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Neoliberal Fallacy

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    Journal of Democracy, Volume 3, Number 3, July 1992, pp. 45-59 (Article)

    DOI: 10.1353/jod.1992.0044 

    For additional information about this article

      Access provided by National University of Singapore (19 Feb 2016 05:22 GMT)

    http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/jod/summary/v003/3.3przeworski.html

    http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/jod/summary/v003/3.3przeworski.htmlhttp://muse.jhu.edu/journals/jod/summary/v003/3.3przeworski.html

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  • 8/19/2019 Neoliberal Fallacy

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    T H E N E O L I B E R L F L L C Y

    Adam Przeworsk i

    Adam Przeworski is Martin A. Ryerson Distinguished Service Professor

    of Political Science and codirector of the Center for Rationality, Ethics,

    and Society at the University of Chicago. He received his M.A. from the

    University of Warsaw and his Ph.D. from Northwestern University. He

    has been a research associate at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes

    in Paris and a visiting professor at FLACSO in Santiago, Chile. His

    publications include C a p i t a l i s m a n d S o c i a l D e m o c r a c y 1985), D e m o c r a c y

    a n d t h e M a r k e t : P o l i t i c a l a n d E c o n o m i c R e f o r m s i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n d

    L a t i n A m e r i c a 1991), and E c o n o m i c R e f o r m s i n N e w D e m o c r a c i e s : A

    S o c i a l - D e m o c r a t i c A p p r o a c h forthcoming).

    O u r s is an e ra o f id e o l o g y . S e v e r a l c o u n t r ie s , in E a s t e rn E u r o p e a n d

    e l s e w h e r e , h a v e r e c e n t l y b e g u n t h e g r e a t e s t i d e o l o g i c a l l y i n s p i r e d

    e xpe r ime n t s inc e Jose f S t a l i n i n i t i a t e d the f o r c e d indus t r i a l i z a t ion o f t he

    S o v i e t U n i o n i n 1 9 2 9 . A l t h o u g h t h e p r e v a i l i n g m o o d e c h o e s K o n r a d

    A d e n a u e r 's d ic t u m o f n o e x p e r i m e n t s , t h e e c o n o m i c t r an s f o r m a t io n s

    e n v i s a g e d i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s i r o n i c a l l y m i r r o r t h e c o m m u n i s t p r o j e c t .

    T h e y i m p l e m e n t a n i n t e l l e c t u a l b l u e p r i n t , a b l u e p r i n t d r a w n u p w i t h i n

    t h e w a l ls o f A m e r i c a n a c a d e m i a a n d s h a p e d b y i n t e r n a ti o n a l f in a n c i a l

    i n s t i t u t i ons . The se t r a ns f o r ma t ions a r e me a n t t o ha ve r a d i c a l e f f e c t s , t o

    tu r n a l l e x i s t i ng soc i a l r e l a t ions ups id e dow n . T he y o f f e r a pa na c e a , a

    m a g ic e l i x i r wh ic h , onc e t a ke n , w i l l c u r e a ll i ll s. R e p la c e na t ion a l i z a t ion

    o f t h e m e a n s o f p r o d u c t i o n w i t h p r i v a te p r o p e r t y a n d p l a n w i t h

    m a r k e t , a n d y o u c a n l e a v e t h e s t r u ct u r e o f t h e i d e o l o g y in t ac t . P e r h a p s

    r e v o l u t i o n s a r e s h a p e d b y t h e v e r y s y s t e m s a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e y a r e

    d i r e c t e d .

    F a c i n g w h a t a r e o f t e n t h e g r a v e s t e c o n o m i c c r i s e s i n t h e i r h i s t o r y ,

    c o u n t r i e s a l l a r o u n d t h e g l o b e a r e t o l d t o p l u n g e i n a n d p e r s e v e r e . T h e y

    a r e e x h o r t e d t o p l u n g e i n t o r e f o r m s a b o u t w h i c h o n l y o n e t h i n g c a n b e

    k n o w n w i t h c er ta in t y: t h e y w il l m a k e m o s t p e o p l e w o r s e o f f fo r s o m e

    t i m e t o c o m e . T h e y a r e u r g e d t o s h o r t - c i r c u i t t h e d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s b y

    Journal of Democracy Vol. 3, No. 3 July 1992

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    46

    Journal of emocracy

    i n t r o d u c i n g r e f o r m s s o s w i f t l y t h a t c i t i z e n s w i l l h a v e n o t i m e t o m o b i l i z e

    e f f e c t i v e l y a g a i n s t t h e m . E v e n a f t e r t h e p a i n s o f r e f o r m h a v e m a d e

    t he m s e l ve s f e l t , po l i t i c i a ns a r e u r ge d t o s t a y t he c ou r s e , w h i c h m os t do .

    U n i o n l e a d e r s s p e a k p u b l i c l y o f t h e i r h o p e [ th a t] t h e re w i l l b e

    u n e m p l o y m e n t . F i n a n c e m i n i s te r s d e c l a r e t h a t i f u n e m p l o y m e n t f a il s t o

    r i s e t o 8 o r 10 pe r c e n t , i t w i l l be a s i gn t ha t t he r e f o r m s a r e no t

    w o r k i n g . G o v e r n m e n t l e a d e r s d e c l a r e t h e i r d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o p e r s i s t

    r e ga r d l e s s o f a l l the po l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e s upo n u s . ' ' l

    N e o l i b e r a l i d e o l o g y , e m a n a t i n g f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d v a r i o u s

    m ul t i na t i ona l a ge nc i e s , c l a i m s t ha t t he c ho i c e i s obv i ous : t he r e i s on l y

    o n e p a t h t o d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d i t m u s t b e f o l l o w e d . P r o p o n e n t s o f t h i s

    i d e o l o g y a r g u e a s i f t h e y h a d a L a s t J u d g m e n t p i c t u r e o f t h e w o r l d , a

    g e n e r a l m o d e l o f e c o n o m i c a n d p o l it ic a l d y n a m i c s t h a t a l l o w s t h e m t o

    a s s e s s t he u l t i m a t e c ons e que nc e s o f a l l pa r t ia l s t e p s . 2

