicate that amendments to preventive/protective measures are necessary.

• Legal changes and/or guidance affecting fire safety.

• Elapse of time: all risk assessments should be reviewed periodically depending on the business and how likely things are to change.

TOPIC FOCUS

Circumstances that would require a fire risk assessment to be reviewed include:

• Alterations to the building involving extensions or a change in internal layout.

• Changes to work processes, such as the introduction of new substances.

• Introduction of new machinery or furniture.

• Changes in the number or type of employees, such as disabled persons or persons with special needs.

• Changes in the quantity of stock held or in the storage of hazardous substances.

• After a fire, explosion or near-miss.

• After the failure of fire precautions, such as detection or alarm systems.

• As a result of inspections or monitoring which identify fire hazards.

• After changes in legislation or guidance.

• Following enforcement action.

• After a period of time.



Sources of InformationInformation which might help the risk assessment process includes:

• Country-specific legislation and guidance: for example, in the UK, the following documents are extremely relevant to the risk assessment process:

– The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 provides the detailed requirements in respect of the general duties for fire safety.

– The Building Regulations 2010 (for England and Wales) impose a number of requirements on people carrying out certain building operations.

– A range of Approved Documents has been produced which provide practical guidance with respect to the requirements of the regulations for a range of common issues relating to new and altered buildings:

– Approved Document B – Fire Safety: means of warning and escape; internal and external fire spread; access and facilities for the fire service.

– Approved Document M: access to, and use of, buildings, which is also significant in relation to fire safety.

– The UK Health and Safety Executive produce guidance on fire safety including:

– Storage of Flammable Liquids in Tanks (HSG176).

– Storage of Flammable Liquids in Containers (HSG51).

– Safe Working with Flammable Substances (INDG227).

– The UK Communities and Local Government Practical Fire Safety Guidance provides detailed information and guidance on risk assessments and other fire safety issues appropriate to different types of premises.

– PAS 79:2012 Fire Risk Assessment - Guidance and a recommended methodology from the British Standards Institution provides a structured approach to fire risk assessment.

• The organisation’s Fire Emergency Plan, derived from the fire risk assessment, provides a training and guidance document and gives people on the premises information on the actions to take in the event of a fire and the adopted evacuation strategy.

• Previous risk assessments will contain valid information which might still be relevant to the organisation.

• General monitoring records from inspections, tours, safety sampling or audits, even if for general health and safety purposes, may include issues relevant to fire safety.

• Records of electrical inspections and tests and information on portable appliance testing, failure records, maintenance records and electrical checks on fixed installations can all give an indication of potential electrical fire risks.

• The fire log book (or country-specific equivalent) will contain records of tests, inspections and drills, and provide a valuable record of the effectiveness of the preventive and protective measures including:

– Visits by fire enforcement officers and their comments.

– Fire instructions and drills.

– Records of tests/inspections on:

– Emergency escape lighting system.

– Primary lighting on escape routes.

– Hose reels.

– Fire extinguishers.

– Fire alarm systems.

There is plenty of information available that can help in the fire risk

assessment process



– Fire doors and structural means of escape.

– Electrical installations.

• Previous incidents provide a summary of significant events and can be used to help in investigations and with the identification of any trends or patterns of events.

• The visitor register provides information on the types of people likely to be on the premises if a fire does occur.

• Training records of fire safety training for persons on the premises are important.

• Maintenance records on fire alarms, fire extinguishers, lighting, signs, fire exits and fire doors will confirm that they have been maintained in effective working order.

• The health and safety file (or country-specific equivalent) should include all relevant information on fire safety and control measures and is a valuable source of information on existing fire precautions.

• Operator and machine manuals provide information on safeguarding equipment to reduce the likelihood of fire.

TOPIC FOCUS

Sources of information that might usefully be consulted when carrying out a fire risk assessment in the workplace:

• Legislation.

• Guidance notes.

• International standards.

• Industry standards and other codes of practice.

• Fire safety reference documents such as fire log books and maintenance records.

• Trade union/employee association materials.

• Manufacturers’ and suppliers’ data.

• Findings of previous risk assessments.

• Results of inspections.

• Advice and documentation from insurance companies.

• Plans and drawings.

• Fire and safety periodicals.

• Major injury reports.

• Information from fire authorities, enforcement authorities and competent colleagues.

Relationship Between Fire Risk Assessment and the Fire Safety PolicyYou will remember that we considered the key features of the fire safety policy in Element 1. There we noted that risk assessment is the process by which the specific, necessary, preventive and protective measures are identified, so having carried out the fire risk assessment all the information should be available regarding the protective and preventive measures that are required and the procedures that are necessary to ensure that they are implemented. These will then form part of the fire safety policy.

The arrangements section of a fire safety policy would therefore make reference to the following or similar provisions appropriate to the specific workplace:

• Control of sources of ignition (smoking policy, maintenance of portable electrical equipment, hot work).

• Control of sources of fuel (minimising quantities and safe storage of flammable materials, liquids and gases; control of combustible waste).



• Fire detection and alarm systems (installation, maintenance, inspection and weekly testing).

• Portable fire extinguishers (provision, use, appropriate type, location, and annual maintenance).

• Fire safety signage (for escape routes and final exits).

• Fire action notices (to inform people of the action to be taken in the event of fire).

• Emergency escape lighting (design, location, operation, monthly inspection and annual testing).

• Fire safety inspections.

• Evacuation arrangements (including duties of fire wardens).

• Education and training of staff in fire safety arrangements (evacuation procedures and drills).

STUDY QUESTIONS

3. State the five steps involved in a fire risk assessment.

4. Apart from operatives, what particular staff groups need special consideration during a risk assessment?

5. What techniques are used for identifying hazards?

6. State the three principles underlying the order of the principles of prevention.

7. What conditions would necessitate a risk assessment review?



Risk Assessment of Dangerous Substances6.3

Risk Assessment of Dangerous Substances

IN THIS SECTION...

• National legislation requires employers to control the risks to safety from fire, explosion and similar events, arising from dangerous substances that are present in the workplace.

• The Approved Code of Practice and Guidance to the UK Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 2002 (L138) gives good advice to employers on how to control the risks to safety from fire, explosion and similar events, arising from dangerous substances that are present in the workplace.

IntroductionEmployers and the self-employed have a duty to protect people from risks to their safety from fires, explosions and similar events in the workplace. The people who must be protected include visitors to the workplace and members of the public who may be affected.

The UK Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order (RRFSO) 2005 makes special reference to “dangerous substances”.,and sets out matters to be considered when undertaking risk assessments with regard to dangerous substances,.

What are Dangerous Substances?Dangerous substances are any substances used, or are present in the workplace, that could cause harm to people as a result of fire or explosion. Such substances are classified as explosive, oxidising, extremely flammable, highly flammable, or flammable, and can be found in most workplaces. Examples of dangerous substances include:

• Solvents.

• Paints.

• Varnishes.

• Petrol.

• Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG).

• Dusts from machining or sanding.

• Dust produced when dealing with foodstuffs, e.g. flour, sugar, etc.

Examples of the types of activities where dangerous substances might be used are:

• Storage of petrol as a fuel.

• Use of flammable gases for welding, particularly on containers that have held flammable materials.

• Handling and storage of waste dusts and fuel oils.

• Use of flammable solvents in laboratories.

• Storage and display of flammable goods, such as paints.

• Transporting flammable substances in containers around a workshop.

DEFINITION

DANGEROUS SUBSTANCESCreate a risk because of their physico-chemical or chemical properties and also by the way they are used and stored.


Risk Assessment of Dangerous Substances 6.3

Employers (and the self-employed) have a duty to assess, and eliminate or reduce risks from dangerous substances. Before work is carried out employers must assess the fire and explosion risks that may be present by investigating the hazardous properties of substances used, how the substances are used and the ways in which people may be harmed. This will enable the employer to understand what is needed to eliminate, or reduce the risks from, dangerous substances. If the risk assessment shows there are risks present, the employer must consider what steps must be taken to comply fully with the regulations.

Matters to Consider in Risk AssessmentMatters to be considered regarding the risk assessment of dangerous substances include:

• Their hazardous properties.

• Information available on safety (Safety Data Sheet).

• Circumstances of the work:

– Special, technical and organisational measures and the substances used and their possible interactions.

– Amount of the substance involved.

– Risk presented by substances in combination.

– Arrangements for the safe handling, storage and transport of the dangerous substances and of waste containing dangerous substances.

• Activities (such as maintenance) where there is the potential for a high level of risk.

• Effect of measures which have been taken.

• Likelihood that an explosive atmosphere will occur and its persistence.

• Likelihood that ignition sources will be present.

• Scale of the anticipated effects.

• Places connected to where explosive atmospheres may occur.

• Additional safety information the Responsible Person may need, in order to complete the assessment.

