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Research on Music Perception and

Action at Haskins Laboratories:

A Fast-Forward Review

(Or: 25 Years in 8 Minutes)

Bruno H. Repp

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Haskins Laboratories

270 Crown Street (1971-2005)

Haskins Laboratories is an independent,

international, multidisciplinary

community of researchers conducting

basic research on spoken and written

language. *What am I doing there?+

300 George Street

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Beginnings: Melody and Text

Mary Lou Serafine

(recent picture) Robert G. Crowder(1939-2000)

Serafine, M. L., Crowder, R.G., & Repp, B. H. (1984). Integration of melody and text in memory for songs. Cognition, 16,

285-303.

Serafine, M. L., Davidson, J., Crowder, R. G., & Repp, B. H. (1986). On the nature of melody-text integration in memory

for songs. Journal of Memory and Language, 25, 123-135.

Crowder, R. G., Serafine, M. L., & Repp, B. H. (1990). Physical interaction and association by contiguity in memory for the

words and melodies of songs. Memory & Cognition, 18, 469-476.

Our research showed that in a test of memory for unfamiliar songs, melodies

are more difficult to recognize if they are combined with different lyrics. A

series of experiments explored the conditions under which this integration of

melody and text occurs.

I started out as a speech researcher,working on speech perception and

acoustic phonetics. However, in the

1980s I started a collaboration with

Mary Lou Serafine and Robert Crowder

on a musical topic of common interest.

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The Composers Pulse

Manfred Clynes

Repp, B. H. (1989). Expressive microstructure in music: A preliminary perceptual assessment of four composers'

"pulses". Music Perception, 6, 243-274.

Repp, B. H. (1990a). Composers' pulses: Science or art? Music Perception, 7, 423-434.

Repp, B. H. (1990b). Further perceptual evaluations of pulse microstructure in computer performances of

classical piano music. Music Perception, 8, 1-33.

Repp, B. H. (1990c). Patterns of expressive timing in performances of a Beethoven minuet by nineteen famous

pianists.Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 88, 622-641.

At a conference in 1985, I encountered Manfred Clynes andhis theory of composer-specific expressive microstructure,

which intrigued me. With his help, I synthesized piano

performances exhibiting appropriate and inappropriate

microstructure, obtained aesthetic judgments from listeners,

and analyzed the timing ofexpert pianists performances of

a Beethoven sonata movement. The results were mixed.

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Performance Analyses I

Repp, B. H. (1992b). Diversity and commonality in music performance: An analysis of timing microstructure in Schumann's

"Trumerei".Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 92, 2546-2568.

Repp, B. H. (1993b). Objective performance analysis as a tool for the musical detective.Journal of the Acoustical Society of

America, 93, 1203-1204.

Repp, B. H. (1995c). Expressive timing in Schumann's "Trumerei": An analysis of performances by graduate student pianists.

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 98, 2413-2427.

Repp, B. H. (1996b). The dynamics of expressive piano performance: Schumann's "Trumerei" revisited.Journal of the Acoustical

Society of America, 100, 641-650.

Now I was hooked. I decided to abandon speech research and focus on music.Stimulated by my analysis of Beethoven performances, I conducted detailed

measurements and statistical analyses of expert pianists expressive timing in

performances of Robert Schumanns Trumerei, op. 15, No. 7, which enabled

me to give objective descriptions of commonalities and individual differences

among famous artists interpretations. Later I analyzed both expressive timing and

dynamics in MIDI recordings of graduate student pianists performances, which

were demonstrably less individual than the expert performances.

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Perception of Tempo and Timing

Repp, B. H. (1992c). A constraint on the expressive timing of a melodic gesture: Evidence from performance and aesthetic

judgment. Music Perception, 10, 221-242.

Repp, B. H. (1994a). Relational invariance of expressive microstructure across global tempo changes in music performance: An

exploratory study. Psychological Research, 56, 269-284.

