Interpretation and Application ofTax Treaties

Ned Shelton, B.Com., LLBSheltons

"fllottelJ^ n 11 h I i <; h i n ap u b I i s h i n

Contents

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PrefaceAcknowledgments

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IntroductionApplication, interpretation and odditiesWhat is a tax treaty?A. Definitions :B. Other treaties covering tax — "C. 'Treaties' and 'executive agreements' in the United StatesD. Correct term - 'double tax treaty', 'double tax agreement'

or...?Types of tax treatiesA. Comprehensive tax treatiesB. Treaties on estates and inheritancesC. Shipping and aircraft treatiesD. Exchange of information treatiesE. Multilateral treatiesF. EU directivesPurpose and benefits of tax treatiesA. To avoid double taxationB. To prevent fiscal evasionC. Other purposes and benefitsD. To avoid 'double no tax'Scope of tax treatiesA. IntroductionB. The elements of 'scope'

1. Territory - general2. Territory - the 'state'3. Source and nature of the income4. Which taxpayers are covered?5. What taxes are covered?6. Timing

C. More than one treaty might applyWhat do treaties not cover?Model treatiesA. Use of model treatiesB. Models in existenceC. The OECD and UN models generallyD. The OECD ModelE. The United Nations and the UN ModelRelationship between tax treaties and domestic lawA. GeneralB. Can tax treaties create tax liability?C. Can a treaty deteriorate the position of the taxpayer?

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:aty making, war, etcTreaty making1. Re Step 1 - the initial contact2. Re Step 2 - agreeing on priorities3. Re Step 10 - signing (and initialling)4. Re Step 12 - ratification, etc5. Re Step 15 - entry into force6. Re Step 16 - the effective dateDoes a treaty exist?1. Are the procedures complete?2. Succession statesTermination of treaties \Validity of treaties in war time and under armed conflicts

Domestic tax law of relevance to the application of taxtreatiesWhat domestic law is relevant?ResidencyA.B.x

C.

D.

NexusWorldwide (global) systems and territoriality systemsResidence of companies1. Methods of determining residency2. 'Management and control' versus 'legal seat'3. Tests based on place of management4. 'Incorporation' versus 'management' - which can

taxpayers best exploit?5. An example of the definition of residence — Australia6. Dual residence

(a) Corporate residence planningResidence of individuals1. France

(a) Personal test(b) Professional test(c) Economic and financial test

2. Germany3. UK residence and domicile

(a) Definition of 'residence' and of 'ordinaryresidence'

(b) Consequence of being resident(c) A note on the UK 'domicile' regime and

inheritance taxSource taxationA.B.C.D.E.

Source under tax treatiesAn example under domestic law - LuxembourgRestricted and unrestricted source taxationSource rules: the 'pay rule' and 'use rule'Source rules: withholding taxes1. Dividends2. Interest

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3. Royalties 814. Technical assistance fees, service fees, consulting fees 825. Income from trading 82

F. Dual-sourced income and other issues 83G. Notes on specific jurisdictions 84

1. Australia 842. Luxembourg 853. The United States 86

IV. Double taxation and its avoidance (relief) 88A. Double taxation 88

1. Juridical double taxation 882. Economic double taxation \ 893. Comprehensive and schedular tax systems 89

B. Avoidance of double tax (relief) 901. General 902. Methods of relieving juridical double taxation 91

(a) Credit systems 91(b) Exemption 92(c) Deduction method 92(d) Summary table 96

3. Methods of relieving economic double taxation 97(a) The classical system 99(b) The imputation and tax credit systems 100(c) The exemption system (and participation

exemption) 102(d) Comparison: classical, imputation and exemption

systems 104(e) The schedular (dual income tax) system 104(f) The dividend deduction and split rate systems 105

4. Tax sparing credits 105

3. The OECD Model Tax ConventionI. History ofthe OECD Model 109

A. History and functions of the OECD itself 1091. Constitutional document - the OECD Convention 109

2. Purpose and work of the OECD 111B. History of work on tax treaties 112

II. The Committee on Fiscal Affairs and the CTPA 116A. Where do the CFA and the CTPA fit in? 116B. Who's who 117C. Teams subordinate to the CFA 117