• Any further National Legislative requirements.

Measures to be Taken to Control Risk in Respect of Dangerous SubstancesRisk control for the use of dangerous substances should be considered in the following priority:

• Reduce the quantities of dangerous substances to a minimum.

• Avoid or minimise the release of a dangerous substance.

• Control the release of a dangerous substance at source.

• Prevent the formation of an explosive atmosphere, including the application of appropriate ventilation.

• Ensure that any release of a dangerous substance which may give rise to risk is suitably collected, safely contained, removed to a safe place, or otherwise made safe, as appropriate.

• Avoid:

– Ignition sources and electrostatic discharges.

– Adverse conditions which could result in harmful physical effects from a dangerous substance.

• Segregate incompatible dangerous substances.

Fire risk management


Risk Assessment of Dangerous Substances6.3

Mitigate the detrimental effects of a fire by:

• Reducing to a minimum the number of persons exposed.

• Providing measures to avoid the propagation of fires or explosions.

• Providing explosion pressure relief arrangements.

• Providing explosion suppression equipment.

• Providing plant which is constructed so as to withstand the pressure likely to be produced by an explosion.

• Providing suitable personal protective equipment.

Manage the risks arising from the use of dangerous substances by ensuring that:

• Premises are designed to reduce risk.

• Measures are in place to reduce risk, and are maintained.

• Equipment and protective systems are designed to reduce risk.

• Systems of work are in place to reduce risk, including permit-to-work procedures.

Preparing Emergency Plans and ProceduresEmployers should have in place emergency procedures which should cover safety drills, suitable communication and warning systems. The information in the emergency plan must be made available to the emergency services to allow them to develop their own plans if necessary. If an emergency occurs, the persons involved must be provided with appropriate equipment to carry out their duties safely.

MORE...

International Labour Organisation (ILO) Conventions and Recommendations on Fire and the Storage and Handling of Dangerous Substances.

Article 29 of C167 - Safety and Health in Construction Convention, ILO 1988

FIRE PRECAUTIONS

1. The employer shall take all appropriate measures to-

(a) avoid the risk of fire;

(b) combat quickly and efficiently any outbreak of fire;

(c) bring about a quick and safe evacuation of persons.

2. Sufficient and suitable storage shall be provided for flammable liquids, solids and gases.

Article 3 of R164 - Occupational Safety and Health Recommendation, ILO 1981

Employers should:

Implement safe systems of work with regard to the manufacture, packing, labelling, transport, storage and use of dangerous substances and agents, disposal of their wastes and residues.

There should be measures taken in case of fire or explosion.


Risk Assessment of Dangerous Substances 6.3

Providing Information, Instruction and Training for EmployeesFurther to the information covered earlier - employees must also be provided with relevant information, instructions and training, including details of the:

• Dangerous substances present and the risks they present by providing the relevant safety data sheets and any details of legislation that apply.

• Findings of the risk assessment, the control measures that have been put in place, including their purpose and how they should be followed.

• Emergency procedures that are in place.

STUDY QUESTION

8. A company uses solvents that are classified as dangerous substances and is carrying out a risk assessment.

(a) What information could be used to assess the risks?

(a) What else should be considered by the employer?



Summary

Summary

This element has dealt with fire safety risk assessment.


• Explained the terms ‘hazard’ and ‘risk’.

• Discussed the objectives of fire safety risk assessments, the moral, social and economic reasons for them, and the management system required to reduce fire risks.

• Established the aim of fire risk assessment, which is to reduce the risk by avoiding or reducing hazards that may cause a fire and putting in place fire safety measures to reduce the risk to persons from fire.

• Considered the methods of identifying fire hazards and the range of persons likely to be at risk from fire including workers, maintenance staff, cleaners, contractors, visitors, the general public, young persons, vulnerable people and people with disabilities and/or mobility problems.

• Explained the evaluation of risk by considering the adequacy of existing fire safety measures, the likelihood that a fire may occur, the hazards to people in the event of fire and the consequences to people if it does occur.

• Considered the principles of prevention which are: avoid risk; evaluate risks that cannot be avoided; combat risks at source; adapt to technical progress; replace the dangerous by the non-dangerous or less dangerous; develop a coherent overall prevention policy that covers technology, organisation of work and the influence of factors relating to the working environment; give collective fire safety protective measures priority over individual protective measures; and provide instruction to workers.

• Noted the requirement to record the findings of a fire safety risk assessment and the information that should be included.

• Discussed the need to review the fire risk assessment after changes to persons, premises, procedures, equipment, materials and legislation, and after the passage of time.

• Examined the sources of information which might help the risk assessment process, such as legislation, guidance, fire plans, previous risk assessments, general records and manuals, previous incidents, and training and maintenance records.

• Explained the requirements of the UK Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 2002.


Exam Skills ES

Exam Skills

QUESTION

Outline the steps to be completed when undertaking a fire risk assessment. (8)



1. The first step is to read the question carefully. Note that this question asks about the steps in a fire risk assessment. It’s not specific about the type of premises or process, so you need to provide a generic answer.

2. Next, consider the marks available. In this question, there are eight marks, so it is expected that around eight or nine different pieces of information will be provided. There are five steps in the risk assessment process, so clearly you need to expand on each step to gain the marks available. The question should take around eight minutes to complete in the exam. Statistically, candidates score most marks in the first few sentences of their answer, so try not to then spend several minutes giving long rambling explanations that may score the extra few remaining marks available, but may mean that you run out of time and leave some questions unanswered. You are likely to get few extra marks for long rambling answers. Also remember that you don’t get any marks for any questions you don’t attempt.


Outline the steps to be completed when undertaking a fire risk assessment. (8)

4. Read the question again to make sure you understand that it is asking about fire risk assessments. (Re-read your notes if you need to.)

5. The next stage is to develop a plan – there are various ways to do this. Remind yourself first of all that you need to be thinking about ‘risk assessment’. When you see the command word ‘outline’, you need to give the most important features so your answer plan will need to have more detail added to it to provide a full answer for the examiners.


Evacuation procedure

• Identify the fire hazards.

• Identify the people at risk.

• Evaluate, remove, reduce, protect from risk.

• Record, plan, inform, instruct, train.

• Review.


Exam SkillsES


The first step in the fire risk assessment process is to identify the fire hazards present in the workplace. These hazards are represented by elements of the fire triangle that may come together to cause a fire, i.e. ignition or heat sources, sources of combustible or flammable materials (fuel) and sources of oxygen.

The second step is to identify the people who are (or may be) at risk. This will include employees, visitors, contractors, cleaning staff and the more vulnerable, such as those with disabilities.

Step three in the risk assessment process is to evaluate the risk of a fire starting (how likely it is), and the possible severity of harm (the risk to people in a fire). We should then attempt to introduce control measures that will remove or reduce the fire hazards (and therefore the risk of the fire starting), remove or reduce the risks to people from a fire and protect those people by putting fire precautions in place.

In step four, we must record the findings of our fire risk assessment, plan the introduction of new controls, and inform, instruct and train those persons who may be at risk in the safe precautions they must follow.

The fifth and final step is to review the fire risk assessment at regular intervals (determined by the level of risk) and make any changes that the review shows are needed.

Reasons for Poor Marks Achieved by Candidates in Exam• Providing more of a list without giving sufficient detail to meet the command word criteria of ‘outline’.

• Being unable to outline the five steps in a risk assessment.

• If the examiner cannot read the candidate’s answer, marks cannot be awarded.

The Last Hurdle

Now that you have worked your way through the course material, this section will help you prepare for your NEBOSH examination. This guide contains useful advice on how to approach your revision and the exam itself.

International Fire Certificate

Revision and Examination

1© RRC International Revision and Examination

2 © RRC International Revision and ExaminationRevision and Examination © RRC International

International Fire Certificate Revision and Examination

Your NEBOSH ExaminationThe NEBOSH examination will consist of one question paper which contains one 20-mark question and ten 8-mark questions. You are allowed two hours in which to complete the exam paper and you should answer all the questions.

To pass the exam, you must obtain a minimum of 45% of the total marks available.

If your performance is less than the pass mark, you will be “referred”. This means you may resit the examination, providing you do so within five years of the original sitting. You may resit as many times as you want within that five year timescale.

Be PreparedIt may be some time since you last took an exam.

Remember, success in an exam depends mainly on:

• Revision – you have to be able to remember, recall and apply the information contained in your course material and

• Exam technique – you have to be able to understand the questions and write good answers in the time available.

Revision and exam technique are skills that can be learned. We will now look at both of these skills so that you can prepare yourself for the exam. There is a saying that “proper planning and preparation prevents a poor performance”. This was never truer than in an exam.