    Y e t th i s m o d e l is n o m o r e t h a n a m i x t u r e o f e v i d e n c e , a r g u m e n t f r o m

    f i r s t p r i nc i p l e s , s e l f - i n t e r e s t , a nd w i s h f u l t h i nk i ng . M or e ove r , e ve n t hough

    m a r k e t i d e o l o g y n o w s e e m s t o h a v e a t t a i n e d u n c o n t e s t e d i n t e l l e c t u a l

    h e g e m o n y , th e v i r t u e s o f m a r k e t s a r e b e i n g c a l l e d s t r o n g l y i n t o q u e s t i o n

    b y r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s i n n e o c l a s s i c a l e c o n o m i c t h e o r y - - t h e v e r y b o d y

    o f t h o u g h t th a t h e r e t o f o r e h a s u n d e r p i n n e d t h e c l a i m t h a t m a r k e t s a r e

    e f f i c i e n t a l l o c a t o r s o f r e s o u r c e s . T h e o b s e r v a t i o n s t h a t a c o m p l e t e s e t o f

    m a r k e t s i s u n f e a s i b l e , a n d t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n i s i n e v i t a b l y i m p e r f e c t ,

    i n v a li d a te t h e c a se f o r t h e e f f i c ie n c y o f t h e i n v i s ib l e h a n d ) M o r e o v e r ,

    o b s e r v e d p a t t er n s o f e c o n o m i c g r o w t h c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d w i t h o u t a

    r e c ou r s e t o e x t e r na l i t i e s , t hus t hw a r t i ng a ny e xpe c t a t i on t ha t c om pe t i t i ve

    m a r k e t s a r e e f f i c i e n t i n d y n a m i c

    t e rms 4

    C o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e r e a l w o r l d , m a r k e t i d e o l o g y f a r e s n o b e t t e r . T h e

    t h e m a t i c s ta t e m e n t f o r t h is s y m p o s i u m c i te s a s t h e m o d e l t o fo l l o w t h e

    U n i t e d S t a t e s a nd o t he r ke y c oun t r i e s i n t he W e s t [ t ha t ] ha ve be e n

    g o v e r n e d f o r t h e p a s t d e c a d e b y c o n s e r v a t i v e , p r o - p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e

    p a r t ie s . Y e t i f a M a r t i a n w e r e a s k e d t o p i c k t h e m o s t e ff i c ie n t a n d

    h u m a n e e c o n o m i c s y s t e m s o n e a r t h , i t w o u l d c e r t a i n l y n o t c h o o s e t h e

    c oun t r i e s t ha t r e l y m os t on m a r ke t s . T he U n i t e d S t a t e s i s a s t a gna n t

    e c o n o m y i n w h ic h r e a l w a g e s h a v e b e e n c o n s t a n t f o r m o r e t h a n a d e c a d e

    a n d t h e r e a l i n c o m e o f t h e p o o r e r 4 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n h a s

    d e c li n e d . I t i s a n i n h u m a n e s o c i e t y in w h i c h 1 1 .5 p e r c e n t o f t h e

    p o p u l a t i o n - - s o m e 2 8 m i l l i o n p e o p l e , i n c l u d i n g 2 0 p e r c e n t o f a l l

    c h i ld r e n l i v e s i n p o v e r t y . I t i s t h e o ld e s t d e m o c r a c y o n e a r th , b u t h a s

    o n e o f th e l o w e s t v o t e r - p a r ti c i p a t io n r a te s i n t h e d e m o c r a t i c w o r l d , a n d

    t h e h i g h e s t p e r c a p i t a p r i s o n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e w o r l d . I s t h i s t h e m o d e l

    t o f o l l o w ?

    T h e s e r e m a r k s s h o u l d n o t b e c o n s t r u e d a s a d e f e n s e o f t r a d it i o n a l

    pa t t e r n s o f s t a t e i n t e r ve n t i on , w he t he r unde r c a p i t a l i s m o r s oc i a l i s m ; a s

    a n a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t r e l y i n g o n m a r k e t s ; o r a s a n a t t a c k o n p r o m a r k e t

    r e f o r m s . T h e y a r e , r a t h e r , i n t e n d e d a s p a r t s o f a c a u t i o n a r y t a l e w a r n i n g

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    Capitalism Socialism and Democracy/Przeworski 7

    a ga ins t t he da nge r s o f e xc e s s ive ide o log ic a l z e a l . W ha t I a r gue be low i s

    t h a t w e s t i l l k n o w l i t t l e a b o u t m a r k e t s a n d d e m o c r a c i e s , a n d t h a t t h e

    l i t t l e w e d o k n o w d o e s n o t s u p p o r t a n y i d e o l o g i c a l b l u e p r i n t s .

    M a r k e t s a n d f f i c ie n c y

    I n th e f ir s t m o m e n t s o f p o s t c o m m u n i s t e u p h o r i a in E a s t e r n E u r o p e ,

    t h e m o d e l t o f o l lo w s e e m e d o b v io u s . Y e t v a g u e n o t io n s a b o u t m o v i n g

    i n t h e d i r e c ti o n o f ' n o r m a l ' e c o n o m i e s , e m b r a c i n g t h e m o d e l t e s t e d b y

    t h e h i s to r ic a l e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s , o r c o n s t r u c t i n g a

    m a r k e t e c o n o m y l ik e i n t h e W e s t w e r e n o t , a r e n o t , a n d c a n n o t b e

    s u f f ic i e n t t o g u i d e th e p r o c e s s o f e c o n o m i c t r a n s fo r m a t i o n . N o r m a l

    e c o n o m i e s d i f f e r g r e at ly a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s - - i n t h e d e g r e e o f s ta te

    in t e r ve n t ion ; i n t he wa y tha t t he i r f i r ms , i ndus t r i e s , a nd f ina nc ia l

    in s t it u t ions a r e o r ga n iz e d ; i n t he i r c o l l e c t ive ba r ga in ing sys t e ms ; a nd in

    t h e i r s y s t e m o f s o c ia l w e l f a r e p r o v is i o n . I m i t a ti n g t h e U n i t e d S t a te s d o e s

    n o t p o i n t i n t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n a s i m i t a t i n g S w e d e n o r J a p a n . M o r e o v e r ,

    i t i s no t a t a l l c e r t a in tha t t he a l t e r na t ive s f a c ing Ea s t e r n Eur ope a r e

    i n d e e d l i m i t e d t o t h o s e a l r e a d y t e s t e d e l s e w h e r e . F o r o n e t h i n g , s o m e

    k i n d o f a r e f o r m e d s t a t e s e c t o r i s l i k e l y t o c o n t i n u e p r o d u c i n g m o s t o f

    the na t iona l p r oduc t i n t he se c oun t r i e s w i th in the f o r e se e a b le f u tu r e . I n

    a d d i t i o n , s e n t i m e n t f o r s o m e k i n d o f a w o r k e r s ' s e l f - m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m

    r e ma ins s t r ong .

