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NEGATIVES and PSEUDO-NEGATIVES IN BENGALI

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The book is a work of Linguistics dealing with the patterns of negation (covert and overt) in Bangla (or Bengali) language chiefly from a Semantic and Pragmatic point of view.
140
NEGATIVES AND PSEUDO-NEGATIVES IN B E N G A L I A Semantic and Pragmatic analysis ARKO CHAKRABORTY M.A. in Linguistics, Research Student. The University of Calcutta, India. LULU PUBLISHERS
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Page 1: NEGATIVES  and PSEUDO-NEGATIVES  IN   BENGALI

NEGATIVES AND PSEUDO-NEGATIVES

IN

B E N G A L I

– A Semantic and Pragmatic analysis

ARKO CHAKRABORTY

M.A. in Linguistics, Research Student.

The University of Calcutta, India.

LULU PUBLISHERS

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NEGATIVES AND PSEUDO-NEGATIVES IN BENGALI : A Semantic and Pragmatic Analysis

First Published (paperback edition): 2011. Lulu Publishers, a workgroup of Lulu Enterprises

Headquarters – Raleigh, North Carolina (U.S.A).

COPYRIGHT © Arko Chakraborty, 2011. All rights reserved.

ISBN-13: 978-1-257-05484-8

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

recording or otherwise, without the prior permission in writing of the author.

The book is available in both print and eBook formats and is eligible for

being marketed in all territories all over the world.

Book Available at websites – www.lulu.com/en/index.php (paperback and e-book formats),

www.books.google.co.in (limited preview)

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To my parents

and

teachers

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v|

ABBREVIATIONS

1st = first person

2nd

= second person

3rd = third person

ACC. = accusative case (oblique)

ADJ = adjective/adjectival

CAUS = causative

CL = classifier cp. = compare

FUT = future tense

GB = government and binding

theory/framework GEN = genitive case (oblique)

GER = gerund (non-finite)

IMP = imperative mood

INF = infinitive IP = inflectional phrase

LOC = locative case (oblique)

N = noun NP = noun phrase

OPT = optative mood or conditional

marker PERF = perfective aspect

PP = prepositional phrase

PPT = present participle

PROG = progressive aspect PRS = present tense

PST = past tense

SCB = Standard Colloquial Bengali SLB = Standard Literary Bengali

Spr = Spread glottis = aspiration

V = verb VP = verb phrase

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vii |

PREFACE

Every language has one or more ways of making a factual assertion or a declaration or a factual description of

an idea/object/event. There is also an opposite dimension to this – negation of the truth, factuality, validity of

an idea/object/event. This negation might be done by means of inflectional affixes or derivational affixes or by the use of clitics or particles and many a times by means of post-/pre-positions.

The scope of this work is not so vast enough to accommodate a cross-linguistic comparison of the use of

negatives. The present work focuses on the negative markers of Bengali (also called Bangla), an Indo-European language spoken by millions all over the world, which had its origin in the eastern provinces of

India. The current work deals only with the Standard Colloquial variety of Bengali and neither the dialects nor

the Standard Literary variety.

The aim of this work is to show the various environments/contexts in which negatives are used in Bengali, the

scope of a negative element (i.e. what and how much is negated in a construction), to find out the use of

negatives in naturally occurring common utterances (and not some artificial constructions), to explore the

types of morphemes denoting negation (i.e. negation processes) and also to understand the various types of negation by elements which apparently seem to be non-negatives but at a deeper structure they play the role of

negation. Hence this book has been divided into two main parts – part I deals with the most visible obvious

overt negations and part II which deals with covert negations. The negation patterns of Bengali which have been dealt with in part I have correspondences to some other

parallel works in the same field and these have been cited off and on. There are even some arguments to be

found in part I which go against the established notions.

The second part deals with more interesting patterns of covert negation which, to the best of my knowledge

(albeit little, finite and fallible), have not been discussed in any previous work – at least not in the exact

fashion in which they have been described here. Beyond grammatical structure what social and pragmatic

implications are possible through negation have been dealt with in the second part.