Revision Tips

Using the RRC Course MaterialYou should read through all of the topics at least once before beginning your revision in earnest. This first read-through should be done slowly and carefully.

Having completed this first revision reading of the course materials consider briefly reviewing all of it again to check that you understand all of the elements and the important principles that they contain. At this stage you are not trying to memorise information, but simply checking your understanding of the concepts.

Remember that understanding the information and being able to remember and recall it are two different things. As you read the course material, you should understand it; in the exam, you have to be able to remember, recall and apply it. To do this successfully most people have to go back over the material repeatedly.

Re-read the course material and make notes that summarise important information from each element. You could use index cards and create a portable, quick and easy revision aid.

1-32 © RRC International Revision and ExaminationRevision and Examination © RRC International


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Using the Syllabus GuideWe recommend that you purchase a copy of the NEBOSH Guide to this course, which contains the syllabus for your exam. If a topic is in the syllabus, then it is possible that there will be an examination question on that topic.

Map your level of knowledge and recall against the syllabus guide. Look at the Content listed for each element in the syllabus guide. Ask yourself the following question:

If there is a question in the exam about that topic, could I answer it?

You can even score your current level of knowledge for each topic in each element of the syllabus guide and then use your scores as an indication of your personal strengths and weaknesses. For example, if you scored yourself as 5 out of 5 for a topic in Element 1, then obviously you don’t have much work to do on that subject as you approach the exam. But if you scored yourself at 2 out of 5 for a topic in Element 3 then you have identified an area of weakness. Having identified your strengths and weaknesses in this way, you can use this information to decide on the topic areas that you need to concentrate on as you revise for the exam.

You could also annotate or highlight sections of the text which you think are important.

Another way of using the syllabus guide is as an active revision aid:

• Pick a topic at random from any of the elements.

• Write down as many facts and ideas that you can recall that are relevant to that particular topic.

Go back to your course material and see what you missed, and fill in the missing areas.

4 © RRC International Revision and ExaminationRevision and Examination © RRC International


Exam HintsSuccess in the exam depends on averaging around half marks or more for each question. Marks are awarded for setting down ideas that are relevant to the question asked and demonstrating that you understand what you are talking about. If you have studied your course material thoroughly then this should not be a problem.

One common mistake in answering questions is to go into too much detail on specific topics and fail to deal with the wider issues. If you only cover half the relevant issues, you can only achieve half the available marks. Try to give as wide an answer as you can, without stepping outside the subject matter of the question altogether. Make sure that you cover each issue in appropriate detail in order to demonstrate that you have the relevant knowledge. Giving relevant examples is a good way of doing this.

We mentioned earlier the value of using the syllabus to plan your revision. Another useful way of combining syllabus study with examination practice is to create your own exam questions by adding one of the words you might find at the beginning of an exam question (such as ‘explain’ or ‘identify’ or ‘outline’) in front of the syllabus topic areas. In this way, you can produce a whole range of questions similar to those used in the exam.

Before the ExamYou should:

• Know where the exam is to take place.

• Arrive in good time.

• Bring your examination entry voucher which includes your candidate number, photographic proof of identity, pens, pencils, ruler, etc. (Remember these must be in a clear plastic bag or wallet.)

• Bring water to drink and sweets to suck, if you want to.

During the Exam• Read through the whole exam paper before starting work if that will help to settle your nerves. Start with the

question of your choice.

• Manage your time. The exam is two hours long. You should attempt to answer all 11 questions in the two hours. To do this, you might spend:

– 25-30 minutes answering Question 1 (worth 20 marks), and then – 8-9 minutes on each of the ten remaining 8-mark questions.

Check the clock regularly as you write your answers. You should always know exactly where you are with regard to time.

• As you start each question read the question carefully. Pay particular attention to the wording of the question to make sure you understand what the examiner is looking for. Note the verbs (command words), such as ‘describe’, ‘explain’, ‘identify’, or ‘outline’ that are used in the question. These indicate the amount of depth and detail required in your answer. As a general guide:

– ‘Explain’ and ‘describe’ mean give an understanding of/a detailed account of something. – ‘Outline’ means give the key features of something. – ‘Identify’ means give a reference to something (could be name or title).

• Pay close attention to the number of marks available for each question or part of a question – this usually indicates how many key pieces of information the examiner expects to see in your answer.

• Give examples wherever possible, based either on your own personal experience or things you have read about. An example can be used to illustrate an idea and demonstrate that you understand what you are saying.

• If you start to run out of time, write your answers in bullet point or checklist style, rather than failing to answer a question at all.

• Keep your handwriting under control; if the examiner cannot read what you have written then he or she cannot mark it.

• You will not be penalised for poor grammar or spelling, as long as your answers are clear and can be understood. However, you may lose marks if the examiner cannot make sense of the sentence that you have written.

Introduction

The aim of this unit is to help to prepare you for the NEBOSH International Certificate in Fire Safety and Risk Management, Unit IFC2: Fire Safety Practical Application.

Some people think that this unit is simple, don’t bother to prepare themselves properly, and fail as a result. Make sure you don’t fall into this trap! While the process you have to move through is straightforward, in order to succeed you need to understand what NEBOSH expect. If you work carefully through these notes, we are confident that you’ll be a successful candidate!

Unit IFC2

Fire Safety Practical Application

1© RRC International Unit IFC2: Fire Safety Practical Application

2 © RRC International Unit IFC2: Fire Safety Practical ApplicationUnit IFC2: Fire Safety Practical Application © RRC International

Contents

Aim of the Practical Assessment 3

Completing the Candidate’s Fire Risk Assessment Notes 4

Useful Advice for Completing the Fire Risk Assessment 6

Criteria for Assessment 12

Examples of Completed Fire Risk Assessment Forms 19

1-32 © RRC International Unit IFC2: Fire Safety Practical ApplicationUnit IFC2: Fire Safety Practical Application © RRC International


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Aim of the Practical AssessmentThe aim of this practical assessment is for you to carry out a fire risk assessment in your own workplace, in order to determine:

• The risk of a fire occurring.

• The risk of such a fire spreading.

• The risk to persons on the premises from such a fire and its spread.

In practice, this means carrying out the following activities:

• Identifying fire hazards in the workplace.

• Identifying persons who could be at risk should a fire start.

• Assessing the risk of fire occurring.

• Assessing the speed at which fire and smoke could spread once started.

• Assessing the actual risk to persons from fire.

• Assessing the adequacy of existing fire safety measures to control risk.

• Where necessary, recommending additional fire safety measures to further reduce risk.

• Recommending a risk assessment review date.

This may seem like a long list, but it actually follows a logical process which considers how a fire might start, how it might spread and how persons might be harmed.

HINTS AND TIPSWhen you have carried out your fire risk assessment and completed the necessary forms, you MUST sign the declaration.

Failure to sign the declaration may result in NEBOSH not accepting your practical assessment for marking.

Inspection AreaIn order to complete this assessment, you have to select an area of your workplace that will be suitable. To be suitable, your workplace should be large enough to provide a sufficient range of hazards, but contained enough that you can cover all of the issues you find there in your assessment.

If your workplace is very large, think about limiting your inspection area to a single office or workshop.

If you read through the rest of this guidance, you will see the type of hazards that you will be expected to cover in the assessment, but if you are unsure about anything, get in touch with your tutor who will be able to provide guidance on whether your workplace is suitable.

Bear in mind that you should consult the management of the premises to ensure that they are happy for you to complete your assessment there, and so they can ensure that you can carry out the inspection without endangering your own health and safety.

Summary of ProcedureThe recommended time in which your fire risk assessment should be completed is 3 hours, so you need to divide the time available to you between collecting information, and then completing the fire risk assessment forms.

You should spend about 45 minutes inspecting the area and completing the Candidate’s Fire Risk Assessment Notes (Box 1). The remaining 2 hours and 15 minutes should be spent completing forms 1, 2 and 3 (boxes 2, 3 and 4).



Completing the Candidate’s Fire Risk Assessment NotesThe first stage of the risk assessment process is to gather information.

Observations

(Left-hand column)

Here you should list:

• Controlled and uncontrolled fire hazards (sources of ignition, fuel and oxygen - you need to include all three!).

Examples of sources of ignition might include:

– Electrical appliances and installations.

– Lightning.

– Cooking.

– Heating.

– Smoking.

Sources of fuel might include:

– Paper.

– Cardboard.

– Furniture.

– Fixtures and fittings.

– Electrical insulation.

– Structural materials.

– Wall and ceiling linings.

– Flammable chemicals, liquids and solvents.

Additional oxygen sources might be found in:

– Gas cylinders.

– Oxidising chemicals.

– Open windows.

– Air conditioning.

You might also need to consider fire and explosion risks from flammable materials in use, storage and transport within the workplace.

• Risks of fire spread (fire protection measures) which will be affected by:

– The structure of the building.