III. Importance in the world of tax treaties 119IV. Structure ofthe OECD Model Tax Convention 122

A. Terminology 122B. Chapters and articles 124C. The seven chapters - 125

1. Overview 125(a) Chapter I: Scope ofthe Convention 125(b) Chapter II: Definitions 125

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(c) Chapter III: Taxation of income 125(d) Chapter IV: Taxation of capital 125(e) Chapter V: Methods for elimination of double

taxation 125(f) Chapter VI: Special provisions 126(g) Chapter VII: Final provisions 126

2. Chapter III - The limitation rules 126(a) 'Shall be taxable only' 128(b) 'May be taxed' 128

3. Chapter III - Unrestricted and restricted taxing rights 129(a) Unrestricted right of tax in the source state 129(b) Restricted right of tax in the source state 130

4. Chapter IV-Taxation of capital _ __ 1305. Chapter V - Methods for elimination of double

taxation 1306. Chapter VI - Special provisions 1307. Chapter VII — Final provisions 1318. Language - After Chapter VII and before the signing

block 131V. Current treaty-related work 131

A. Permanent establishments (Article 5) 131B. E-commerce (Articles 5, 7 and 12) 135C. The treatment of employment income (Article 15) 136D. Taxing pensions (Articles 18 and 19) 136E. Stock options (Articles 13 and 15) 137F. Assistance in the collection of taxes (Article 27) 138G. Shipping and air transport (Article 8) 139H. Mutual agreement procedure and dispute resolution

(Article 25) 139I. Trusts and investment funds 139J. Exchange of information and OECD Model TIEA

(Article 26) 140K. Place of effective management (Article 4) 141L. Anti-treaty shopping, etc 142

VI. The future 142A. Weakened and complicated geographic nexus 143B. Alternatives? 144C. The future of the OECD's work on tax treaties 145

4. Interpretation of tax treatiesI. Background 147

A. The interpretation of international treaties 147B. Differences in rules of interpretation-domestic law 148

1. Example - the UK domestic law rules of interpretation 150(a) Excerpts from case law 150

(i) River Wear Commissioners v Adamson 152(ii) Stock v Frank Jones (Tipton) Ltd 152(iii) Maunsell v Olins 152(iv) INCO Europe Ltd v First Choice Distribution 153

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(v) Pepper (Inspector of Taxes) v Hart 153(vi) R v Secretary of State for the Environment,

ex p Spath Holme 154(b) Conclusion on the UK approach 154

2. Differences between common law jurisdictions 154II. The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969) 155

A. A reflection of 'customary international law'? 156B. Who are parties to the Vienna Convention? 158C. Why has the United States not ratified the Vienna

Convention? 162D. Relevant articles of the Vienna Convention 162

III. Treaty interpretation - general principles and selected issues 164A. Does it matter if a treaty becomes domestic law? 164B. Applying a treaty - start with domestic law or the treaty? 165C. The textual approach 166D. The rules of treaty interpretation 166E. A treaty shall be interpreted in good faith 167F. The 'ordinary meaning [of] ... the terms ofthe treaty' 168G. A broad approach 170H. The goal of'common interpretation' 171I. The'purpose ofthe treaty'and the'intention ofthe parties' 173J. Extra-textual, accompanying or supplementary materials 175

1. The Fothergill case 178(a) Background and the facts ofthe case 178(b) The United Kingdom's view of the use of

travaux preparatoires 179(c) Recourse'to the minutes of the Hague

Conference of 1955 . X 180(d) Other supplementary material - academic

writings and court decisions 182(e) The need for the supplementary material (aids)

to be available 1832. The OECD Model Commentary and Article 32 of the

Vienna Convention 184(a) The India-Singapore'dredging'example 184(b) The OECD Model Commentary - can it be

used? 186K. Which state's law applies? 188

1. The Pierre Boulez case 1882. Law ofthe resident state, source state, or both? 195

L. The main treaty rule - Article 3(2) 1961. The text - and when does Article 3(2) apply? 1962. Context - the OECD Commentary in conflict with

the Vienna Convention? 1973. OECD Model Article 3(2) and the Vienna Convention 1994. What if there is no meaning in domestic law? 201

(a) Background 201(b) The Thiel case 201

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(c) Use of non-tax meanings in the absence of a taxmeaning

(d) Conclusion - the preferred processStatic or ambulatory?Languageconcept of'qualification' and 'conflicts of qualification'Meaning and examplesTreaty text to 'avoid' conflicts of qualification (switch-overclauses)The OECD Model Commentary example - and approachOECD and UN modelsA greater role for the UN? >Importance of the models ^1. General2. Reference in a treaty to the OECD Model

CommentaryThe role of later commentaries in interpreting earliertreatiesInternational Court of JusticeWho can take action before the ICJ?Special agreementsTreaties and conventionsWhat law is used for the decisions of the ICJ?