The principal tool to analyze all these would be semantic and neither morphological nor syntactic. However,

since meaning (and therefore its study, i.e. Semantics) always depends on structure/form of words-phrases-

clauses etc., so we shall find even morphological and syntactic discussions auxiliary to a semantic analysis. On the other hand, since Semantics is very much linked up with Pragmatics and Discourse Analysis and also

to a large extent with Sociolinguistics we shall find supplementary discussions along these lines too

(nevertheless Discourse Analysis has been discussed the least, that too in the form of Textual analysis, especially relating to Cohesion). The semantic analysis in this work would not only include pure Linguistic

Semantics but would even draw upon the theories and notions of Logical Semantics in terms of Propositional

and Predicate Calculus and Modal Logic.

Since the aim of this work is to present before the reader a semantic account of the negation patterns in

Bengali, so excessive morphemic and phonetic details have not been shown (except where necessary).

Especially for the Bengali verbs there are controversies among scholars regarding the internal morphemic

divisions in the inflections attached to verbal bases in the various paradigms. Still then the reader is suggested to go through the detailed morphemic divisions (but only given for 1

st person) in table 2 and the entire list of

verbal inflections (with internal morpheme boundaries for all persons-moods-tenses) in table 4. An extremely

detailed morphemic or phonetic account is not required for our present purposes and hence the scope of this

work has been chiefly restricted to Semantics and higher linguistic levels.

Kolkata, Arko Chakraborty

4th March, 2011. Author.

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ix |

A Few Guidelines and Conventions– especially for the non-native speakers/readers of Bengali

The most usual word-order in Bengali is SOV although a few instances where SVO is followed will be shown

and distinguished.

Internal morpheme divisions have been shown, wherever necessary, with hyphens, e.g. /bol-e-ch-il-am/

If the case of a nominal or pronominal form is not otherwise mentioned, it should be considered to be in the

Nominative or Direct Case which, being the default one (without any overt affix), is not labeled every time in each exemplary sentence. Other oblique cases have been labeled wherever pertinent. The genitive case marker

is /-er ~ -r/ while the objective case (including accusative and dative senses) is marked with /-ke/.

The meanings/translations have been enclosed within double inverted commas, while italics, bold fonts,

underlines and single inverted commas have been used to highlight any technical term or theory etc.

If the tense is not mentioned for a verbal form it is to be considered to be in present tense, if the mood is not

mentioned it is to be considered to be in indicative mood, and if the aspect is not mentioned then indefinite or

non-progressive aspect. All other tenses/moods/aspects have been distinctly labeled. It’s a very crucial point to be borne in mind throughout all the exemplary sentences in this book.

In its morphological structure the future tense has two paradigms – a) future indicative non-progressive and b)

future imperative (see Table 4a). Progressive and perfective aspects are found for the present and the past tenses but never for the future tense, while the imperative mood is found for the present and the future but not

for the past tense. Indicative mood and non-progressive (or indefinite) aspect are found for all the tenses.

Bengali verbal forms do not show variation with respect to number but show agreement with the subject as

regards to the grammatical category of person. Verbs do not show agreement with object.

Bengali does not show all the features and parametric variations of a Pro-drop language (like Italian) but since

the finite verbal forms in Bengali have explicit inflections (conjugational endings) which are sufficient to

mark the person of the subject of that particular verb, we often find that the Subject NP is dropped or elided. Thus Bengali exhibits a partial Pro-drop nature where the elided NP remains implicit.

The phonemic (not phonetic) representations of the utterances or constructions in Bengali have been given in

slant brackets ‘/…/’ (except for interjections in §9.2 shown in square brackets pertaining to phonetic

representation) which correspond to the standard or received pronunciation. Dialectal or idiolectal variations have not been discussed as such.

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x | .