Repp, B. H. (1994b). On determining the basic tempo of an expressive music performance. Psychology of Music, 22, 157-167.

Repp, B. H. (1995b). Quantitative effects of global tempo on expressive timing in music performance: Some perceptual evidence.

Music Perception, 13, 39-57.

My Trumerei analyses led to several perceptual and performance studies using

this music. They investigated the optimal shape of a ritardando, the scaling of

expressive timing with changes in tempo, and the perceived tempo of an

expressively timed performance.

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Performance Analyses II

Repp, B. H. (1996c). Pedal timing and tempo in expressive piano performance: A preliminary investigation. Psychology of Music, 24, 199-221.

Repp, B. H. (1996c). Patterns of note onset asynchronies in expressive piano performance. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 100,

3917-3932.

Repp, B. H. (1996e). The art of inaccuracy: Why pianists' errors are difficult to hear. Music Perception, 14, 161-184.

Repp, B. H. (1997c). Some observations on pianists' timing of arpeggiated chords. Psychology of Music, 25, 133-148.

Repp, B. H. (1997d). Expressive timing in a Debussy Prelude: A comparison of student and expert pianists. Musicae Scientiae, 1, 257-268.

Repp, B. H. (1997f). The effect of tempo on pedal timing in piano performance. Psychological Research, 60, 164-172.

Repp, B. H. (1997g). Variability of timing in expressive piano performance increases with interval duration. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 4,

530-534.

Making use of extensive MIDI performance data I had collected from Yale

graduate student pianists, I measured and analyzed everything I could lay my

hands on, including pedal timing and its dependence on tempo, arpeggio

timing, asynchronies within and between hands, and error patterns. (Manfred

Clynes called me Reppmesser.)

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Piano Acoustics and Technique

Repp, B. H. (1993a). Some empirical observations on sound level properties of recorded piano tones.Journal of the Acoustical

Society of America, 93, 1136-1144.

Repp, B. H. (1995a). Acoustics, perception, and production of legato articulation on a digital piano.Journal of the Acoustical

Society of America, 97, 3862-3874.

Repp, B. H. (1997b). Acoustics, perception, and production of legato articulation on a computer-controlled grand piano.Journal of

the Acoustical Society of America, 102, 1878-1890.

Repp, B. H. (1998f). Perception and production ofstaccato articulation on the piano. Unpublished manuscript.

During that time, I also conducted a few studies of piano acoustics, and of the

production and perception oflegato and staccato articulation on the piano,

using simple musical materials.

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Digression: The Tritone Paradox

Repp, B. H. (1994c). The tritone paradox and the pitch range of the speaking voice: A dubious connection. Music Perception, 12,227-255.

Repp, B. H. (1997e). Spectral envelope and context effects in the tritone paradox. Perception, 26, 645-665.

Diana Deutsch

A stay in the Netherlands in 1993 enabled me to

pursue research on the auditory illusion called

tritone paradox and its presumable connection

to language and speech, proposed by Diana

Deutsch. My results did not settle the issue but

led to some new paradoxes.

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Average Performances

Repp, B. H. (1997a). The aesthetic quality of a quantitatively average music performance: Two preliminary experiments. Music

Perception, 14, 419-444.

Repp, B. H. (1997d). Expressive timing in a Debussy Prelude: A comparison of student and expert pianists. Musicae Scientiae, 1,

257-268.

Inspired by recent findings in the psychological literature showing that

composite faces constructed by averaging digitized images are judged to

be more attractive than most individual faces, I synthesized composite

music performances by averaging the timing and dynamic patterns of

individual performances and found that they, too, were preferred to most

individual performances (when realized on a digital piano). I also found

that the average timing patterns of groups of expert and student pianists

were remarkably similar, suggesting a common norm.

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Action-Perception Parallels in

Expressive Timing

Repp, B. H. (1992a). Probing the cognitive representation of musical time: Structural constraints on the perception of timing perturbations.Cognition, 44, 241-281.