    I n b r oa d ou t l i ne , t he i s sue s a r e : t he r o l e o f t he s t a t e i n c oo r d ina t ing

    r e sou r c e a l loc a t ion , t he we l f a r e a nd d i s t r ibu t iona l p r ope r t i e s o f a l t e r na t ive

    s t ru c t u re s o f o w n e r s h i p , a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s t r at e g ie s , i f a n y . T h e l o n g

    h i s t o ry o f r e fl e c t io n o n t h e s e p r o b l e m s n e e d n o t c o n c e r n u s h e r e . I n s t ea d ,

    I w i l l f oc us so l e ly on que s t ions tha t a r e o f imme d ia t e p r a c t i c a l

    s ign i f i c a nc e in the g loba l Ea s t a nd S ou th .

    T h o s e w h o e x p e c t t h e m a r k e t t o c o o r d i n a t e e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t i e s t o

    p r o d u c e i n t e rt e m p o r a l l y e f fi c i e n t a l lo c a t io n s o f r e s o u r c e s a s s u m e t h e t r u th

    o f th e p r o p o s i t i o n - - k n o w n a s t h e fi rs t t h e o r e m o f w e l fa r e

    e c o n o m i c s - - t h a t c o m p e t i t iv e m a r k e t s a re s u f f i c i en t t o g e n e r a t e e f f ic i e n c y ,

    a t l e a s t i n t he a bse nc e o f pub l i c g ood s , e x t e r na l i t i e s , o r i nc r e a s ing

    r e tu r n s . Y e t th i s b e l i e f h a s b e e n u n d e r m i n e d b y t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e

    e c o n o m i c s o f i n c o m p l e t e m a r k e t s a n d i m p e r f e c t i n f o r m a t i o n . A s J o s e p h

    S t ig l it z p u t s it , A d a m S m i t h ' s i n v i s ib l e h a n d m a y b e m o r e l ik e th e

    Em pe r o r ' s ne w c lo the s : i nv i s ib l e be c a use i t is no t t he r e . '5

    T h e b l u e p r i n t o f e f f i c i e n t m a r k e t s w a s d e v e l o p e d g r a d u a l l y b y l a t e

    n i n e t ee n t h - a n d e a r ly t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y e c o n o m i s t s l i k e L 6 o n W a l ra s a n d

    V i l fr e d o P ar e to b e f o r e b e in g f o r m a l i z e d b y K e n n e t h A r r o w a n d G e o r g e s

    D e b r e u i n 1 9 5 4. 6 T h e m o d e l i s s i m p l e : I n d i v i d u a ls k n o w t h a t t h e y h a v e

    n e e d s a n d e n d o w m e n t s , a nd t h e y f r e e ly p r o d u c e a n d e x c h a n g e g o o d s a n d

    se r v ic e s . I n e qu i l ib r ium, a l l i nd iv idua l s ' e xpe c ta t ions a r e f u l f i l l e d , a nd a l l

    m a r k e t s c l e a r , H e n c e t h e p r i c e s a t w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s e x c h a n g e r e f l e c t

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      8 Journal of emocracy

    t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e s a n d t h e r e la t i v e s c a rc i ti e s o f v a r i o u s g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s ;

    t h e s e p r i c e s i n f o r m i n d i v i d u a l s a b o u t a l l t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h e y f o r s a k e .

    A s a r e s u l t , r e s ou r c e s a r e a l l oc a t e d i n s uc h a w a y t ha t a l l ga i n s f r om

    t r a d e a r e e x h a u s t e d ; n o o n e c a n b e b e t t e r o f f w i t h o u t s o m e o n e e l s e b e i n g

    w o r s e o f f ; a n d t h e r e su l t in g d i s tr i b u ti o n o f w e l f a r e w o u l d n o t b e a l t e r e d

    u n d e r a u n a n i m i t y r u l e . T h e s e a r e t h r e e e q u i v a l e n t d e f i n i t i o n s o f

    c o l l e c t i v e r a t i o n a l i t y ( a l s o k n o w n a s P a r e t o o p t i m a l i t y ) .

    T h e c a s e f o r m a r k e t s a s e f f i c i e n t r e s o u r c e a l l o c a t o r s h i n g e s o n t h e

    a s s u m p t i o n t h a t m a r k e t s a r e c o m p l e t e , o r i n o t h e r w o r d s , th a t t h e r e i s

    a m a r k e t f o r e v e r y c o n t i n g e n t st a te o f n a t u re . B u t a s K e n n e t h A r r o w

    h i m s e l f s h o w e d i n 1 9 6 4 , t h is a s s u m p t i o n is u n w a r r a n t e d : s o m e f u t u re s

    m a r k e t s , p a r t ic u l a r l y r i s k m a r k e t s , a r e i n e v i t a b l y m i s s i n g . 7 W i t h s o m e

    m a r k e t s a b s e n t , p r i c e s n o l o n g e r s u m m a r i z e a l l t h e o p p o r t u n i t y c o s t s ,

    w h i c h i m p l i e s t h a t n o t a l l e c o n o m i c a g e n t s a r e o p e r a t i n g w i t h t h e s a m e

    i n f o r m a t i o n . L a b o r m a r k e t s , c a p i t a l m a r k e t s , a n d g o o d s m a r k e t s d o n o t

    c l e a r , a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g a l l o c a t i o n w i l l h a v e r o o m f o r i m p r o v e m e n t .

    M o r e o v e r , a s G r e e n w a l d a n d S t i g l i t z h a v e s h o w n , i f a n y m a r k e t s a r e

    m i s s i n g , th e n e v e n t h e a l lo c a t i o n o f th o s e r e s o u r c e s f o r w h i c h m a r k e t s

    do e x i s t w i l l n o t be e f f i c ie n t , s

    T o e x a m i n e t h e ef f e c t o f m a r k e t -o r i e n t ed r e f o r m s o n g r o w t h , w e n e e d

    t o d i s t i ngu i s h t h r e e que s t i ons : 1 ) W hy do s t a b i l i z a t i on a nd l i be r a l i z a t i on

    ( o f f o r e i g n t r a d e a n d d o m e s t i c c o m p e t i ti o n ) i n d u c e r e c e s s i o n s ? 2 ) W h y

    d o s o m e s t a b i l i z a t i o n p r o g r a m s u n d e r m i n e f u t u r e g r o w t h ? 3 ) A r e s t a b i l i t y

    a n d c o m p e t i t i o n s u f f ic i e n t f o r a r e s u m p t i o n o f g r o w t h ? 9

    S t a b i l i z a t i o n p r o g r a m s t e n d t o i n d u c e r e c e s s i o n s , e v e n w h e n t h e y a r e

    no t a c c om pa n i e d by l i be r a l i z a t i on . T he r e a r e a t l e a s t t w o r e a s ons f o r t h i s :

    s t a b i l i z a t i o n i s u s u a l l y a c h i e v e d b y r e d u c i n g d e m a n d ; a n d s u c c e s s f u l

    s t a b i l i z a t i on m a ke s i n t e r e s t r a t e s s oa r . M or e ove r , t he r e duc t i on o r

    e l i m i na t i on o f s ubs i d i e s t o i ndus t r i e s , p r i c e s uppo r t s , a nd i m por t t a r i f f s ,

    a l o n g w i t h d o m e s t i c a n t i m o n o p o l y m e a s u r e s , a l l t e n d t o d e p r e s s r a t e s o f

    r e t u r n o n i n v e s t m e n t a n d b o o s t u n e m p l o y m e n t .