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CONTENTS

Abbreviation v

Preface vii

A Few Guidelines and Conventions ix

Introduction xiii

Part I: THE PROPER NEGATIVES

1. The Negative Verb (Negated Copula) 1

1.1 Introducing the Negated Copula 1

1.2 Usage or distribution of the negated copula 2

1.3 Existential Negation 3

1.4 Implicit Prohibition 6

2. The Negative Particle 7

2.1 Shape of the negative particle 7

2.2 Distribution of the negative particle 10

2.2.1 Copula verb and the negative particle 10

2.2.2 Negative particle used before finites! 14

2.2.2.1 Non-conditional complex sentences 14

2.2.2.2 Overt if-then conditional sentences (TYPE A) 17

2.2.2.3 Covert if-then conditional sentences (TYPE B) 18

2.2.2.4 Doubly Negated Overt if-then conditional sentences (TYPE C) 20

2.2.2.5 Doubly Negated Covert if-then conditional sentences (TYPE D) 23

2.2.2.6 Doubly Negated Overt Imperative conditional sentences (TYPE E) 27

2.2.2.7 Doubly Negated Overt & Covert Subjunctive (?) conditional sentences (TYPE F ) 32

2.2.2.8 Doubly Negated Perfective and Progressive conditional sentences (TYPE G ) 36

2.2.2.9 Neither-nor constructions (non-conditional) 38

2.3 Quantifiers and the Negative particle 39

2.3.1 Subject NP is quantified 39

2.3.2 Object NP is quantified 50

Part II: THE PSEUDO-NEGATIVES

3. The Disjunctive Particle 59

4. Implicit Tags And Politeness Strategy 63

4.1 Implicit tag questions 63

4.2 Implicit tags used as a politeness strategy 68

5. Temporal Clauses 71

5.1 Temporal clauses with Adverbs of time 71

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5.2 Temporal clauses without Adverbs of time 72

6. The Negative And The Interrogative Particles combined – ‘naki’ & ‘kina’ 77

6.1 Introducing the interrogative particle 77

6.2 Combinations of /na/ and /ki1/ 79

6.2.1 /na/ + /ki1/ = /naki/ 79

6.2.2 /ki1/ + /na/ = /ki-na/ – a disjunctive particle 81

6.2.3 /ki1/ + /na/ = /ki-na/ – a conjunctive particle 84

7. Scalar Implicature and Epistemic Modality 87

8. Prohibitions, Denials And Refusals 91

8.1 Immediate Prohibition – Directive speech act 91

8.2 Remote Prohibition – Declarative/assertive speech act 94

8.3 Denials and Refusals – how much different from prohibitions? 98

8.4 Prohibition and Modality 103

9. Negation Without /na/ 105

9.1 Affixed negation – prefixes and suffixes 105

9.1.1 Historically Inherited negative affixes 105

9.1.2 Borrowed negative affixes – foreign origin 109

9.2 Propositional negation – Interjections 110

9.3 Propositional negation – Semi-idiomatic phrases 111

References and Further Reading 117

Index 123 List of Illustrations

Fig. 1 24

Fig. 2 24 Fig. 3 27

Fig. 4 30

Fig. 5 30

Fig. 6 34 Fig. 7 34

Fig. 8 35

Fig. 9 35 Fig. 10 36

Fig. 11 107

Table 1 1 Table 2 8

Table 3 90

Table 4 115

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xiii |

INTRODUCTION

The book is divided into two main parts – Part I deals with the proper negatives and Part II deals with the

Pseudo-negatives. Proper Negatives are those negative markers which have no other linguistic function but to

negate a grammatical unit in a construction. Moreover, the negation by such markers is quite obvious and

regular and mostly the finite or non-finite verb is syntactically negated. This however does not necessarily mean that only the negation extends only to the verbal form, which we shall discuss in detail. Pseudo-

negatives or covert negatives, on the other hand, have negation patterns which are not so explicit and obvious.

The resultant construction or utterance is not a negative statement or question when a pseudo-negative occurs. Furthermore, as we shall see inside, a pseudo-negative performs many other linguistic functions rather than

that of an overt negation. However, at a deeper syntactic and semantic level it is because of the negation (of a

grammatical unit or of a proposition) brought about by such a pseudo-negative that it is able to perform the other linguistic functions. Had it not been able to negate something at a deeper underlying level, it would not

have been able to perform its characteristic functions in the surface structure.

Part I has been divided into two broad chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the copula verb and puts it in contrast to

the negated copula verb or negative verb. The morpho-syntactic distributions as well as the allomorphic variations of the negated copula (along with personal inflections) have been discussed. Different semantic

variations and scopes of negation have also been discussed.