How does one know if a treaty exists?AustraliaA.B.C.D.E.

GeneralRelationship with domestic lawInterpretationSpecial featuresCurrent issues '""'

CanadaA.B.

C.

GeneralInterpretation1. The Crown Forest case2. The Income Tax Conventions Interpretation ActRelationship with domestic law

DenmarkA.B.C.

GeneralRelationship with domestic lawInterpretation

IrelandA.B.C.D.

GeneralRelationship with domestic lawInterpretationSpecial features

FranceA.B.C.

GeneralRelationship with domestic lawInterpreting tax treaties

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XIII. Germany 243A. General 243B. Relationship with domestic law 244C. Interpretation 245

XIV. India 248A. General 248B. Relationship with domestic law 249C. Interpretation - recent decisions 251

1. Commissioner of Income Tax v Vijay Ship Breaking 2512. Connection payments to foreign telecommunications

companies 2523. Re Cyril Eugene Pereira \ 254

D. The Indian Authority for Advance Rulings (AAR) 256E. The Mauritius Based FIIs case - the most important Indian

treaty case? 2561. Background 2562. Effectively managed in a third country 2583. The issue of liability to tax of the Mauritian company 2584. The principle of liberal interpretation of treaties 2595. Treaty shopping 2606. The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties

(1969) 2607. Interpretation of treaties 261

XV. The United Kingdom 261A. General 261B. Relationship with domestic law 261C. Interpretation 264

1. Commerzbank 2642. Memec pic v Inland Revenue Commissioners 2653. Current position - - - 266

XVI. The United States 268A. General 268B. 'Treaty' and 'executive agreement' 269C. Relationship with domestic law 270D. Interpretation 271E. Special features - policy on dividend withholding tax 272F. Current issues 272

5. Application of selected important treaty provisionsI. Article 1: Personal scope 275

A. General 275B. Non-conforming treaties 276C. The OECD Model Commentary - commentary on what? 278

II. Article 4: Residence 279A. The role of residence in treaties 279B. Resident only for the purposes of that treaty 281C. 'Liable to tax' 281

1. Introduction 2812. The India-UAE Treaty and the Re Pereira ruling 282

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3. Other treaties with the UAE 2834. Meaning of 'liable to tax' 285

(a) Refers to the person not the item of income 285(b) Exempt persons - the UAE, pension funds,

Luxembourg 1929 and Labuan 286(c) Transparent entities 289

D. Not resident if subject to source tax only 290E. Reservation by France on partnerships 290F. Dual residence - the tie-breaker clause for individuals 291

1. Terminology - 'tie-breaker' and 'preference criterion' 2912. Article 4(2) 291

G. Dual residence - the tie-breaker clause for companies, etc 2931. Effective management and the OECD-Model 2932. OECD members' reservations on effective

management 2943. Other tie-breaker tests ('preference criteria') 295

(a) The mutual agreement approach 295(b) The 'total denial' approach 296(c) Other tests for 'preference criteria' 297

- 4. Dual listed company provisions 297H. Domestic treaty-related dual residence legislation 298I. Remittance basis ('non-doms') (UK) 299J. Nationality taxation (US) 300K. US 'S-Corps' - residents of the United States? 302L. 'Effective management' versus 'management and control' 302

1. Comparison 3022. New OECD Model Commentary on 'effective

management' 3033. OECD proposal for a new Article 4(3) - three tests 304

III. Article 5: The permanent establishment definition 305A. A mere permanent establishment is not enough to give rise

to tax 305B. The concept of'permanent establishment' 306

1. Background and terminology 3062. Domestic law equivalents of permanent establishment 307

(a) Introductory comments 309C. Representative offices 310D. The definition of permanent establishment - overview 310E. What is'an enterprise'? 312F. Article 5(1)-'basic-rule'permanent establishments 314