    W hi l e h i gh i n t e r e s t r a t e s m a y be t r a ns i t o r y , t he i r e f f e c t s l i nge r a f t e r

    t he i n i t i a l pe r i od o f s t a b i l i z a t i on i s ove r . A s S t a n l e y F i s c he r ha s po i n t e d

    out :

    Investment will not resume unti l real interest rates reach a reasonable

    level, and prolonged periods o f high real interest rates create financial

    crises and bankruptcies even for firms that would be viable at reasonable

    levels o f interest rate. 1~

    T h e s e c o n d r e a s o n w h y s t a b i l i z a t i o n p r o g r a m s o f t e n u n d e r m i n e t h e

    p r o s p e c t s f o r f u t u r e g r o w t h h a s b e e n h i g h l i g h t e d b y V i t o T a n z i , w h o

    o b s e r v e d t h a t s p e n d i n g c u t s m a d e u n d e r t h e p r e s s u r e o f f i s c a l c r i s e s t e n d

    n o t t o d i s c r i m i n a t e b e t w e e n g o v e r n m e n t c o n s u m p t i o n a n d p u b l i c

    i n v e s t m e n t . A f t e r e x a m i n i n g s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s i n w h i c h s t a b i l i z a t i o n

    p o l i c i e s u n d e r m i n e d t h e c a p a c i t y f o r g r o w t h , T a n z i c o n c l u d e d :

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    Capitalism Socialism and Democracy/Przeworski 49

    In al l these examples, the supply has been reduced, thus creating

    imbalances that, in t ime, h ave ma nifested them selves as excessive demand.

    In these cases, dema nd-m anag em ent policies alone would ha ve reduced the

    sym ptom s of these imbalances b ut wo uld not hav e eliminated the causes.

    Thus, stabilization p rog ram s m igh t succeed stabilization p rog ram s without

    bringing about a durable adju stm ent) l

    I n d e e d , i n v e s t m e n t p r o j e c t s a r e o f t e n p o l i t i c a l l y e a s i e r t o c u t t h a n

    g o v e r n m e n t s e r v i c e s o r p u b l i c e m p l o y m e n t . B o t h p u b l i c i n v e s t m e n t s i n

    i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d m e a s u r e s t o i n d u c e p r i v a t e i n v e s t m e n t a r e r e d u c e d ,

    t hus d i m i n i s h i ng f u t u r e s upp l y .

    F i n a l ly , e v e n i f th e y a r e s u c c e s s f u l i n t h e i r o w n t e r m s , m a r k e t -

    o r i e n t e d r e f o r m s a r e n o t l i k e l y t o g e n e r a t e c o n d i t i o n s c o n d u c i v e t o

    g r o w t h . N e o c l a s s i c a l e c o n o m i c t h e o r y h a d l i t t l e t o s a y a b o u t g r o w t h . I t s

    p r e o c c u p a t i o n s w e r e m a i n l y s t a t i c , a n d a n y o n e w h o h a s r e a d S c h u m p e t e r

    k n o w s t h a t s t a t i c e f f i c i e n c y i s a p o o r c r i t e r i o n o f w e l f a r e . D y n a m i c

    e c o n o m i e s a r e n o t e f f i c i e n t i n t h e s t a t i c s e n s e : t h e y u s e a n u m b e r o f

    t e c hn i que s , w i t h d i f f e r e n t c o s t - be ne f i t r a t i o s . I n t u r n , t he que s t i on o f

    w h e t h e r a c o m p e t i t i v e m a r k e t g e n e r a t e s d y n a m i c e f f i c i e n c y i s h i g h l y

    c o m p l e x . T h e t h e o r y t h a t d i d e m e r g e f r o m n e o c l a s s i c a l e c o n o m i c s , t h e

    S o l o w - S w a n m o d e l o f e x o g e n o u s g r o w t h , a r g u e d th a t c o m p e t i t iv e

    e qu i l i b r i um i s e f f i c i e n t bu t a l s o t ha t i t l e a ds t o s t a gna t i on o f i nc om e i n

    t h e a b s en c e o f e x o g e n o u s p o p u l a ti o n g r o w t h a n d e x o g e n o u s t e ch n i c a l

    c h a n g e . T h i s t h e o r y p re d i c t e d th a t t h e l e v e ls o f e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t

    s h o u l d c o n v e r g e a m o n g a ll c o u n t r ie s , a n d t h e y d o n o t ) 2 R e c e n t m o d e l s

    d o p r o v i d e a n e n d o g e n o u s e x p l a n a ti o n o f e c o n o m i c g r o w t h , b u t i n th e s e

    t h e o r ie s t h e c o m p e t i t i v e e q u i l ib r i u m is n o l o n g e r e f f i c i e n t ) 3 T h e e n g i n e

    o f g r ow t h i s a s e t o f e x t e r na l it i e s i n e duc a t i on , s k i l l s, t e c hn o l og y , a nd

    s o o n . C o m p e t i t i v e m a r k e t s , i n w h i c h f i r m s d o n o t c a p t u r e f u l l r e t u r n t o

    t h e i r e n d o w m e n t s , t e n d t o u n d e r s u p p l y t h e f a c t o r s t h a t g e n e r a t e s u c h

    exte rna l i t i e s .