Repp, B. H. (1995d). Detectability of duration and intensity increments in melody tones: A partial connection between music perception andperformance. Perception & Psychophysics, 57, 1217-1232.

Repp, B. H. (1998a). Obligatory "expectations" of expressive timing induced by perception of musical structure. Psychological Research, 61,33-43.

Repp, B. H. (1998c). Variations on a theme by Chopin: Relations between perception and production of deviations from isochrony in music.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 24, 791-811.

Repp, B. H. (1999g). Relationships between performance timing, perception of timing perturbations, and perceptual-motor synchronization intwo Chopin preludes.Australian Journal of Psychology, 51, 188 203.

In a series of perceptual studies I demonstrated that the detectability of a

small local change in the timing of an otherwise metronomic synthesized

music performance is closely related to the average timing pattern of

performances of the same music: If an interval is typically lengthened in

performance, its artificial lengthening is difficult to detect, presumablybecause it sounds normal.

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Performance Analyses III

Repp, B. H. (1998d). A microcosm of musical expression: I. Quantitative analysis of pianists' timing in the initial measures ofChopin's Etude in E major.Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 104, 1085-1100.

Repp, B. H. (1999a). A microcosm of musical expression: II. Quantitative analysis of pianists' dynamics in the initial measures ofChopin's Etude in E major.Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 105, 1972-1988.

Repp, B. H. (1999f). A microcosm of musical expression: III. Contributions of timing and dynamics to the aesthetic impression ofpianists' performances of the initial measures of Chopin's Etude in E major.Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 106,469-478.

In my most ambitious performance analysis project, I measured the timing

of 115 recorded performances of the opening phrase of Chopins Etude in E

major, Op. 10, No. 3, and statistically extracted four underlying independent

timing patterns whose weighted combinations yielded good approximations

of the observed patterns. I also analyzed the measured dynamic patterns

and investigated the (very weak) relation between these objective measures

and aesthetic judgments of the performances.

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More Chopin Etude Studies

Repp, B. H. (1998b). The detectability of local deviations from a typical expressive timing pattern. Music Perception, 15, 265-290.

Repp, B. H. (1999b). Detecting deviations from metronomic timing in music: Effects of perceptual structure on the mental

timekeeper. Perception & Psychophysics, 61, 529-548.

Repp, B. H. (1999c). Control of expressive and metronomic timing in pianists.Journal of Motor Behavior, 31, 145-164.

Repp, B. H. (1999d). Effects of auditory feedback deprivation on expressive piano performance. Music Perception, 16, 409-438.

Repp, B. H. (2000). Pattern typicality and dimensional interactions in pianists imitation of expressive timing and dynamics.Music

Perception, 18, 173211.

Repp, B. H. (2002a). The embodiment of musical structure: Effects of musical context on sensorimotor synchronization with

complex timing patterns. In W. Prinz & B. Hommel (Eds.), Common mechanisms in perception and action: Attention and

Performance XIX(pp. 245265). Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press.

Repp, B. H. (2002e). Perception of timing is more context sensitive than sensorimotor synchronization. Perception &

Psychophysics, 64, 703716.

The Chopin performance data enabled me to conduct other studies that reliedon them, including experiments on performance imitation, the role of auditory

feedback, mental imagery, and pattern learning.

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First Tapping Studies

Repp, B. H. (2000a). Compensation for subliminal timing perturbations in perceptual-motor synchronization. Psychological

Research, 63, 106128.

Repp, B. H. (2001a). Phase correction, phase resetting, and phase shifts after subliminal timing perturbations in sensorimotor

synchronization.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 27, 600621.

Repp, B. H. (2002b). Automaticity and voluntary control of phase correction following event onset shifts in sensorimotorsynchronization. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 28, 410430.

Repp, B. H. (2002c). Phase correction in sensorimotor synchronization: Nonlinearities in voluntary and involuntary responses to

perturbations. Human Movement Science, 21, 137.