Chapter 2 introduces the negative particle /na/, which is the most powerful and productive method of negation

of a grammatical unit. Debates over the shape and alleged allomorphic variations of the negative particle have

been discussed under § 2.1. In section § 2.2.1 the copula verb is revisited and this time a major morpho-

syntactic (and a parallel semantic) difference is shown between the use and the meanings of the negated copula and the combinations of ‘copula+ negative particle’. In § 2.2.2 the prevalent notion of the regularity in

the distribution of the negative particle (after finite verbs and before non-finite verbal forms) is challenged and

it has been shown that interesting semantic variations occur when the negative particle occurs before finite

verbal forms. What follows this in the subsequent sections of the same chapter is the discussion of seven types of conditional sentences in Bengali. The syntactic structures for each type have been illustrated duly and such

structures show some similarities to and some differences from one another. In one or two such structures the

negative particle resumes its usual regular pattern of occurrence after a finite verb and such subtle variations have all been thoroughly discussed. The grammaticality and acceptability of conditional sentences based on

the observance and defiance of such structures have been shown. In addition to these, several agreements

between the verbs (finite and non-finite) with respect to tense-mood-person-aspect have been discussed in the

same sections that deal with the conditional sentences. These agreements work like constraints and some constraints, when followed, make the resultant utterance more acceptable than another constraint. Hence these

constraints or agreements have been illustrated (through successive revisions based on newer and newer

data) by means of three clines of acceptability. The last section § 2.2.2.9 deals with non-conditional constructions which as per traditional grammar are compound and not complex sentences – the neither-nor

constructions. These also show the use of the negative particle before a finite verb.

A completely different phenomenon is described in § 2.3 where the correlation between the universal and existential quantifiers in Bengali on one hand, and the negative particle on the other hand, is shown. The

differences between structural negation and semantic negation, differences in the scope of negations,

inconsistencies in the use of a certain quantifier and its interpretation as a different quantifier, change in

singular-plural sense due to double/reduplicated use of quantifiers and their anomalous negation, etc. have all been dealt with in detail.

Part 2 deals with the pseudo-negatives. It is divided into seven chapters all of which show negation through

the negative particle and not the negated copula. Chapter 3 deals with the functioning of the negative particle as a disjunctive particle and also deals with the propositional negation at an underlying level. If no other

negative particle is present the resultant disjoined utterance (compound sentence) is not a negative statement.

What type of sentence structures allow such disjunctions are also distinctly elaborated.

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xiv | .

Chapter 4 deals with implicit tag questions, however the structural pattern of such peripheral clauses in

Bengali are shown to be different from those in English. Why they are implicit is also discussed. The

distribution, occurrence and semantic contribution of such a tag question toward the propositional meaning of the main clause have all been enumerated. What are the constituents of such tag questions have also been

discussed. Section § 4.2 deals with the sociolinguistic function of such tag questions, how they are used as

politeness devices to achieve a certain politeness strategy, how commands are turned into polite requests by means of the use of implicit tags have also been discussed.

Chapter 5 deals with temporal clauses. Bengali makes use of such temporal markers which are either separate

words denoting only an approximate point of time or are inflections marking tense of a verb. Here for the

temporal clauses it is not the tense-marking inflections but rather the time denoting (temporal deictic)

expressions which as per traditional terminology would be called adverbs of time. However, there are ways of forming temporal constructions (always complex sentences) even without the use of such overt time deictic

expressions or adverbs. The emphatic and negative particles (most often jointly) help in the formation of

temporal clauses, all of which have been discussed elaborately inside.

Chapter 6 kicks off with a morphological discussion whereby the interrogative particle is introduced as a

separate entity distinct from the interrogative or wh-pronouns or k-pronouns. Different morphological

combinations of this interrogative particle with the negative particle gives rise to different morphemes whose

syntactic and semantic behavior have been duly discussed. For such derived morphemes, the negative particle

alone participates in the covert negation while the resultant derived morphemes like /ki-na/ and /na-ki/ perform the other linguistic functions – conjunction, disjunction, etc.

Discussions on Pragmatics and Modal logic are present in all the chapters, but most importantly in chapters 7

and 8. Chapter 7 deals with the pragmatic notion of Implicature and associates it with epistemic modality, and

enumerates how the negative particle /na/ contributes towards this. Chapter 8 goes beyond the domain of structural negation into the realm of propositional negation. Different types of Prohibition by means of the use

of the negative particle and other words are shown. How the negative particle is used to make denials and

refusals and how these operations are differentiated based on the propositional meanings of the previous utterances (in the most natural discourse contexts) are all discussed in the 8

th chapter. How modal variations

occur, how difference in illocutionary force occur, how different speech acts are performed depending on

whether a propositional negation is a certain kind of prohibition, or a denial or a refusal have been discussed

explicitly.