    T h e S ta te a n d c o n o m i c G r o w t h

    H e n c e t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f e c o n o m i c t h e o r y d o e s n o t s u p p o r t t h e

    c o n c l u s i o n t h a t c o m p e t i t i v e m a r k e t s a r e s u f f i c i e n t e i t h e r t o a l l o c a t e

    r e s o u r c e s e f f i c i e n t l y o r t o g e n e r a t e g r o w t h . W h e t h e r o n e t a k e s t h e t h e o r y

    o f i n c o m p l e t e m a r k e t s , w i t h t h e ir i n f o r m a t i o n a l a s y m m e t r i e s ; o r t h e

    t h e o r y o f e n d o g e n o u s g r o w t h , w i t h c o n s t a n t r e t u r n s t o a s i n g l e f a c t o r a n d

    e x t e r n a l i t i e s ; o r t h e t h e o r y o f n o n - W a l r a s i a n t r a d e , o n e w i l l d i s c o v e r

    n e o c l a s s i c a l a r g u m e n t s w h i c h s u g g e s t t h a t s o m e s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s

    n e c e s s a r y f o r g r o w t h . T h e n o t i o n t h a t th e m a r k e t b y i t s e l f c a n e f f i c ie n t l y

    a l l oc a t e s c a r c e r e s ou r c e s i s pu r e l y ho r t a t o r y . 14

    T h e c e n t r a l le s s o n o f th e e n d o g e n o u s - g r o w t h t h e o r i e s is th e

    i m p o r t a n c e o f e d u c at io n , w h e t h e r m e a s u r e d b y s c h o o l - e n ro l l m e n t r a te s

    o r b y i n d i c e s s u c h a s l i t e r a c y . P r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n f o r w o m e n h a s

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    5 Journal of emocracy

    p a r t ic u l a r ly h i g h r e t u r n s i n t e r m s o f p e r c a p i t a g r o w t h . A n d w h i l e n o

    s i m i l a r s t a t i s t i c a l s t ud i e s s e e m t o be a va i l a b l e w i t h r e ga r d t o he a l t h

    e x p e n d it u re s , t h e W o r d B a n k ' s 1 99 1 Worm evelopment Report c i t e s

    i m p r e s s i v e e v i d e n c e o n t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y - b o o s t i n g e f f e c t s o f h e a l t h

    p r o g r a m s , a s w e l l a s t h e s t r o n g s t a t i s t i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n m o r e e q u a l

    d i s tr ib u t io n s o f i n c o m e a n d f a s t e r g r o w t h .

    T h e e f f e c t o f p u b l i c i n v e s t m e n t o n g r o w t h i s a t o p i c t o o c o n t r o v e r s i a l

    t o b e d e a l t w i t h i n a s u m m a r y f a s h i o n , y e t r e c e n t r e s e a r c h s u m m a r i z e d

    b y G e n e G r o s s m a n s h o w s t h a t g o v e r n m e n t s s h o u l d e n g a g e i n

    i n f ra s tr u c t u ra l i n v e s t m e n t s n o t s u p p l i e d e f f i c i e n t l y b y p r i v a t e a g e n t s , a n d

    s h o u l d p u r s u e m e a s u r e s t h a t i n c r e a s e th e r a t e o f r e t u rn t o p r i v a t e

    p r o j e c t s . ~5 T h i s r o l e i nc l ude s a s e l e c t i ve i ndus t r i a l po l i c y t ha t w o u l d

    c o m p r i s e p r e f e re n t i a l c r e d i t r a t e s f o r h i g h - t e c h n o l o g y i n d u s tr i e s ( i n w h i c h

    t h e m a r k e t ra t e o f r e tu r n i s m u c h l o w e r t h a n t h e s o c i a l ra t e ); f o r p r o j e c t s

    t h a t s u f f e r f r o m h i g h c o s t s o f e n t r y , s u b s t a n t ia l e c o n o m i e s o f s c a l e , o r

    s t e e p l e a r n i n g c u r v e s ; a n d f o r p r o j e c t s t h a t h a v e p o t e n t i a l s p i l l o v e r s

    a c r o s s f i n n s d u e t o e x t e r n a l i t i e s a n d a s y m m e t r i e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n b e t w e e n

    b u y e r s a n d p r o d u c e r s . O t h e r r e c e n t f i n d i n g s b y e c o n o m i s t s s u c h a s

    R o b e r t B a r r o a n d R o n a l d F i n d l a y r e i n f o r c e t h e i d e a t h a t s o m e

    i n te r m e d i at e le v e l o f p u bl ic i n v e s t m e n t a n d e m p l o y m e n t - - f a r b e l o w 1 00

    p e r c e n t b u t a l s o f a r a b o v e z e r o - - i s o p t i m a l f o r e c o n o m i c g r o w t h . 16

    T h e s e f i n d i n g s c o n c e r n i n g t h e r o l e o f t h e s t a te i n p r o m o t i n g a n d

    s u s t a i n i n g d e v e l o p m e n t r a i s e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l q u e s t i o n o f

    h o w t o o r g a n i z e s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s s o t h a t t h e y i n t e r v e n e o n l y w h e n

    a p p r o p r i a t e . N e o l i b e r a l e c o n o m i s t s s u c h a s R o b e r t T o l l i s o n a n d G e o r g e

    S t i g l e r r e m i nd u s t ha t t he s t a t e ' s a b i l i t y t o e nga ge i n p r oduc t i ve a c t i v i t i e s

    o r d i f f e r e n t i a l l y f a vo r p r i va t e p r o j e c t s c a n e a s i l y g i ve r i s e t o r e n t

    s e e k i ng . ~7 Bu t w h i l e t he que s t i on o f t he s oc i a l l y op t i m a l i n s t it u t i ona l

    r u l e s a n d s t r u c t u r e s r e m a i n s o p e n , i t w o u l d b e a m i s t a k e t o a n s w e r t h a t

    t h e s t a t e s h o u l d b e p r e v e n t e d f r o m a n y d i s c r e t i o n a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n ,

    l i m i ti n g it s r o l e t o p r o m o t i n g t h e f r e e d o m o f i n d iv i d u a l e n t e r p r i s e .

    P r o b l e m s o f i n st it u ti o n a l d e s i g n c a n n o t b e s o l v e d b y p r e t e n d i n g t h a t th e

    s ta te c a n s o m e h o w b e w a l l ed o f f fr o m t h e e c o n o m y , b u t m u s t b e

    c on f r on t e d a s s uc h .

    N o r c a n i n s ti t u ti ona l que s t i ons be l i m i t e d t o t he r o l e o f t he s t a t e .