– Fixtures, fittings and contents.

– Degree of compartmentation.

– Presence of ducting passing though different compartments.

– Condition of fire doors (intumescent/smoke strips).

– The possibility of fire and smoke penetration.



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• Risk to persons (emergency evacuation measures and procedures) which will depend on the effectiveness of emergency evacuation measures and procedures.

– Escape routes.

– Emergency procedures.

– Training and drills.

– Fire wardens.

– Alarm systems.

– Emergency lighting.

– Signage.

HINTS AND TIPSYou need to cover a broad range of hazards, covering fire hazards, fire spread and risks to persons.

You must include both controlled and uncontrolled hazards.

If it’s controlled, it might be listed as ‘lighting’ in the left hand column and you would note in the right hand column what the control measures are (e.g. good condition, maintained, suitably located).

If it’s uncontrolled, it might be listed in the left hand column as ‘inadequately maintained lighting in a poor condition’ (in which case, there may well not be anything to add to the right hand column for measures in place to control risk).

You should include at least 25 different hazards.

Control Measures

(Column 2)

In this column you should note:

• Measures in place to reduce the risk of fire occurring that might include:

– Procedures for safe storage and use of flammable, highly flammable and combustible materials.

– Design and installation of storage facilities.

– Inspection and maintenance programmes.

– Safe waste disposal methods.

– Safe systems of work.

– Safe-operating procedures.

– Planned preventive maintenance programmes.

– Management of contractors and permits-to-work.

– Maintaining fire protection systems during maintenance and construction work on an existing building.

• Measures to reduce the risk of fire spread and reduce the risks to persons from fire that might include:

– Provision and signage of fire exits and escape routes.

– Provision of fire-fighting equipment.

– Methods to detect and warn of fire.

– Provision of means of escape.



Useful Advice for Completing the Fire Risk AssessmentDo’s

Do take a watch so you can manage your time effectively.

Do take a clipboard.

Do note down the finish time.

Do pace yourself to ensure that you consider the full range of fire hazards and fire protection measures.

Do note down both controlled and uncontrolled fire hazards.

Do make sure that you are fully familiar with the information that you will need to complete Forms 1, 2 and 3 so that all of this information is collected during your inspection.

Do make sure that your observations give enough information to identify the nature and location of the hazard or issue.

Do make sure that you write a full and complete set of notes on the Candidate’s Fire Risk Assessment Notes sheets.

Do ensure that you have at least 10 copies of the Candidate’s Fire Risk Assessment Notes sheets before you start.

Do ensure that the Candidate’s Fire Risk Assessment Notes sheets are your own work.

Do remember to observe work activities and ask questions.

Do remember it’s about quality, not quantity.

Do write enough detail on the Notes pages.

Do look after yourself; workplaces can be dangerous environments for people who are unfamiliar with them.

Do, if necessary, seek guidance from management as to risks to your own safety and appropriate precautions.

Don’ts

Don’t waste time making trivial observations.

Don’t repeat the same type of observation several times.

Don’t lose track of the time.

Don’t forget to consider sources of oxygen, if appropriate.

Don’t forget to note controlled hazards as well as uncontrolled ones.

Don’t forget to consider the additional fire safety measures that may be needed to reduce the risks that you have identified.

Don’t endanger yourself.

Don’t write rough notes in the belief that you can write up a full set of observations later on because you probably won’t have time.



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Form 1 – Fire Risk Assessment Sheet (Fire Prevention) You should use the information gathered on the Candidate’s Fire Risk Assessment Notes sheet to complete this form by transferring the information in relation to:

• The fire hazards identified (both controlled and uncontrolled hazards).

(Remember that in the left-hand column you are listing fire hazards, so ignition sources, fuel and oxygen only.)

• The persons who may be at risk.

• The current measures in place to reduce the risk of fire occurring.

From this you will need to propose additional fire safety measures required to further reduce risk.

Fire Hazards

You should consider:

• Potential ignition sources such as:

– Naked flames.

– Sparks.

– Hot surfaces.

– Faulty electrical equipment.

– Arson.

• Materials that might fuel a fire such as:

– Paper.

– Packaging.

– Flammable chemicals.

– Liquids and solvents.

– Textiles, fixtures and fittings.

– Soft furnishings.

– Linings for walls and ceilings.

• Sources of oxygen such as:

– Natural airflow through doors, windows and other openings.

– Possible oxidising materials.

– Oxygen supplies on the premises from the use and storage of oxygen cylinders.

However, the bulk of the marks will be awarded for a representative range of both controlled and uncontrolled hazards so, for example, flammable substances such as paints and solvents will need to be included even though they might be used and stored safely. Your aim is to assess the risk of these hazards by providing details of existing fire safety measures, deciding on the adequacy of such measures and whether further measures are required as part of the fire risk assessment.

Identification of/Locations of Persons at Risk

You should identify the full range of persons at risk from fire, and their reactions.

This may include persons who work in the building permanently and also those who may be required to visit the building on a more occasional basis, such as cleaners, contractors, visitors, and temporary or agency persons.

Vulnerable persons should also be considered, such as persons working alone, those with disabilities, and young or pregnant employees, and you should also take account of the locations where they work.



In most workplaces, all of these categories of person may be present at times, even if only occasionally, so do consider them all.

You may also need to identify specific locations where people may be more at risk, such as working with flammable substances in a workshop or in the most remote location of the building.

Measures in Place to Reduce the Risk of Fire OccurringHere you need to describe existing fire safety measures to prevent oxygen, fuel, and ignition sources coming together.

This will include safe systems of work to eliminate ignition sources, the accumulation of combustible materials and other fuel sources. You may also need to consider actions taken to minimise the risk of arson.

Additional Fire Safety Measures Required to Maintain or Reduce Risk

Following from your description of existing measures in place to reduce the risk of fire occurring, you then need to realistically assess these to determine whether they are adequate to reduce the risk of fire occurring to as low as reasonably practicable. If not, then additional fire safety measures will be required.

These must relate to existing fire protection measures and may include:

• Replacing naked flame from gas and radiant heaters with a central heating system.

• Adherence to maintenance regimes on work equipment.

• Measures to reduce the risk of vandalism.

• Ensuring correct storage of flammable chemicals, solvents and liquids.

• Replacing flammable ceiling linings with less combustible linings to reduce the potential for surface flame spread.

• Safe storage of oxidising materials.

Form 2 – Fire Risk Assessment Sheet (Risk of Fire Spread and Risk of Fire to Persons)You should use the information gathered in the Candidate’s Fire Risk Assessment Notes sheet to complete this form by transferring the information in relation to:

• Fire protection measures, warnings and emergency evacuation issues.

• (The left-hand column should only have risks relating to fire protection measures, warnings and evacuation – you’ve already addressed ignition sources, fuel and oxygen in Form 1).

• The persons who may be at risk.

• The current measures in place to reduce the risk of fire spread and to reduce/remove the risk to persons from fire.

From this you will need to propose additional fire safety measures required to further reduce risk.

Risk of Fire Spread and the Risk of Fire to Persons Issues

The risk of fire spread will depend on such things as the adequacy of fire doors, whether fire doors are propped open or closed, intumescent seals on doors, the presence of smoke vents, fire stopping in service ducts, compartmentation and fire suppression systems.

The risk of fire to persons is related to issues such as fire protection and fire warning systems to enable persons to be made aware of a fire and to assist their safe evacuation, how and where the fire may spread and how this may affect emergency escape routes – these may all be relevant points to include.

You may also have to assess maintenance regimes for fire detection and fire warning systems, technical and procedural measures for emergency evacuation, and consider issues in relation to emergency evacuation routes.



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Identification of/Locations of Persons at Risk

As with the completion of Form 1, you should consider:

• People who work in the building permanently.

• People who may be required to visit the building on a more occasional basis.

• Vulnerable persons.

• Non-employees, such as members of the public, who could be at risk from the spread of smoke and fumes.

Measures in Place to Reduce the Risk of Fire Spread and to Reduce/Remove the Risk to Persons from Fire

Here you need to describe each measure you have identified to minimise the possible rate of fire and smoke spread through a building during a fire and to reduce the risk to persons from fire.

These might include measures in place for adequate fire protection and fire warning systems and an assessment of maintenance regimes for such systems; an assessment of both technical and procedural measures for emergency evacuation might also be included.

Issues might include locations where fires may start and the adequacy of escape routes from those locations, the number and adequacy of fire routes to ensure that they can accommodate the safe evacuation of the possible number of persons who will have to be evacuated in an emergency at any one time, and measures for the safe evacuation of vulnerable persons such as older or disabled persons.