1. Elements 3142. Requirement to be fixed 3143. Offshore activities, leasing and other specific areas 3154. Is human intervention necessary? 316

G. Article 5(2) - the positive list 317H. Article 5(4) - the negative list 319I. Article 5(3) - 'construction' permanent establishments 320J. Article 5(5) - agency permanent establishments 322K. A note on websites, servers and e-commerce 325

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L. Commencement and termination 327M. The new United Kingdom definition 327N. The use of permanent establishments in international tax

planning 331IV. Article 7: Taxation of business profits 332

A. Main rule 333B. Separate entity approach 335C. Allocation of expenses 337D. Transfer between head office and permanent

establishments 340E. 'Construction clause' permanent establishments 341F. Permanent establishments and dividend,! interest and

royalty income *"•-—• 342G. The need to prepare accounts 343

V. Article 8: Shipping and air transport 343A. Overview 343B. Effective management 344C. Article 8 344D. What is defined in Article 8? 344E. Article 8 versus Article 7 345F. The scope of Article 8 income and profits 346G. Some reservations on the Commentary 349H. Triangular Article 8 situations . 349I. Examples of a non-OECD Model article 350

VI. Article 9: Transfer pricing under tax treaties 351A. Overview 351B. Does Article 9(1) have any meaning? 353'C. Does paragraph 1 define the scope of paragraph 2? 354D. Is Article 9 a limitation (or allocation or attribution) article? 357E. Paragraph 2 - no such thing as a 'corresponding

adjustment' 358F. Does Article 9(2)have teeth? 358G. 'Enterprises' and 'associated enterprises' 360

1. Enterprise 3602. Associated 361

H. Secondary adjustments 362I. Thin capitalisation and Article 9 362J. Transfer pricing and Articles 11 and 12 362

VII. Article 10: Dividends 363A. Overview 363B. UN differences 364C. Some terms and concepts in Article 10 364D. Beneficial owner 366E. Definition 368F. Branch profits tax 368G. Extra-territorial taxation of dividends 370

VIII. Article 11: Interest 370A. Overview 370B. Beneficial owner 371

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C. Definition 371D. Source rules - 'arising in' and 'paid by' 373E. 'Paid' 374

IX Article 12: Royalties 375A. Overview 375B. Source rule 375C. United Nations Model differences 376D. Definition 376E. Tax treatment of computer software 379

X. Article 13: Capital gains 381A. Overview 381B. The Lamesa case ; 383C. Specific problems ^ . 383D. Other assets 383

XI. Article 15: Income from employment 384A. The main rule - and some common misconceptions 384B. Article 15 and other articles 385C. Limitations on the working state's right to tax 385D. Some selected issues 386

s 1. Who is the employer? 3862. What is 'salaries, wages and other similar

remuneration'? 3863. What does'derived'mean? , 3874. What is'183 days'? 387

E. International hiring-out of labour 388XII. Article 16: Taxation of directors 390XIII. Article 17: Artistes and sportsmen 392XIV. Article 18: Pensions 394XV. Article 21: Other income 396XVI. Article 23: Double taxation relief 397

A. In general - step 2 in the elimination of juridical doubletaxation 3971. Exemption method - Article 23 A 3972. Credit method - Article 23B 398

B. Tax sparing credit 399C. The 'gross-net' issue 399D. Classification conflicts 400E. Taxation of dividends under tax treaties 401

1. Dividends distributed to individuals 401(a) States with the classical system 401(b) States which provide relief at the shareholder's

level 4012. Dividends distributed to companies 402

(a) Classical system in the state of the subsidiary 402(b) Imputation system in the state of the subsidiary 402

6. Domestic and treaty-based anti-avoidance measuresI. Concepts, categories and sources 403II. Anti-avoidance measures under domestic law 405

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A. Which is superior - domestic anti-avoidance law or thetreaty? 405

B. Germany 4071. General - section 42AO 4072. Anti-treaty shopping 408

C. Japan 408D. Spain 409E. Switzerland 409

1. Introduction 409' 2. The 1962 Decree 409F. The US 411

III. Anti-avoidance provisions under treaties , 412A. What provisions are included in the OECD Model? 412B. What does the OECD recommend? 413

1. Base companies 4142. Conduit companies 415

(a) Direct conduits 415(b) 'Stepping stone'conduits 415(c) Solutions recommended by the Conduit