    A n y c a p i t a l i s t e c o n o m y , i n w h i c h m a r k e t s a r e i n e v i t a b l y i n c o m p l e t e a n d

    p a r t i c u l a r e c o n o m i c a g e n t s h a v e a c c e s s t o d i f f e r e n t i n f o r m a t i o n , i n c l u d e s

    s e v e r a l d i f fe r e n t t y p e s o f p r i n c i p a ls a n d a g e n t s: m a n a g e r s a n d e m p l o y e e s ,

    o w n e r s a n d m a n a g e r s , c r e d i t o r s a n d e n t r e p r e n e u r s , c i t i z e n s a n d

    p o l it ic i an s . T h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f p a r ti c u l a r f i r m s - - a n d u l t i m a t e l y o f th e

    w h o l e e c o n o m y - - -- d e p e n d s o n t h e d e s i g n o f i n s t it u ti o n s t h a t r e g u l a t e t h e s e

    r e l a t i o n s . W h a t m a t t e r s i s w h e t h e r t h e e m p l o y e e s h a v e i n c e n t i v e s a n d c a n

    b e m o n i t o r e d t o m a x i m i z e e f f o r t ; w h e t h e r m a n a g e r s h a v e i n c e n t i v e s a n d

    c a n b e m o n i t o r e d t o m a x i m i z e p r o f i t s ; a n d w h e t h e r t h e s t a t e h a s

    i n c e n t i v e s a n d c a n b e m o n i t o r e d t o r e s i s t p r e s s u r e f r o m w e a k f i r m s o r

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    Capi ta l ism Soc ia l ism and Dem ocracy /P rzeworsk i 5

    s p e c i al i n te r es ts . T o s p e a k o f t h e m a r k e t a s t h e o b j e c t o f s t a t e

    i n t e r ve n t i on obs c u r e s the r e a l i s s ue s : t he p r o b l e m w e f a c e is no t a

    s i m p l e m a t t e r o f t h e m a r k e t v e r s u s t h e s t a te , b u t o f s p e c i f i c

    i n s t i t u t i o n a l m e c h a n i s m s t h a t c a n p r o v i d e p a r t i c u l a r e c o n o m i c a g e n t s ,

    i nc l ud i ng t he s t a t e , w i t h i nc e n t i ve s a nd i n f o r m a t i on t ha t w i l l l e a d t he m

    t o b e h a v e i n a c o l l e c t i v e l y r a t i o n a l m a n n e r . T

    T h e p r a c t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f i g n o r i n g s u c h i s s u e s a r e b e s t i l l u s t r a t e d

    b y t h e v a g a r i e s o f p r iv a t i z a ti o n i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e . F o r m e r P o l i s h f i n a n c e

    m i n i s t e r L e s z e k B a l c e r o w i c z h a s d e f e n d e d p r i v a t i z a t i o n a s f o l l o w s :

    A market economy based on a broad par t ic ipat ion of di f ferent forms of

    private ownership permits the achievement of the highest degree of

    e f fec t iveness - -among a ll economic sys tems known in prac t i ce - - in us ing

    the material and spiritual resources of a society. As a result, it generates

    the quickest im pro vem ent in the living standard o f citizens. Th is is so

    becau se economizing costs , good organization of work, high quali ty of

    production, the effectiv e search for new markets, an d technical pro gres s

    and development are in the interest of

    the proprietors wh o dire t the wo rk

    of enterprises f l

    T h e s e k i n d s o f h o p e s r e g a r d i n g p r i v a t i z a t io n r e s t o n t h r e e f a l s e

    a s s u m p t i o n s : 1 ) t h a t p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y w i l l s o l v e p r i n c i p a l - a g e n t p r o b l e m s ,

    f o r c i n g m a n a g e r s t o m a x i m i z e p r o f i t ; 2 ) t h a t t h e m a r k e t i s a s o u r c e o f

    i n c e n t iv e s f o r e m p l o y e e s r a th e r t h a n i n f o r m a t i o n f o r m a n a g e r s ; a n d 3 )

    t h a t e n o u g h c a p i t a l w i l l b e f o r t h c o m i n g t o i n f u s e i n v e s t m e n t i n t o n e w l y

    p r i v a t e f i n n s . T h e f i r s t t w o a s s u m p t i o n s a r e b a s e d o n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

    c o n c e p t i o n s o f c a p it a l is m . T o s e e t h e f l a w i n th e l a s t a s s u m p t i o n r e q u i r e s

    o n l y e l e m e n t a r y a c c o u n t i n g : g i v e n t h a t p r i v a t e s a v i n g s i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e

    d o n o t e x c e e d 1 0 p e r c e n t o f c a p it a l s to c k , a n d a s s u m i n g t h a t f o r e i g n e r s

    w i l l b u y a t m o s t a n o t h e r 1 0 p e r c e n t , w h e r e i s t h e r e s t o f t h e c a p i t a l t o

    c o m e f r o m ? A s a r e s u l t o f s u c h m i s c o n c e p t i o n s , P o l a n d h a s s p e n t t w o

    ye a r s a r gu i ng a bou t p r i va t i z a t i on , l e a v i ng i n unc e r t a i n t y t he s t a t u s o f t he

    s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s t h a t c o n t i n u e t o p r o d u c e a b o u t 7 0 p e r c e n t o f

    nona g r i c u l t u r a l ou t pu t .

    em ocracy and Econom ic

    P e r f o r m a n c e

    O n e w o u l d c e r t a i n l y w i s h t o a g r e e w i t h t h e B o n n C o n f e r e n c e o n

    E c o n o m i c C o o p e r a t i o n i n E u r o p e t h a t d e m o c r a t i c i n s ti tu t i o n s a n d

    e c o n o m i c f r e e d o m f o s t e r e c o n o m i c a n d s o c ia l p r o g r e s s . Y e t g i v e n t h e

    c u r r e n t st a te o f k n o w l e d g e , w e d o n o t k n o w i f t h is i s tr u e . T h e

    u n d e r l y i n g p r e m i s e i s t h a t d e m o c r a c y s a f e g u a r d s p r o p e r t y f i g h t s a n d

    t h e s e i n t u r n , b y d i m i n i s h i n g t h e r i s k t o i n v e s t o r s , f o s t e r e c o n o m i c

    g r o w t h . I t m a y b e t ru e , a s s o m e h a v e a r g u e d , t h a t s e c u re p r o p e r t y r i g h t s

    f o s t e r g r o w t h . Y e t , e v e n i f d e m o c r a c y f o s t e r s g r o w t h , i t m u s t b e f o r

    r e a s o n s o t h e r th a n i t s g u a r a n te e o f p r o p e r t y f i g h ts . M o r e o v e r , w e d o n o t

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    10/17

    52 Journal o f emocracy

    k n o w w h e t h e r d e m o c r a c y p r o m o t e s e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , h in d e r s it, o r

    i s i r re l evant to i t .