Additional Fire Safety Measures Required to Maintain or Reduce RiskFollowing from your description of existing measures in place to reduce the risk of fire spread and the risk to persons from fire, you then need to realistically assess these to determine whether they are adequate to protect persons at risk from the possible spread of fire or smoke, and whether additional measures are needed to remove or reduce the risk of fire to persons should a fire start.

These must relate to existing fire protection measures and emergency evacuation procedures in order to recommend appropriate further measures to control risk. Fire safety measures recommended may include improvements to emergency evacuation procedures and fire protective measures. Remember, though, that any measures you recommend should be realistic and appropriate to the circumstances given.

Form 3 – Summary Fire Risk Assessment SheetThis final form allows you to make an overall assessment of fire starting, fire spreading and fire affecting persons on the premises. Depending on your findings, you can then recommend a fire risk assessment review date.

You should therefore use the information you noted in the Candidate’s Fire Risk Assessment Notes Sheets to complete this form by transferring the information in relation to:

• The risk of fire occurring.

• The risk of fire spread.

• The risk to persons from fire.

You also need to recommend a risk assessment review date.

Note that you are asked to include a justified assessment of the priority of risk (high/medium/low).

In summary, you need to insert:

• Assessment of risk of fire occurring: from the information included in Form 1.

• Assessment of risk of fire spread: from the information included in Form 2.

• Assessment of risk to persons from fire: from the information included in Forms 1 and 2.



• Fire risk assessment review date - with justification: by taking into consideration the:

– Level of risk detailed in your assessments.

– Adequacy of existing fire protective measures on the premises and of emergency evacuation procedures and measures in place.

– Urgency of fire safety measures to be implemented.

(Also remember to complete the declaration at the bottom of Form 3.)

In order to score well in the practical application, it is useful to be aware of how you will be assessed and what marks are available for each part of the exercise. An example of a Practical Unit Mark Sheet follows.

Fire Safety Risk Assessment Summary1. Range of fire hazards identified (0 to 3 marks) (Form 1)

– Identify examples of ignition sources, materials that might fuel a fire and sources of oxygen.

2. Number of fire hazards identified (0 to 12 marks) (Form 1)

– Give a comprehensive range of controlled and uncontrolled hazards identified from the three fire hazard areas referred to above. Try to spot at least 20.

3. Range of fire risk issues (fire spread/risk of fire to persons) (0 to 15 marks) (Form 2)

– Identify issues concerned with the risk of fire spread and also the risk of fire affecting persons on the premises. Try for at least 12 risks relevant to workplace.

4. Identification of persons at risk (0 to 5 marks) (Forms 1 and 2)

– Identify all the persons at risk from fire, and also their likely reactions, where relevant, and any specific locations where persons may be more at risk. Employees, visitors, inexperienced, disabled, pregnant, lone workers, trainees, etc.

Existing Fire Safety Measures5. Recognition of measures to reduce the risk of fire occurring (0 to 15 marks) (Form 1)

– Identify the fire safety measures in place to prevent oxygen, fuel and ignition sources coming together. Try for at least 12.

6. Recognition of measures to reduce the risk of fire and smoke spread (0 to 5 marks) (Form 2)

– Identify measures to reduce the rate of fire and smoke spread through a building during a fire. This should be relevant to the fire risk issues identified as part of the risk assessment. Try for at least 5.

7. Recognition of measures to remove/reduce the risk to persons from fire (0 to 10 marks) (Form 2)

– Describe measures in place for adequate fire protection and adequacy of fire warning systems. Try for at least 10.

Assessment of Risk/Further Measures Required8. Assessment of risk of fire occurring (0 to 5 marks) (Form 3)

– Assess the risk of a fire occurring. This should be a realistic evaluation of your findings from Form 1.

9. Assessment of risk of fire spread (0 to 5 marks) (Form 3)

– Assess the risk of fire spread. This should be a realistic evaluation of your findings from Form 2.

10. Assessment of risk to persons from fire (0 to 5 marks) (Form 3)

– Assess the risk of fire to persons from fire. This should be a realistic evaluation of your findings from Forms 1 and 2.



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11. Suitability of additional measures recommended (0 to 15 marks) (Forms 1 and 2)

– Realistically assess the fire safety measures in place to determine: – Whether these are adequate to reduce the risk of fire occurring and the possible spread of fire or

smoke. – The suitability of measures to remove or reduce the risk of fire to persons should a fire start.

– Propose further measures to control risk where existing fire protection measures and emergency evacuation procedures are considered to be inadequate.

Risk Assessment Review12. Recommended review date (0 to 5 marks) (Form 3)

– Take into consideration the: – Level of risk detailed in the assessment. – Urgency of fire safety measures to be implemented. – Adequacy of both existing fire protective measures on the premises and of emergency evacuation

procedures and measures in place.

– Recommend an appropriate fire risk assessment review date.



Criteria for AssessmentThe following marking matrix should give you a good idea of what you need to do to achieve maximum marks in each of these areas:



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15





17





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Examples of Completed Fire Risk Assessment FormsNow we know the theory, let’s see what your completed forms should look like in practice.

Observations

Note both controlled and uncontrolled fire hazards (sources of ignition, fuel and oxygen), risks of fire spread (fire protection measures) and risk to persons (emergency evacuation measures and procedures)

Measures in place to control risk

Note measures in place to reduce the risk of fire occurring, to reduce the risk of fire spread and measures and procedures to remove / reduce the risk to persons from fire

Chip pan Chip pan used infrequently

CookerCooker and grill never left unsupervised

Grill

Smoking Waste paper/rubbish removed daily to external storage

Toasters House electrical equipment inspected and tested annually by electrical contractor

Lamps Limited supervision by cleaners of electrical appliances used in bedroomsElectric fires

Paint

Paint, thinners, and oils all stored in metal cupboard in garageThinners

Oils

Petrol Minimum quantities of petrol for lawnmower stored in garage

No self closing devices on laundry door Fire resistant doors with appropriate seals fitted throughout

No record of monthly checks on fire extinguishers Appropriate fire extinguishers provided throughout building

No records of monthly inspection of emergency lighting units

Appropriate emergency lighting throughout building

Smoke detectors not fitted in all bedrooms Individual smoke alarms fitted in bedrooms

No heat detector in laundry room

Smoke detectors sound individually but do not activate building fire alarm system

All staircases with double fire door protection

No fire evacuation planAdequate provision of means of escape and assembly points

No staff training in use of extinguishers or evacuation

No fire drills heldAdequate provision of signage

Fire action notices displayed at main entrances

No signing-in book for visitors Manager or Deputy always in residence 24 hours per day

Natural air flow through windows and doors Staff close doors at night

Sheet Number of

Candidate’s Fire Risk Assessment Notes

UNIT FC2 – FIRE SAFETYPRACTICAL APPLICATION

NB: This risk assessment is for educational purposes only

Location Date undertaken / /

Candidate Name Student Number



FIRE RISK ASSESSMENT SHEET (fire prevention)


Sheet Number 2 of 3

FORM 1

Fire hazards

(sources of ignition, fuel and oxygen)

Identification of/locations of persons at risk

Measures in place to reduce the risk of fire occurring

Additional fire safety measures required to reduce risk

Chip pan

Manager – all locations/ sleeping accommodation on premises

Deputy - all locations/ sleeping accommodation on premises

Cleaning staff - all locations

Kitchen staff – kitchen/dining area

Elderly residents ( limited mobility/ hearing/eyesight - limited response to emergency evacuation)

- bedrooms, communal/ dining areas

Visitors – elderly persons, children, persons with disabilities

Chip pan used infrequently Use of chip pan to be discontinued

Cooker

Grill

Cooker and grill never left unsupervised

Toasters

Table lamps

Electric fires

Bedroom furnishings

Electrical equipment

Limited supervision by cleaners of electrical appliances used in bedrooms

House electrical equipment inspected and tested annually by electrical contractor

Residents’ electrical equipment to be tested annually by electrical contractor

Paint

Thinners

Oils

Paint, thinners, and oils all stored in metal cupboard in garage

Smoking materials Waste paper/rubbish removed daily to external storage

Petrol Minimum quantities of petrol for lawnmower stored in garage

Consider use of electric lawnmower

Natural air flow through windows and doors

Staff members shut doors at night. Residents are asked to close windows in an emergency situation


Candidate Name J Smith Student Number

Location Glades Supported Sheltered House Date undertaken 06 / 07 / 2016



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FIRE RISK ASSESSMENT SHEET (risk of fire spread and risk of fire to persons)


Risk of fire spread and risk of fire to persons issues(Fire spread, fire protection measures, warnings, evacuation issues)

Identification of/locations of persons at risk

Measures in place to reduce the risk of fire spread and to reduce/remove the risk to persons from fire

Additional fire safety measures required to reduce risk

No self closing devices on laundry door

Manager – all locations/ sleeping accommodation on premisesDeputy - all locations/ sleeping accommodation on premisesCleaning staff - all locationsKitchen staff – kitchen/dining areaElderly residents ( limited mobility/ hearing/eyesight - limited response to emergency evacuation)- bedrooms, communal/ dining areasVisitors – elderly persons, children, persons with disabilities

Fire resistant doors with appropriate seals fitted throughoutIndividual smoke alarms fitted in bedrooms

Fit self closing device to laundry door

No record of monthly checks on fire extinguishers

Appropriate fire extinguishers provided throughout building

Carry out and record monthly checks on fire extinguishers and inspection of emergency lighting unitsNo record of monthly

inspection of emergency lighting units

Appropriate emergency lighting provided throughout building

Smoke detectors not fitted in all bedrooms

Fit smoke detectors in all bedrooms

No heat detector in laundry room

Fit heat detector to laundry room

Smoke detectors sound individually but do not activate building fire alarm system.