Repp, B. H. (2002d). Phase correction following a perturbation in sensorimotor synchronization depends on sensory information.

Journal of Motor Behavior, 34, 291298.

In some of my recent music studies I had used finger tapping as a method oftracking expectations about expressive timing. I discovered that small timing

changes in the music that were barely audible were automatically compensated

for in tapping. This awakened my interest in the phase correction process

underlying sensorimotor synchronization. I confirmed my finding in several

studies using phase perturbation methods. From now on , my research focused

on simple rhythms and only rarely used real music.

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Phase and Period Correction

Repp, B. H. (2001b). Processes underlying adaptation to tempo changes in sensorimotor synchronization. Human Movement

Science, 20, 277312.

Repp, B. H., & Keller, P. E. (2004). Adaptation to tempo changes in sensorimotor synchronization: Effects of intention, attention,

and awareness. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 57A, 499521.

Peter E. Keller

Together with Peter Keller, who spent one year

with me as a post-doc, I investigated how

synchronized tapping adapts to tempo change

in a metronome (i.e., period correction). We

found period correction to be less automatic

and more cognitively controlled than phasecorrection. Peter (now at the Max Planck

Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain

Sciences in Leipzig, Germany) has remained a

close collaborator.

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Synchronization in Two Modalities

Repp, B. H., & Penel, A. (2002). Auditory dominance in temporal processing: New evidence from synchronization with

simultaneous visual and auditory sequences.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 28,

10851099.

Chen, Y., Repp, B. H., & Patel, A. D. (2002). Spectral decomposition of variability in synchronization and continuation tapping:

Comparisons between auditory and visual pacing and feedback conditions. Human Movement Science, 21, 515532.

Repp, B. H., & Penel, A. (2004). Rhythmic movement is attracted more strongly to auditory than to visual rhythms. Psychological

Research, 68, 252270.

Patel, A. D., Iversen, J. R., Chen, Y., & Repp, B. H. (2005). The influence of metricality and modality on synchronization with a beat.

Experimental Brain Research, 163, 226238.

Amandine Penel, another post-doc, and I found thatpeople had difficulty synchronizing with visual

sequences, especially in the presence of auditory

distractors. I also started collaborating with Aniruddh

Patel and John Iversen (Neurosciences Institute,

San Diego). We found that it is difficult to extract a

beat from a visual rhythm.

Aniruddh D. Patel

John R. Iversen

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Distractors and Syncopation

Repp, B. H. (2003a). Phase attraction in sensorimotor synchronization with auditory sequences: Effects of single and periodic

distractors on synchronization accuracy.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 29, 290

309.

Keller, P. E., & Repp, B. H. (2004). When two limbs are weaker than one: Sensorimotor syncopation with alternating hands.

Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 57A, 1085-1101.

Repp, B. H. (2004b). On the nature of phase attraction in sensorimotor synchronization with interleaved auditory sequences.

Human Movement Science, 23, 389413.

Keller, P. E., & Repp, B. H. (2005). Staying offbeat: Sensorimotor syncopation with structured and unstructured auditory

sequences. Psychological Research, 69, 292309.

Repp, B. H. (2006a). Does an auditory distractor sequence affect self-paced tapping?Acta Psychologica, 121, 81107.

In a series of experiments, I investigated the influence of auditory

distractors on synchronization with an auditory metronome or on self-

paced tapping. Peter Keller took the lead in investigations of off-beat

synchronization with alternating hands, a surprisingly difficult task.

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The Synchronization Threshold

Repp, B. H. (2003b). Rate limits in sensorimotor synchronization with auditory and visual sequences: The synchronizationthreshold and the benefits and costs of interval subdivision.Journal of Motor Behavior, 35, 355370.

Repp, B. H. (2005a). Rate limits of on-beat and off-beat tapping with simple auditory rhythms: 1. Qualitative observations. Music

Perception, 22, 479496.

Repp, B. H. (2005b). Rate limits of on-beat and off-beat tapping with simple auditory rhythms: 2. The role of different kinds of

accent. Music Perception, 23, 167189.