Company Report 416C. Limitation on benefits ('LOB') clauses 417D. Other specific anti-abuse provisions in treaties 419

7. Hybrid entities and partnershipsI. What is a hybrid entity? 421

A. Civil law, common law, companies and confusion —terminology 421

B. Hybrid entities and 'reverse hybrids'? 421C. Partnerships 424

1. Hybrids and partnerships 4262. Partnerships - legal persons? 427

D. Trusts 429E. Foundations 431F. Co-operatives and associations 431G. European Economic Interest Groupings (EEIGs) 434

II. Local legal entities - classification and taxation 435A. Australia 436

1. Legal forms 4362. Taxation 436

(a) Partnerships and companies 436(b) Trusts 438

3. Entity classification for tax purposes 440B. Belgium 441

1. Legal forms 441(a) Companies 441

(i) The NV/SA 441(ii) The BVBA/SPRL 442(iii) Portfolio companies 442

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(b) General partnership (VOF) and limitedpartnership 443

(c) Partnership limited by shares 443(d) Co-operatives - the CV/SC and the CVOHA/

SCRIS 443(e) Entities (business forms) without legal

personality 4432. Taxation 4433. Entity classification for tax purposes 444

C. Denmark - partnership companies (the P/S) 444D. France 445

1. Legal forms •, 445(a) Companies v __ 445

(i) Corporation (SA) 446(ii) Limited liability company (SARL) 446

(b) Economic groups (GIE) 447(c) Partnerships and other legal forms 447

2. Taxation 448(a) Tax liability based on legal form 448(b) Tax liability based on doing business 448(c) Tax liability based on election 448

E. Germany 4491. Legal form 449

(a) Companies 449(i) Stock company (public company) (AG) 449(ii) Limited liability company (private

company) (GmbH) 450(b) Limited partnership with shares (KGaA) 451(c) Partnerships 451

2. Taxation 4523. Entity classification for tax purposes 454

F. Sweden 4561. Legal forms 456

(a) Companies 456(i) Public company 457(ii) Private company 458

(b) Partnerships 458(c) Associations and co-operatives 459(d) Foundation 460(e) Non-profit associations 460

2. Taxation and entity classification for tax purposes 460G. Switzerland - classification 463H. The United Kingdom 463

1. Limited liability partnerships — legal and tax aspects 4632. Entity classification for tax purposes ,465

I. The United States 4721. Legal forms 472

(a) Corporation 473(b) Joint stock company 473

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(c) Partnerships 474(i) General partnership 474(ii) Limited partnership 474(iii) Limited liability partnership (LLP) 474

(d) Limited liability company (LLC) 4742. Taxation 4753. Entity classification for tax purposes 4774. US 'check-the-box' rules 478

III. The OECD Report on Partnerships 479A. Introduction 480B. When is a partnership entitled to treaty benefits? 480C. Is a partnership a person? • 481D. Is a partnership a 'resident' of a Contracting State? 485E. Is the partnership liable to tax? 485F. OECD Report examples 486

IV. Selected tax planning techniques using hybrid entities 492A. US check-the-box for US tax planning 492

1. Scenario 4922. Use 492

B. Using a US or non-US LLC for non-US tax planning 4921. Scenario 4922. Use 492

C. Silent partnerships 4931. Scenario 4932. Use 493

D. UK-French tax planning: the SNC double dip structure 4931. Scenario 4932. Use 494

8. Hybrid financing and financial issuesI. Hybrid instruments - what are they and why use them? 495

A. What is a hybrid instrument? 495B. Hybrids and SPVs 496C. Why use hybrids? 497D. Terminology 497

II. Classification 498A. Types of hybrid - basic forms 498

1. Convertible notes (convertible loans) 4982. Dividend-yielding bonds 4993. Perpetual debt 4994. Profit-sharing loans or profit-participating loans 5005. Preferred shares 5016. Redeemable preferred shares 5017. Subordinated debt , 5028. Zero coupon bonds ('zeros') 503

B. Loans, derivatives, other instruments and special forms ofhybrid 5031. Loans 5032. Options and rights 503

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3. Income access shares 5044. Bonds 5045. Debentures 5046. Discounted securities 5057. Original issue discount (OID) securities 5058. Jouissance shares 505