    T he s t a t i s t i c a l e v i de nc e i s i nc onc l u s i ve a nd t he s t ud i e s t ha t p r oduc e d

    i t a r e a l l s e r i ous l y f l a w e d . I r e v i e w e d 17 s t ud i e s t ha t ge ne r a t e d 20

    f i n d in g s ( s o m e d i s ti n g u i s h e d s e p a r a t e a r e a s o r p e r i o d s ) . 2~ A m o n g t h e m ,

    e i g h t f o u n d i n f a v o r o f d e m o c r a c y a n d e i g h t i n f a v o r o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m ;

    t h e o t h e r f o u r d i s c o v e r e d n o d i f f e r e n c e . W h a t i s e v e n m o r e p u z z l i n g i s

    t ha t a m ong t he 11 r e s u l t s pub l i s he d i n 1987 o r e a r l i e r , e i gh t f ound t ha t

    a u t h o r it a ri a n r e g i m e s g r e w f a st e r, w h i l e n o n e o f t h e n i n e r e s u l t s

    pub l i s he d a f t e r 1987 s uppo r t e d t h i s f i nd i ng . S i nc e t h i s d i f f e r e nc e doe s

    n o t s e e m a t t r i b u t a b l e t o s a m p l e s o r p e r i o d s , o n e c a n o n l y w o n d e r a b o u t

    t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s t a t i s t i c s a n d i d e o l o g y . D u e t o c e r t a i n t e c h n i c a l

    p r o b l e m s , I h e s i t a t e t o a t t a c h m u c h s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e s e r e s u l t s o n e w a y

    o r a n o t h e r . H e n c e I a m n o t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t d e m o c r a c y g e n e r a t e s i n f e r i o r

    e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e - - - o n l y t h a t w e s ti ll d o n o t k n o w w h a t t h e fa c t s

    are

    D e m o c r a c y m a y p r o m o t e e c o n o m i c g r o w t h f o r a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s :

    f o r e x a m p l e , b e c a u s e i t i s i n f o r m a t i o n a l l y e f f i c i e n t i n t h e s e n s e o f

    p u n i s h i n g b a d r u l er s a n d r e w a r d i n g g o o d o n e s . 21 B u t d e m o c r a c y a s s u c h

    d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y s a f e g u a r d p r o p e r t y r i g h t s .

    T h e m a r k e t i s a s y s t e m i n w h i c h s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s a r e a l l o c a t e d t o

    a l te r n a t iv e u s e s b y d e c e n t r a l iz e d d e c i s i o n s . Y e t u n d e r c a p i t a l i s m p r o p e r t y

    i s i n s t i t u t i ona l l y d i s t i nc t f r om a u t ho r i t y : i nd i v i dua l s a r e s i m u l t a ne ous l y

    m a r k e t a g e n t s a n d c i t i z e n s . A s a r e s u l t , t h e r e a r e t w o m e c h a n i s m s b y

    w h i c h r e s o u r c e s c a n b e a l l o c a t e d t o u s e s a n d d i s t r i b u t e d a m o n g

    h o u s e h o l d s - - t h e m a r k e t a n d t h e s t a t e . T h e m a r k e t i s a m e c h a n i s m i n

    w h i c h i n d iv i d u a l s c a s t v o t e s f o r a l l o c a ti o n s w i th th e r e s o u r c e s t h e y

    ow n , r e s ou r c e s t ha t a r e a l w a ys d i s t r i bu t e d une qua l l y ; t he s t a t e i s a

    s ys t e m t ha t a l loc a t e s r e s ou r c e s w h i c h i t doe s no t ow n , w i t h f i gh t s

    d i s t r i b u t e d d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m t h e m a r k e t . H e n c e t h e t w o m e c h a n i s m s l e a d

    t o th e s a m e o u t c o m e o n l y b y a f l u k e . T h e a l l o c a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s t h a t

    i nd i v i dua l s p r e f e r a s c i t i z e ns ge ne r a l l y f a i l s t o c o i nc i de w i t h t he

    a l l o c a t i o n t h a t t h e y d e c i d e u p o n t h r o u g h t h e m a r k e t .

    D e m o c r a c y ' s r u le o f o n e c i ti z e n , o n e v o t e e x a c e r b a t e s t h is

    d i v e r g e n c e b y e q u a l i z i n g t h e r i g h t t o i n f lu e n c e t h e a l l o c a t io n o f r e s o u r c e s

    t h r ough t he s ta t e . I t i s ha r d l y s u r p r i s i ng t ha t d i s t r i bu t i ons o f c o ns u m pt i o n

    p r o d u c e d b y t h e m a r k e t d i f f e r f r o m t h o s e c o l l e c t i v e l y p r e f e r r e d b y t h e

    e l e ct o r at e , s in c e d e m o c r a c y o f f e rs th o s e w h o a r e p o o r , o p p r e s s e d , o r

    o t he r w i s e d i s s a t i s fi e d w i t h the i n it ia l d i s tr i bu t i on o f e nd ow m e n t s a n

    o p p o r t u n i t y t o s e e k r e d r e s s v i a t h e s t a t e . E n d o w e d w i t h p o l i t i c a l p o w e r

    i n t h e f o r m o f u n i v e r s a l s u f f r a g e , t h o s e w h o s u f f e r a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f

    p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y w i l l a t t e m p t t o u s e t h i s p o w e r t o r e d i s t r i b u t e w e a l t h . T o

    pu t i t i n te c hn i c a l t e r m s : i f the m e d i a n v o t e r i s de c i s i ve , a nd i f t he

    m a r k e t - g e n e r a t e d di st ri b ut io n o f i n c o m e is s k e w e d t o w a r d l o w e r i n c o m e s

    ( a s i t a l w a ys i s) , t he n m a j o r i t y r u l e w i l l c a l l f o r a n e qu a l i t y o f i nc om e s . 22

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    11/17

    Capitalism Socialism and Demo cracy/Przeworski 5

    T h e q u e s t i o n o f d e m o c r a c y ' s i m p a c t u p o n t h e i n s ti t u ti o n o f p r iv a t e

    p r o p e r t y l a y a t t h e h e a r t o f d e b a t e s o v e r t h e r i g h t s t o v o t e a n d t o

    a s s o c i a t e i n W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h

    c e n t u r y . C o n s e r v a t i v e s c o n c u r r e d w i t h s o c i a l i s t s t h a t

    . . . s oc i e t y , by wh ich

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    ac t ing th rough a

    democra t i c p roces s ,

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    s h o u l d b e t h e g o a l

    o f d e v e l o p m e n t .

    d e m o c r a c y - - s p e c i f i c a l l y u n i v er s al s u f fr a g e

    a n d t h e r ig h t o f w o r k e r s to o r g a n i z e - - m u s t

    t h r e a t e n p r o p e r t y . M a d i s o n , M a c a u l a y ,

    R i c a r d o , a n d M a r x a l l a g r e e d t h a t p e o p l e

    w i t h l i t t l e o r n o p r o p e r t y w o u l d u s e t h e i r

    po l i t i c a l r i gh t s t o e xp r op r i a t e t hose w i th

    m o r e , t h u s u n d e r m i n i n g c a p i t a l i s m . T h e

    S c o t t i s h p h i l o s o p h e r J a m e s M a c k i n t o s h

    p r e d ic t e d in 18 18 tha t i f t he l a bo r io us

    c l a s se s we r e t o ga in t he f r a nc h i se , a

    p e r m a n e n t a n i m o s i t y b e t w e e n o p i n i o n a n d

    p r o p e r ty m u s t b e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e . D a v i d