Repp, B. H. (2007a). Hearing a melody in different ways: Multistability of metrical interpretation, reflected in rate limits of

sensorimotor synchronization. Cognition, 102, 434-454.

Repp, B. H. (2007b). Perceiving the numerosity of rapidly occurring auditory events in metrical and non-metrical contexts.

Perception & Psychophysics, 69, 529-543.

In several studies, I determined the fastest rate at which musicians

are able to maintain synchrony with a metronome or a simple rhythm.

This synchronization threshold reflects a sensorimotor processing

limit around 8-10 Hz.

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Review Papers

Repp, B. H. (2005c). Sensorimotor synchronization: A review of the tapping literature. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12, 969

992.

Repp, B. H. (2006c). Musical synchronization. In E. Altenmller, M. Wiesendanger, & J. Kesselring (Eds.), Music, motor control, and

the brain (pp. 5576). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Repp, B. H. (2006d). Rate limits of sensorimotor synchronization.Advances in Cognitive Psychology(http://ac-psych.org/), 2, 163-

181.

Halfway through the decade I published three review papers.

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Perception and Action: Pianists

Repp, B. H., & Knoblich, G. (2004). Perceiving action identity: How pianists recognize their own performances. PsychologicalScience, 15, 604609.

Keller, P. E., Knoblich, G., & Repp, B. H. (2007). Pianists duet better when they play with themselves: On the possible role of action

simulation in synchronization. Consciousness and Cognition, 16, 102-111.

Repp, B. H., & Keller, P. E. (2010). Self versus other in piano performance:Detectability of timing perturbations depends on

personal playing style. Experimental Brain Research, 202, 101-110.

Gnther Knoblich

In 2003 I began regular visits to the Max Planck

Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences in

Munich, later in Leipzig. Gnther Knoblich (now at

Radboud University Nijmegen) taught me much

about perception and action and later invited me to

work with him for two years at Rutgers University,Newark, when I did not have any grant support.

In three studies involving real music, we showed that pianists can recognize

their own performances and predict their own characteristic timing.

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Perception and Action:

Tapping and Listening

Repp, B. H. (2006b). Does an auditory perceptual illusion affect on-line auditory action control? The case of (de)accentuation and

synchronization. Experimental Brain Research, 168, 493504.

Repp, B. H., & Knoblich, G. (2007a). Action can affect auditory perception. Psychological Science, 18, 6-7.

Repp, B. H., & Knoblich, G. (2007b). Toward a psychophysics of agency: Detecting gain and loss of control over auditory actioneffects.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 33, 469-482.

Knoblich, G., & Repp, B. H. (2009). Inferring agency from sound. Cognition, 111, 248-262.

Repp, B. H., & Knoblich, G. (2009). Performed or observed keyboard actions affect pianists judgments of relative pitch. Quarterly

Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 2156-2170.

In other studies, we investigated the feeling of agency in tapping and

showed that pressing piano keys can affect pianists perception of

relative pitch in the tritone paradox.

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Rhythm Production and Perception

Repp, B. H., Windsor, L., & Desain, P. (2002). Effects of tempo on the timing of simple musical rhythms. Music Perception, 19, 565

593.

Repp, B. H., & Saltzman, E. L. (2002). Influences of metrical structure and grouping on the kinematics of rhythmic finger tapping.

Unpublished manuscript.

Repp, B. H., London, J., & Keller, P. E. (2005). Production and synchronization of uneven rhythms at fast tempi. Music Perception,

23, 6178.

Repp, B. H. (2008a). Multiple temporal references in sensorimotor synchronization with metrical auditory sequences.

Psychological Research, 72, 79-98.

Repp, B. H., Iversen, J. R., & Patel, A. D. (2008). Tracking an imposed beat within a metrical grid. Music Perception, 26, 1-18.