Install fire alarm system activated by smoke/heat detectors that sounds throughout the building

No fire evacuation plan Adequate provision of means of escape and assembly pointsAdequate provision of signageFire action notices displayed at main entrancesAll staircases with double fire door protection

Develop fire evacuation plan and inform/train staff of its contents

No staff training in use of extinguishers or evacuationNo fire drills heldNo signing-in book for visitors

Manager or Deputy always in residence 24 hours per day

Arrange staff training in use of extinguishers and fire safety awarenessArrange for regular fire drills to be held when all staff are on premisesProvide and ensure use of signing-in book for all visitors

Natural air flow through windows and doors

Staff members shut doors at night. Residents are asked to close windows in an emergency situation

Deputy manager undertakes final inspection

Sheet Number of

FORM 2






SUMMARY FIRE RISK ASSESSMENT SHEET


Assessment of risk of fire occurring – H/M/L with justification

(this may be either by accident, by a possible act or omission or by an intentional act)Medium

Smoking not controlled in premises, kitchen in daily use, chip pan used occasionally, residents use own electrical appliances in bedrooms, petrol driven lawnmower used in grounds

Assessment of risk of fire spread - H/M/L with justificationLow

Self closing 30 min fire resisting doors fitted throughout except for laundry, no heat detector fitted in laundry

Assessment of risk to persons from fire - H/M/L with justificationMedium

Individual smoke detectors in bedrooms do not activate building fire alarm system, emergency lighting and extinguishers are not regularly inspected, no fire evacuation plan, no staff training in fire procedures, no signing in book for visitors.

Fire risk assessment review date – with justification (based on the findings of the fire risk assessment)6 months

On completion of remedial action to install required fire detection and alarm system, inspection programme for emergency lighting and extinguishers, introduction of fire evacuation plan and training programme for staff.


I declare that the work presented in this practical application report is my own work.

Name:

Signature

Date

J SmithJ Smith

08/07/2016

FORM 3





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Submitting your Completed Fire Risk AssessmentOnce completed, your assessment should include the following:

• Your fire risk assessment notes sheets showing both controlled and uncontrolled fire hazards discovered on your inspection.

• Your completed fire risk assessment sheet (Fire Prevention - Form 1) using the hazards identified during the inspection. It should include controlled and uncontrolled hazards, persons who may be at risk and current measures in place to reduce the risk of fire occurring.

• Your completed fire risk assessment sheet (Risk of Fire Spread and Risk to Persons from Fire - Form 2) using the information gathered during the inspection. It should include the issues that may cause a fire to spread, fire protection measures, warnings and emergency evacuation issues, persons at risk and current measures in place to reduce risk and additional fire safety measures to further reduce risk.

• Your completed fire risk assessment sheet (Summary Fire Risk Assessment - Form 3) using the issues addressed in the fire risk assessment and assessing risk of fire occurring, the risk of fire spread, the risk to persons from fire and a recommended review date.

• Your signed declaration confirming to NEBOSH that this assessment is all your own work. Don’t forget to include this - NEBOSH will not accept your assessment without it!

• Your completed Practical Assessment must be carried out and submitted to RRC within the following timescales:

– no more than 14 days before your nominated exam date and;

– up to 7 days after your nominated exam date.

Any Practical Assessments carried out or submitted outside of these timeframes will not be marked.

RRC will confirm these deadlines nearer the time.

If you do not meet these deadlines additional costs will be incurred for re-submission.

Once you have completed your assessment and are happy for it to be marked, send it in to our Exams department at the following address:

Exams

RRC International

27-37 St George’s Road

London

SW19 4DS

We suggest that you take a copy of your assessment before you send it off to us (just in case it gets lost in the post) and send it to us by trackable means.

Unit IFC1

Suggested Answers

1© RRC International Unit IFC1: Suggested Answers

No Peeking!

Once you have worked your way through the study questions in this book, use the suggested answers on the following pages to find out where you went wrong (and what you got right), and as a resource to improve your knowledge and question-answering technique.

2 © RRC International Unit IFC1: Suggested AnswersUnit IFC1: Suggested Answers © RRC International

1 Suggested Answers to Study Questions

Element 1: Managing Fire SafetyQuestion 1(a) The moral (or humanitarian) argument. The legal argument.

(b) The economic (or financial) argument. Human costs, such as injuries, fatalities, loss of morale, etc. Direct costs, such as damage to plant, equipment, materials, product, etc. Indirect costs, such as bad PR, loss of stakeholder confidence, disruption of production, missed deadlines/orders, etc. Legal implications, such as prosecution, fines, etc.

Question 2False alarms incur cost by:

• Reducing the availability of the Fire and Rescue Service for real fires.

• Causing lost production time and, ultimately, increasing evacuation time in real fire situations.

• Increasing the risk of enforcement action being taken against repeated offenders, with the possibility of financial penalties being imposed.

Question 3To take such care as is reasonable in the circumstances, to see that visitors will be safe in using the premises for the purposes for which they are invited or permitted by the occupier to be there.

Question 4To ensure fire safety, management should put in place appropriate arrangements for the:

• planning,

• organisation,

• control,

• monitoring, and

• review

of preventive and protective measures, as well as arrangements for vulnerable people and degraded systems planning.

Question 5Typical monitoring information might include:

• Records of inspections and safety tours.

• Audit reports on health, safety and fire management systems.

• Incident reports including any investigations subsequently carried out.

• Equipment maintenance, testing and defect records.

1-32 © RRC International Unit IFC1: Suggested AnswersUnit IFC1: Suggested Answers © RRC International

Suggested Answers to Study Questions 1

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Question 6The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) is the world’s largest developer of international standards and ISO/TC 92 is responsible for developing fire safety standards in areas such as fire safety engineering, design and evaluation; performance under fire conditions of materials, products, elements of structure, structures and systems and their contents; and the application of fire safety management.

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) is the international organisation responsible for drawing up and overseeing international labour standards to improve workplace health and safety, including fire safety. The Occupational Safety and Health Recommendation 1981 (R164) provides guidance on obligations on employers and employees to achieve a safe and healthy place of work and makes specific reference to prevention of fires and explosions and the need for measures to be taken in the event of fire or explosion.

Question 7Enforcement systems for fire safety vary between countries but common practice is a fire authority with a role in enforcing fire safety legislation and advising employers on the standards that should be complied with.

Failure to meet legal standards might lead to:

• Formal enforcement action: an enforcement agency might force an employer either to make an improvement to fire safety or to stop carrying out high-risk activities. Failure to comply with formal enforcement action is usually considered to be an offence in itself.

• Prosecution of the organisation with punishment in the form of a fine.

• Prosecution of individuals with punishment in the form of a fine and/or imprisonment.

Question 8Communities and Local Government Practical Fire Safety Guidance (Offices and Shops; Factories and Warehouses): to help the responsible person to prevent fires and reduce risk by providing specific information on a range of different types of premises.

British Standards for Fire Safety (Fire Detection Systems; Fire Extinguishing Systems): provide an essential reference for those who draw up specifications, designers and installers with responsibility for fire safety.

Question 9Fire and rescue authority - to determine the possible cause of the fire and to take enforcement action.

Police - if it is believed that the cause might be arson, particularly if injury or death has occurred or if fraud is suspected.

Enforcing authority - for enforcement under local legislation.

Environment agency - to help with the mitigation of effects of the fire on the environment.


Suggested Answers to Study Questions1

Question 10Matters that need to be considered before a fire investigation begins include:



• Making the site safe:

– Isolate gas and electricity.

– Consider the condition of walls, floors, ceilings.

– Consider the presence of chemicals.

• Skills required and composition of the investigation team.

• Equipment required:

– Excavation tools.

– Cameras.

• Identifying and interviewing witnesses.

• Studying CCTV footage.

• Communicating with the public and the media.

• Liaising with the police and other agencies.