C. What are we classifying? 505D. Who and what is the taxpayer? 506E. Tests used in classification 506

1. Equity classification 5082. Debt classification 509

III. Withholding tax implications under tax treaties 510A. General V . _- 510B. Dividends 511C. Interest 514

IV. Double taxation relief - 516V. Notes on specific jurisdictions 518

A. The United Kingdom 5181. Classification - debt or equity? 5182. The Memec case 521

B. The United States 522C. The Netherlands 524

1. The basic position on classification 524(a) Decision of 11 March 1998 524(b) Decision of 17 February 1999 ^^ 525

2. The hybrid loan legislation of 2002 5263. Reverse convertible notes (RCNs) 527

VI. Thin capitalisation 527A. Concept 527B. Anti-avoidance approaches 528C. International tax implications of 'thin cap' 528D. Treaties and thin capitalisation 529

VII. A note on tax planning 530

9. Special issuesI. The United Nations Ad Hoc Group of Experts 531

A. Members and meetings 531B. History 532C. Terms of reference 532D. Work 533E. The future of the Group of Experts 533

II. A world tax body? 534A. Names and background 535B. Government organisations working in the tax field 536C. Two efforts - UN and OECD 537

1. The United Nations - an ITO or just an upgrade? 537(a) What does the UN want? 537(b) The Zedillo Report 538(c) The Monterrey Consensus 539

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2. The OECD-led effort - International Tax Dialogue(ITD) 539

3. The function and work ofthe ITD 541III. Triangular cases 542

A. Example 9 . 1 - permanent establishment situations 5431. The scenario 5432. The problem and the B-C Treaty position 5433. The A-C Treaty position 5454. Domestic law credits for third country income of PEs 5465. The non-discrimination article (Article 24) 5476. 'Triangular Cases, Model Tax Convention: Four

Related Studies' -, 5477. Example of a treaty addressing the problem 5478. Tax planning and treaty reactions 548

B. Example 9.2 - The Trans-Tasman example 549

10. Estate and inheritance tax treatiesI. Estate and inheritance tax 553

A. Introduction to estate and inheritance tax 553B. Connecting factors 554C. A note on gifts 555

11. Double and multiple tax 555III. Terminology - 'inheritance tax', 'death tax', 'estate duty',

'probate', etc 557IV. The OECD Estate, Inheritance and Gift Model Convention

(1982) 559A. The 1966 Draft Model and 1982 Model 559B. Structure ofthe 1982 Model 560C. Article 1 - Estates, inheritances and gifts covered 562D. Article 2 - Taxes covered 563

1. General 5632. Some issues 5633. Gifts and transfer pricing 564

E. Article 3 - General definitions 566F. Article 4 - Fiscal domicile 566G. Chapter III - Taxing rules 568

V. Relationship with the OECD Income Tax Model 568A. Article 2 - Taxes covered 568B. Interpretation - relevance of the OECD Income Tax

Model 571C. Relationship between Article 22 and estate and inheritance

tax treaties 572VI. Selected issues 573

A. Estate and inheritance tax in the context of emigration 574B. Double taxation from capital gains tax and death taxes 575C. Inter vivos gifts in the taxable base of death taxes 575D. Relationship between death taxes and wealth taxes 575

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11. Case studiesI. The John Deere 9520 case 577

A. The question 577B. The solution 578

II. The John Deere 9520 case — focus on financing 583A. The question 583B. The solution 583

III. Shipping profits - Sanghvi Shipping Ltd 584A. The question 584B. The solution 584

IV. Pierre sings a sorry song 585A. The question > ~ 585B. The solution '- - - 586

V. Triangular case - tax sparing 587A. The question 587B. The solution 587

VI. Different classification (hiring out of labour) 589A. The question 589B The solution 590

VII. Treaty application - lending from Malaysia 593A. The question \ 593B. The solution 594

VIII. Lending to partners in a partnership - 1 599A. The question 599B. The solution 599

IX. Lending to partners in a partnership - 2 601A. The question 601B. The solution 601

X. Sale of shares or of interest in a partnership 602A. The question 602B. The solution 603

XI. Hybrid entities - royalty income 605A. The question 605B. The solution 606

Appendix 1: OECD Member Countries (as at 1 July 2003) 607

Appendix 2: Members ofthe United Nations 609

Index 619

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