Repp, B. H., London, J., & Keller, P. E. (2008). Phase correction in sensorimotor synchronization with nonisochronous sequences.

Music Perception, 26, 171-175.

Repp, B. H., London, J., & Keller, P. E. (submitted). Perception-production relationships and phase correction in synchronization

with two-interval rhythms.

With various collaborators, I investigated effects of tempo, meter, andinterval structure on the accuracy of rhythm production and perception,

beat tracking, and phase correction in synchronization with moderately

complex rhythms.

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Inter-Agent Synchronization

Keller, P. E., & Repp, B. H. (2008). Multilevel coordination stability: Integrated goal representations in simultaneous intra-personaland inter-agent coordination.Acta Psychologica, 128, 378-386.

Repp, B. H., & Keller, P. E. (2008). Sensorimotor synchronization with adaptively timed sequences. Human Movement Science, 27,

423-456.

Synchronization between individuals (as in music performance) has

as yet been little investigated but is a special interest of Peter Keller.

I have done some preliminary work with him along these lines.

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Yale Undergraduate Collaborators

Resnicow, J. E., Salovey, P., & Repp, B. H. (2004). Is recognition of emotion in music performance an aspect of emotional

intelligence? Music Perception, 22, 145158.

Repp, B. H., & Doggett, R. (2007). Tapping to a very slow beat: A comparison of musicians and non-musicians. Music Perception,24, 367-376.

Repp, B. H., & Bruttomesso, M. (2009). A filled duration illusion in music: Effects of metrical subdivision on the perception and

production of beat tempo.Advances in Cognitive Psychology, 5, 114-134.

Repp, B. H., & Jendoubi, H. (2009). Flexibility of temporal expectations for triple subdivision of a beat. Advances in Cognitive

Psychology, 5, 27-41.

Repp, B. H., & Steinman, S. R. (2010). Simultaneous event-based and emergent timing: synchronization, continuation, and phase

correction.Journal of Motor Behavior, 42, 111-126.

Repp, B. H., & Marcus, R. J. (in press). No sustained sound illusion in rhythmic sequences. Music Perception.

Repp, B. H., & Thompson, J. M. (in press). Context sensitivity and invariance in perception of octave-ambiguous tones.

Psychological Research.

In recent years, I have been sought out by an increasing number of Yaleundergraduates who wish to do research on music cognition. This has

resulted in a number of coauthored publications on various topics.

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Current Research

Repp, B. H. (2008b). Metrical subdivision results in subjective slowing of the beat. Music Perception, 26, 19-39.

Repp, B. H. (2008c). Perfect phase correction in synchronization with slow auditory sequences.Journal of Motor Behavior, 40,

363-367.

Repp, B. H. (2009a). Segregated in perception, integrated for action: Immunity of rhythmic sensorimotor coordination to auditory

stream segregation. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 426-434.

Repp, B. H. (2009b). Rhythmic sensorimotor coordination is resistant but not immune to auditory stream segregation. Quarterly

Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 2306-2312.

Iversen, J. R., Repp, B. H., & Patel, A. D. (2009). Top-down control of rhythm perception modulates early auditory responses.

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1169, 58-73.

Repp, B. H. (2010). Sensorimotor synchronization and perception of timing: Effects of music training and task experience. Human

Movement Science, 29, 200-213.

Repp, B. H. (in press). Self-generated interval subdivision reduces variability of synchronization with a very slow metronome.

Music Perception.

Repp, B. H. (in press). Do metrical accents create illusory phenomenal accents?Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics.

I am continuing to investigate sensorimotor synchronization in variouscontexts, as well as perception of rhythm, meter, and accentuation.

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Thanks to:

Haskins Laboratories, for allowing me to stay even though my

research is unrelated to the Laboratories mission

NIH and NSF for providing financial support

The Master Tappers (my regular participants: nowadays

graduate students from the Yale School of Music, previously

also including undergraduates and other graduate students),

for their cheerful cooperation and excellent rhythmic skills

You, the audience, for your attention