Question 11An employer may need to report a fire-related incident under local legislation if it has resulted in a fatality or major injury.

Question 12Information likely to be recorded in a fire logbook includes:

• Persons with specific responsibility for fire safety.

• Basic fire safety advice.

• Specific preventive and protective measures identified in the risk assessment.

• Details of the premises (including location of assembly points, etc.).

• Brief details of the maintenance and inspection arrangements for all fire-related systems.

• Details of all maintenance work conducted (e.g. service visit or non-routine attention).

• Location and description of all fire equipment.

• Dates and times of, and any issues arising from, routine tests of:

– Fire detection and alarm equipment.

– Emergency lighting equipment.

– Portable fire-fighting equipment.

• Dates, times and details of all faults and defects relating to:

– Fire detection and alarm equipment.

– Emergency lighting equipment.

– Portable fire-fighting equipment.

• Dates and significant findings of workplace inspections (e.g. fire doors, escape routes and emergency exits).

• Dates and significant findings (e.g. areas for improvement) of fire drills.

• Dates and names of staff undergoing fire awareness training.

• Dates and details of any fire-related incidents in or on the premises.


Suggested Answers to Study Questions

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Element 2: Principles of Fire and ExplosionQuestion 1The fire triangle consists of:

Fuel - wood, paper, plastics, flammable liquid, oil, gas, etc.

Oxygen - usually from the air but can be provided by gas cylinders or oxidising agents.

Heat - as the source of ignition.

Question 2The fire triangle indicates the conditions required for combustion to be maintained: supply of oxygen, supply of heat (after ignition, sufficient heat is usually supplied by the combustion reaction itself), supply of fuel.

Question 3Induction: heat is initially supplied by an external source which results in production of flammable vapour. These vapours mix with air above the fuel and, if sufficient energy is provided, the combustion reaction begins between the vapour and the oxygen.

Ignition: the point of ‘ignition’ is reached when the reaction becomes self-sustaining (and no longer requires an external heat source). At this stage, combustion develops very quickly and there is a dramatic increase in temperature as the fire grows.

Fire growth: once ignited, the fire may spread through direct burning or through the typical mechanisms of heat transmission (convection, conduction or radiation). The rate, scale and pattern of growth depend on a number of factors, such as: the nature, form and amount of the fuel; availability of oxygen (open, ventilated versus sealed containment); amount of heat produced by the reaction.

Steady state: after the growth period, the temperature stabilises and the combustion process reaches a steady state where the reaction between fuel and oxygen is balanced until all the fuel is consumed.

Decay: decay will begin when either the fuel or oxygen has been consumed. The fire will extinguish and gradually cool down. In the early stages of decay, there is still a considerable amount of heat; there is certainly enough to cause re-ignition if more fuel or oxygen is supplied. In the latter case, admission of oxygen (e.g. opening a window) into an oxygen-depleted room can result in the sudden explosive re-ignition of vapours.

Question 4Endothermic reactions: energy is absorbed from the surroundings.

Exothermic reactions: energy is released to the surroundings.

Question 5(a) The upper flammable limit is the maximum concentration of fuel in air which will burn.(b) The lower flammable limit is the lowest concentration of fuel in air which will burn.(c) Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapour when the liquid and vapour are in equilibrium.(d) Relative vapour density is a measure of the density of a gas or vapour relative to the density of air.(e) The flash point is the lowest temperature at which sufficient vapour is given off to ignite momentarily when a

source of ignition is applied.(f) The auto ignition temperature is the lowest temperature at which a substance will ignite without the

application of an additional ignition source.



Question 6The basic conditions required for ignition to occur are:

• A mixture of fuel and oxygen in a concentration in the flammable range.

• The input of sufficient heat energy.

Question 7Class A: solid, organic-based materials.

Class B: flammable liquids or liquefied solids (excluding cooking oils/fats).

Class C: gases or liquefied gases.

Class D: metals such as aluminium, sodium, magnesium.

Class F: cooking oils/fats.

Question 8Fuel characteristics: ease of ignition, heat of combustion, fluidity.

Fuel separation: distance between burning material and new fuel sources.

Containment: poor ventilation may limit fire growth rate, room dimensions.

Question 9(a) Direct burning: by direct contact with new fuel source.(b) Conduction: through thermal conductors to another part of the room/building to act as a source of ignition.(c) Convection: currents generated by heated gases expanding, become less dense and rise, transferring heat.(d) Radiation: emission of electromagnetic radiation causing heating of local surfaces and, if sufficiently intense,

ignition.

Question 10Fire spread within buildings includes:

• Direct burning of contents producing heat, smoke, embers and flames which are further spread by means of convection currents under ceilings, up staircases, along lift shafts and ceiling voids, etc.

• Radiative and conductive heating causing further ignitions away from the original source.

• As the fire progresses, the heat intensifies, the volume of gases/smoke increases and the speed of the convection currents increases, helping the fire to spread.

Question 11Free burning conditions: growth rate is largely influenced by the type and physical form of the fuel. There is a plentiful oxygen supply and heat and smoke are dissipated to the immediate surroundings.

Enclosed conditions: the growth rate may be greatly accelerated as the heat is trapped and concentrated. Combustible materials in the room can easily reach auto ignition temperatures (if enough oxygen is available). Smoke is also trapped and spreads out horizontally initially, forming an increasingly thick layer. Further growth may be ventilation-limited.

Question 12Apart from the obvious issue of confinement in some container, UVCE involve very large quantities of flammable gas/vapour.



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Question 13(a) The main factors and conditions that determine the likelihood of a dust explosion occurring are:

• The presence of an ignition source.

• Combustibility/explosibility of the substance.

• Moisture content.

• Particle size.

• Concentration in air.

(b) The primary explosion disturbs dust which, after forming a dust cloud, is then ignited by already burning materials.

Question 14Three different means of controlling the effects of an explosion are:

Venting, e.g. bursting/rupture discs, explosion panels or similar “weak points” built into the equipment or building.

Suppression (inerting), e.g. pressure rise from a developing explosion is detected by a sensor which then initiates some action to suppress it, such as the release of an extinguishing agent (typically dry powder but super-heated water is also used).

Containment (i.e. designing plant to withstand any foreseeable explosion pressure), but this is not usually practical for larger plant.



Element 3: Causes and Prevention of Fires and ExplosionsQuestion 1Relevant factors include:

• Building location – history of vandalism and arson in the area, type of property, proximity to road (letter boxes, vents).

• Security and access control – ease of access to site, buildings and especially vulnerable areas (flammables, large stocks of combustibles).

• Type of business – targeted by extremist organisations.

Question 2The VICES mnemonic is a good framework for your answer:

V Ventilation provided.

I Ignition sources controlled.

C Containment suitable.

E Exchange, i.e. substitution.

S Separation.

Question 3Measures would include:

• Elimination of potential flammable atmospheres and elimination/control of combustibles (protection from heat/sparks).

• Ventilation.

• Fire extinguishers.

• Fire watch.

• Formal permit arrangements – authorisation, time limitation, etc.



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Element 4: Fire Protection in BuildingsQuestion 1“Elements of structure” are principally the main structural load-bearing elements of a building with the addition of all compartment walls (which may or may not be load-bearing). Examples include: beams, columns, load-bearing wall, floor, compartment wall.

Question 2“Fire resistance” is the ability to resist the effects of fire. This means in relation to resisting collapse, fire and smoke penetration, excessive heat transfer, or all three. Resistance of fire doors (measured in minutes) will hold back the spread of fire.

Question 3“Fire-stopping” is just a seal (such as cement mortar) to stop or restrict the progression of fire/smoke. Options for a pipe include: proprietary seal; fire-stopping around the pipe where it passes through the compartment (with restrictions on the pipe diameter – depending on its material of construction); or non-combustible sleeving around the pipe, used in conjunction with fire-stopping.

Question 4A “means of escape” is a structural means whereby (in the event of fire) a safe route or routes is/are provided for persons to travel from any point in a building to a place of safety.

Question 5Typically such additional protection on stairs might be needed when there is a single stairway serving a multi-storey building, for tall buildings and also when phased evacuation systems are in operation. Alternatives are smoke control systems and protected corridors.

Question 6This is where evacuation is progressive to adjoining compartments (or sub-compartments) on the same horizontal level. It enables evacuation to a place of relative safety and is used in places such as residential care homes and hospitals; in such places, it would be difficult to evacuate patients to an ultimate place of safety in one move. Further evacuation can take place to the ultimate place of safety if necessary.

Question 7Operation of the detector is based on sensitivity to one or more of the following:

• Heat (i.e. temperature or rate of temperature rise).

• Smoke or other combustion products.

• Radiation emitted by the fire (i.e. electromagnetic radiation such as infrared, visible and ultraviolet).