Chapter 9 presents two extremities. On one hand it deals with affixed negation whereby a negative affix is

used to negate a single word and not a phrase or clause or sentence or proposition – so it deals with the

smallest scope of negation within the domain of a word. On the other hand, we find propositional negation by means of interjections and semi-idiomatic phrases. How semi-idiomatic phrases differ from idioms, how their

idiosyncratic non-natural meanings are sometimes contextually determined have been discussed with ample

examples. One thing which is common in all the sections under chapter 9 is that, negation here occurs without the use of the negated copula and/or the negative particle, and hence do not form a part of the domain of

proper negation which we find in Part I.

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PART I

THE PROPER NEGATIVES

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1| 1.1 Introducing the negated copula

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2| 1.2 Usage or distribution of the negated copula .

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3| 1.3 Existential negation

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4| 1.3 Existential negation .

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5| 1.3 Existential negation

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6| 1.4 Implicit Prohibition .

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7| 2.1 Shape of the negative particle

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8| 2.1 Shape of the negative particle .

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9|2.1 Shape of the negative particle

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10| 2.2.1 Copula verb and the negative particle .

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11|2.2.1 Copula verb and the negative particle

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12| 2.2.1 Copula verb and the negative particle .

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13|2.2.1 Copula verb and the negative particle

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14| 2.2.2.1 Non-conditional complex sentences .

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15|2.2.2.1 Non-conditional complex sentences

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16| 2.2.2.1 Non-conditional complex sentences .

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17|2.2.2.2 Overt if-then conditional sentences

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18| 2.2.2.3 Covert if-then conditional sentences .

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19|2.2.2.3 Covert if-then conditional sentences

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20| 2.2.2.4 Doubly-negated overt if-then conditional sentences .

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21| 2.2.2.4 Doubly-negated overt if-then conditional sentences

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22| 2.2.2.4 Doubly-negated overt if-then conditional sentences .

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23| 2.2.2.5 Doubly-negated covert if-then conditional sentences

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24| 2.2.2.5 Doubly-negated covert if-then conditional sentences .

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25| 2.2.2.5 Doubly-negated covert if-then conditional sentences

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26| 2.2.2.5 Doubly-negated covert if-then conditional sentences.

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27| 2.2.2.6 Doubly-negated overt imperative conditional sentences

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28| 2.2.2.6 Doubly-negated overt imperative conditional sentences .

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29| 2.2.2.6 Doubly-negated overt imperative conditional sentences

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30| 2.2.2.6 Doubly-negated overt imperative conditional sentences .

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31| 2.2.2.6 Doubly-negated overt imperative conditional sentences

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32| 2.2.2.7 Doubly-negated overt and covert subjunctive conditional sentences

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33| 2.2.2.7 Doubly-negated overt and covert subjunctive conditional sentences

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34| 2.2.2.7 Doubly-negated overt and covert subjunctive conditional sentences

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35| 2.2.2.7 Doubly-negated overt and covert subjunctive conditional sentences

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36| 2.2.2.8 Doubly Negated Perfective and Progressive conditional sentences

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37| 2.2.2.8 Doubly Negated Perfective and Progressive conditional sentences

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38| 2.2.2.8 Doubly Negated Perfective and Progressive conditional sentences

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39| 2.3.1 Subject NP is quantified

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40| 2.3.1 Subject NP is quantified

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41| 2.3.1 Subject NP is quantified

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42| 2.3.1 Subject NP is quantified

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43| 2.3.1 Subject NP is quantified

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44| 2.3.1 Subject NP is quantified

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45| 2.3.1 Subject NP is quantified

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46| 2.3.1 Subject NP is quantified

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47| 2.3.1 Subject NP is quantified

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48| 2.3.1 Subject NP is quantified

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49| 2.3.1 Subject NP is quantified

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50| 2.3.2 Object NP is quantified

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51| 2.3.2 Object NP is quantified

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52| 2.3.2 Object NP is quantified

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53| 2.3.2 Object NP is quantified

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54| 2.3.2 Object NP is quantified

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55| 2.3.2 Object NP is quantified

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56| 2.3.2 Object NP is quantified

So far we have seen that the presence of the negative particle or the negative verb negates or the other structural

element in a sentence – this kind of negation is explicit or proper. In the rest of the chapters we shall explore how

the negative particle occurs in an utterance/sentence but does not overtly negate any element but rather negates the

whole proposition and adds some peculiar semantic values – this kind of negation occurs at a very deeper syntactic

level and hence these have been labeled as pseudo-negatives. Phonological and suprasegmental features (especially

intonation and emphatic stress) would be seen to have a very important role in the semantic variations of

utterances.