10 Unit IFC1: Suggested Answers © RRC International

4

Question 8Optical type:

• Good at detecting dense smoke from slower, smouldering fires.

• Not sensitive to low levels of “invisible” smoke.

• Less prone to false alarms than the ionisation type.

• Recommended for escape routes.

Ionisation type:

• Very sensitive to smoke containing small particles from more rapidly developing fires.

• Prone to false alarms from steam or dust.

General:

• Not to be used in kitchens.

• Unsuitable in:

– Rooms where toasters are used.

– Locations close to kitchens.

– Rooms in which people smoke.

– Bathrooms and other rooms which are likely to contain steam.

– Areas with high concentrations of dust or engine exhaust fumes.

– Areas close to windows that open.

Question 9False alarms arise from:

• Fire detection equipment activated through fault or accident.

• Intentional hoax calls.

• Mistaken belief that there is a genuine fire when there’s not.

Key factors in reducing the number of false alarms include:

• Detector type/location - not all detectors are suitable for every location.

• Measures to prevent stray signals which might cause inadvertent activation.

• Proper commissioning before systems are brought fully online to identify potential faults.

• Incorporation of false alarm filtering systems:

– “Voting” systems (i.e. at least two detections from three detectors).

– Time delays (check the genuineness of an alarm before calling the fire service).

• Routine maintenance/servicing.

Question 10(a) When siting portable fire extinguishers, you should take account of the following:

• Site in conspicuous positions along escape routes and near exit doors (clearly signed).

• Group with other extinguishers (where possible) into a “Fire Point”.

• Properly mount where possible (the top should be around 1m off the ground), or stand on a base plate.

• Special extinguishers should be located close to their respective special risk, e.g. for Class D fires.

• In multi-storey occupancies, extinguishers should be sited at the same location on each floor.

• Avoid siting in locations where there are extremes of temperature or corrosive environments.

1-11


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4

© RRC International Unit IFC1: Suggested Answers

(b) With regard to maintenance and inspection, simply outline some of the main points such as:

• Monthly visual inspection: is the extinguisher still where you think it is? Is it obstructed, etc.?

• Basic annual service by a competent person: such as internal check of the extinguisher contents (e.g. foam may deteriorate, powders may cake).

• Extended service (including discharge test and any refurbishment): discharge intervals are generally every five years, etc.

Question 11This is a water supply pipe installed specifically for fire-fighting purposes within a building.

The term ‘rising’ fire main (or ‘riser’) is used where it serves floors above ground level.

Fire mains are of two basic types:

• Dry fire mains do not normally contain water; they consist of the fire main together with inlet connections at vehicle access level to enable charging with water from fire service pumping appliances. They then have ‘landing’ valves (a combined outlet and valve) at specific points for connection with fire-fighting hoses. These outlets are situated in each fire-fighting lobby of the fire-fighting shaft.

• Wet fire mains are permanently charged with pressurised water; they, too, have landing valves at specific points. They may also be fitted with inlets for emergency replenishment of a wet system.

Question 12• Providing practical assistance to the fire service and any other of the emergency services when they are in

attendance.

• Taking overall control in a fire situation in conjunction with the fire service.

• Co-ordinating and directing staff actions.

• Liaising with fire service officers.

• Making sure that the chief fire officer is satisfied that there is no danger before allowing re-entry to the building.

Question 13Pathways by which pollutants from the site of a fire can enter the water ecosystem include:

• The surface water drainage system on site.

• Through the foul drainage system contaminating the sewage works beds.

• By water run-off to ground and into brooks, streams and rivers.

• By airborne contaminants deposited in the precipitation.

Question 14• Bunds.

• Drain covers.

• Mats and sand bags.

• Interceptors.

• Provision of a sacrificial area and/or trenches.

• Diverting and directing the flow of water, taking advantage of the lie of the land.

• Secondary containment reservoir or lagoon.

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Element 5: Safety of People in the Event of FireQuestion 1The key elements of a Fire Emergency Plan include:

• How people will be warned.

• What action people should take on discovering a fire.

• Actions people should take in the event of a fire.

• Arrangements for calling the fire and rescue service.

• Isolations.

• Evacuation procedure.

• Assembly points.

• Fire-fighting arrangements.

• Procedures for meeting the fire and rescue service on arrival (including access arrangements).

• Provision of information on the incident.

• Arrangements for vulnerable people.

Question 2Fire drills are useful for:

• Testing staff knowledge and understanding of evacuation drills.

• Ensuring that those with specific roles/duties (e.g. fire wardens) know how to carry out their duties efficiently and effectively.

• Indicating whether there are any problems with the evacuation procedures, e.g. any building alterations that have not been taken into account and may lead to evacuation difficulties.

• Giving the opportunity to monitor the evacuation process in a practice situation.

• Checking the success/failure of the roll-call method in use.

• Verifying that staff use the means of escape correctly; blocking off an exit route temporarily will ensure staff become aware of alternative escape routes.

Question 3(a) Provision of a safe refuge:

• Area sufficiently fire-protected.

• Temporary holding area only.

• Trained operators required.

• Appropriate equipment necessary.

• Good communication system essential.

The type of disability, which affects the method of evacuation:

• Vision impairment: the individual is likely to be aware that the alarm has been raised, but may require help in leaving the building.

• Hearing impairment: the individual may need to be made aware that an alarm has been raised.

• Mobility impairment: the individual probably requires physical help to leave the building, particularly from upper floors.

• Buddy system.



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(b) Vision impairment:

• Tactile signage.

• Buddy system.

Hearing impairment:

• Flashing lights.

• Trembler alarms.

• Buddy system.

Mobility impairment:

• Help to walk out.

• Assisted evacuation, e.g. evacuation chairs, etc.

Question 4Perception is the process of:

• gathering;

• filtering;

• interpreting;

• organising; and

• making sense of;

sensory data.

Question 5Exit choice is affected by a wide range of factors which include:

• Smoke obscuration.

• Fire characteristics such as heat and smell.

• Familiarity with escape routes.

• Personal characteristics, such as age or disability.

• Advice provided prior to the fire.

• Lighting levels.

• Group dynamics and attachment, such as family groups.

• Location and proximity to exit.

• Information/communication on fire in progress.

• Fire exit signs.

Question 6• Poor perception of the danger involved:

– Lack of understanding of the hazards from smoke and how the fire might spread.• The fact that people do not generally respond to a single stimulus and often wait for others to respond first.

• Lack of awareness of the significance of the alarm:

– Misinterpretation of the alarm. – Assumption that it is a false alarm.

• Desire to finish tasks and collect belongings.

• Fright and panic causing people to freeze.

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Question 7(a) The purpose of fire safety training is to ensure that persons know:

• What to do if there is a fire.• How to evacuate the premises safely.

(b) The principal groups of persons for whom training should be provided are:

• Employees.• Temporary staff.• Agency staff.• Volunteers.

Question 8The operation of the system involves:

• The building being split into small areas of responsibility.

• Each area is allocated to a specific fire marshal.

• The marshals are designated people who, in the event of a fire:

– Search and check their allocated area. – Make sure that all people have left the building. – Direct those who have not left the building to an appropriate fire exit and safe assembly point. – Report that their area has been checked and is clear.

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Element 6: Fire Safety Risk AssessmentQuestion 1Hazards will always exist, to some degree, in the workplace and it is generally not possible to fully eliminate them. Risk can be controlled and reduced. This, therefore, is the focus of fire management.

Question 2Fire safety risk assessment is an examination of the premises and activities, with a view to the likelihood that a fire could start and cause harm to individuals. Its overall aim is to ensure that no one suffers harm as a result of fire in the workplace.

Question 3Identify fire hazards; identify people at risk; evaluate, remove, reduce and protect from risk; record, plan, inform, instruct, train; review.

Question 4Maintenance staff, cleaners, contractors, visitors, the general public, vulnerable people, people with disabilities and/or mobility problems, etc.

Question 5Inspection, job/task analysis, analysis of incident data, examination of legislative requirements and associated guidance, examination of manufacturers’ information.

Question 6Elimination of the hazard; using physical or engineering controls to reduce the risk at source and provide general protection; and control of the person by job design, management or (as a last resort) personal protective equipment.

Question 7Factors that would require a risk assessment review include incidents, process/equipment/substance changes, changes in legislation, etc.

Question 8(a) Information:

• Safety data sheets.

• Any legislation that may apply.

• Applicable details from other users.

(b) Other considerations are the:

• Amount of the substance used.

• Risks presented by the combination with any other substances.

• Arrangements for safe handling, storage and transport of the substance.

• Arrangements for dealing with any waste products.

• Likelihood of any ignition sources being present (including static discharges).

• Likelihood of an explosive atmosphere occurring.

• Emergency arrangements that must be put in place.

• Information, instruction and training that must be given to employees.

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