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PART II

THE PSEUDO – NEGATIVES

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59| 3. The Disjunctive Particle

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60| 3. The Disjunctive Particle

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61| 3. The Disjunctive Particle

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62| 3. The Disjunctive Particle

Therefore the actual disjunctive particle in Bengali is /ba/ or /kimba/ but /na/ is actually a pseudo-negative here because it doesn’t overtly seem to negate anything, but it semantically negates the functional or propositional

meaning of one disjunct and asserts the function/proposition of the second disjunct, thereby giving an exclusive

disjunction.

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63| 4.1 Implicit tag questions

4. IMPLICIT TAGS and POLITENESS STRATEGY

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64| 4.1 Implicit tag questions

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65| 4.1 Implicit tag questions

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66| 4.1 Implicit tag questions

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67| 4.1 Implicit tag questions

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68| 4.2 Implicit tags used as a politeness strategy

4.2 Implicit tags used as a politeness strategy

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69| 4.2 Implicit tags used as a politeness strategy

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70| 4.2 Implicit tags used as a politeness strategy

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71| 5.1 Temporal clauses with Adverbs of time

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72| 5.2 Temporal clauses without Adverbs of time .

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73| 5.2 Temporal clauses without Adverbs of time

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74| 5.2 Temporal clauses without Adverbs of time .

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75| 5.2 Temporal clauses without Adverbs of time

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77| 6.1 Introducing the interrogative particle

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78| 6.1 Introducing the interrogative particle .

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79| 6.2.1 /na/ + /ki1/ = /naki/

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80| 6.2.1 /na/ + /ki1/ = /naki/ .

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81| 6.2.2 /ki1/ + /na/ = /ki-na/ -- a disjunctive particle

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82| 6.2.2 /ki1/ + /na/ = /ki-na/ -- a disjunctive particle .

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83| 6.2.2 /ki1/ + /na/ = /ki-na/ -- a disjunctive particle

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84| 6.2.3 /ki1/ + /na/ = /ki-na/ -- a conjunctive particle .

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85| 6.2.3 /ki1/ + /na/ = /ki-na/ -- a conjunctive particle

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86| 6.2.3 /ki1/ + /na/ = /ki-na/ -- a conjunctive particle .

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87| 7. SCALAR IMPLICATURE and EPISTEMIC MODALITY

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88| 7. SCALAR IMPLICATURE and EPISTEMIC MODALITY .

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89| 7. SCALAR IMPLICATURE and EPISTEMIC MODALITY

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90| 7. SCALAR IMPLICATURE and EPISTEMIC MODALITY .

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91| 8.1 Immediate Prohibition – Directive speech act

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92| 8.1 Immediate Prohibition – Directive speech act .

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93| 8.1 Immediate Prohibition – Directive speech act

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94| 8.2 Remote Prohibition – declarative/assertive speech act .

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95| 8.2 Remote Prohibition – declarative/assertive speech act

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96| 8.2 Remote Prohibition – declarative/assertive speech act .

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97| 8.2 Remote Prohibition – declarative/assertive speech act

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98| 8.3 Denials and Refusals – how much different from prohibitions? .

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99| 8.3 Denials and Refusals – how much different from prohibitions?

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100| 8.3 Denials and Refusals – how much different from prohibitions? .

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101| 8.3 Denials and Refusals – how much different from prohibitions?

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102| 8.3 Denials and Refusals – how much different from prohibitions? .

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103| 8.4 Prohibition and Modality

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104| 8.4 Prohibition and Modality .

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105| 9.1.1 Historically Inherited negative affixes

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106| 9.1.1 Historically Inherited negative affixes .

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107| 9.1.1 Historically Inherited negative affixes

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108| 9.1.1 Historically Inherited negative affixes .

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109| 9.1.2 Borrowed negative affixes – foreign origin

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110| 9.2 Propositional negation – Interjections .

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111| 9.3 Propositional negation – Semi-idiomatic phrases

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112| 9.3 Propositional negation – Semi-idiomatic phrases .

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113| 9.3 Propositional negation – Semi-idiomatic phrases

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114| 9.3 Propositional negation – Semi-idiomatic phrases .

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115|

LIST OF VERBAL INFLECTIONS

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117|

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Index

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