    R i c a r d o w a s p r e p a r e d t o e x t e n d s u f f r a g e

    o n l y t o th a t p a r t o f [ th e p e o p l e ] w h i c h

    c a n n o t b e s u p p o s e d t o h a v e a n i n t e r e s t i n

    ove r tu r n ing the r i gh t t o p r ope r ty . '23 Th om a s

    B a b ing ton Ma c a u la y , i n h i s 1842 spe e c h on the C ha r t i s t s , p i c tu r e d

    un ive r sa l su f f r a ge a s t he e nd o f p r ope r ty a nd thus o f a l l c iv i l i z a t i on . 24

    E i g h t y e a r s l a t e r , K a r l M a r x e x p r e s s e d t h e s a m e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t p r i v a t e

    p r o p e r t y a n d u n i v e r sa l s u f f ra g e a r e i n c o m p a t i b l e ) 5

    I n r e t r o s p e c t , t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s w e r e o b v i o u s l y t o o s t r o n g . T h e r e a r e

    1 4 c o u n t r i e s i n t h e w o r l d t o d a y t h a t h a v e r e m a i n e d c o n t i n u o u s l y

    c a p i ta l is t a n d d e m o c r a t i c f o r t h e p a st h a l f - ce n t u r y . Y e t i f t h e p e o p l e

    ( in i t s e igh te e n th - c e n tu r y s ingu la r ) i s sove r e ign , i t ma y p r e f e r a n

    a l l o c a t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s t h a t d i f f e r s f r o m t h e m a r k e t

    o u t c o m e . T o c i t e B r ia n B a r r y , I t is p r e c i s e ly b e c a u s e t h e m a r k e t i s

    i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t io n o f c o n s i d e r a t io n s o f d i s t r ib u t i v e j u s t i c e

    t h a t it c a n n o t b e a c c e p t e d a s t h e a r b it e r o f i n c o m e d i s t r ib u t i o n . A s

    Dia ne E l son ha s n i c e ly pu t it , i n t he ma r ke t , c ho ic e in the sma l l doe s

    n o t p r o v i d e c h o i c e i n t h e l a r g e ; i n d i v i d u a l s c a n c h o o s e b u t s o c i e t y

    c a nno t . 26 A nd soc i e ty , by wh ic h I m e a n a l l t he p e op le o f a c ou n t r y

    a c t in g t h r o u g h a d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s , c a n d e c i d e c o l l e c t i v e l y t h a t g o o d s

    o t h e r t h a n t h o s e m a x i m i z e d b y t h e m a r k e t s h o u l d b e t h e g o a l o f

    d e v e l o p m e n t . D e m o c r a c y in e v i t a b l y t h r e a te n s p r o p e r t y r i g h t s .

    Y e t d e m o c r a c i e s a re n o t a l l th e s a m e . S y s t e m s o f re p r e s e n t a ti o n ,

    a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r d i v i d i n g a n d s u p e r v i s i n g p o w e r , m e t h o d s o f o r g a n i z i n g

    in t e r e s t s , l e ga l doc t r ine s , a nd the r i gh t s a nd ob l iga t ions a s soc i a t e d w i th

    c i t i z e n s h i p d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y a c r o s s r e g i m e s i n w h i c h p a r t i e s c o m p e t e

    a nd ind iv idua l s e n joy po l i t i c a l r i gh t s . Ta ke n toge the r , suc h d i f f e r e nc e s

    g e n e r a t e e f f e c t s w h i c h , i n s p i t e o f t w o t h o u s a n d y e a r s o f r e f l e c t i o n a n d

    inve s t iga t ion , a r e s t i l l poo r ly unde r s tood .

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    54 Journal of emocracy

    M o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , w e n e e d t o k n o w t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h

    d e m o c r a t i c i n st it u ti o n s w o r k a n d e n d u r e . B y w o r k , I m e a n t h a t t h e y

    a c h i e v e s u c h w i d e l y d e s i r e d e f f e c t s a s e c o n o m i c g r o w t h , m a t e r i a l

    s e c u ri ty , f r e e d o m f r o m a r b i tr a r y v i o l e n c e , a n d s o o n . B y e n d u r e , I

    m e a n t h a t th e y a b s o r b a n d e f f e c t i v e l y r e g u l a t e a l l m a j o r c o n f l ic t s , s o t h a t

    l a w s a n d o t h e r r u l e s a r e c h a n g e d o n l y i n a l a w f u l a n d r e g u l a r f a s h i o n .

    O d d a s i t m a y s e e m , t h e a n s w e r s e l u d e u s e v e n t o d a y .

    T h i s i s n o t t o s a y t h a t t h e r e a r e n o c l u e s - - s t u d i e s o f d e v e l o p e d

    c a p i t a l i st c oun t r i e s , f o r i n s t a nc e , s ho w t ha t un t i l t he e a r l y 1980s , be t t e r

    e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e w a s m o s t o f t e n e n j o y e d b y c o u n t r i e s i n w h i c h

    e n c o m p a s s i n g , c e n t r a l i z e d u n i o n s n e g o t i a t e d w i t h e m p l o y e r s i n t h e

    p r e s e nc e o f a s t at e c on t r o l l e d by a s oc i a l de m oc r a t i c pa r t y . S t a t i s t ic a l

    a n a l ys e s o f th e O E C D c o u n tr ie s h a v e s h o w n r e p e a t e d ly t h a t l o w e r

    i n c o m e i n e q u a l i t y , m o r e e x t e n s i v e w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s , a m o r e f a v o r a b l e

    t r a d e - o ff b e t w e e n e m p l o y m e n t a n d i n fl at io n , a m o r e f a v o r a b l e t r a d e - o f f

    b e t w e e n w a g e s a n d i n v e s tm e n t , a n d a m o r e f a v o r a b l e t r a d e - o f f b e t w e e n

    g r o w t h a n d s o c i a l p o l i c i e s a r e t o b e f o u n d i n c o u n t r i e s t h a t c o m b i n e

    s t ro n g u n i o n s w i t h s o c i a l d e m o c r a t i c c o n t ro l o v e r t h e g o v e r n m e n t .

    M y o w n s t u d y o f 14 O E C D c o u n t ri e s b e t w e e n 1 9 6 0 a n d 1 98 1 s h o w s

    t h a t t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e a v e r a g e a d u l t , t h e a v e r a g e w o r k e r , a n d t h e

    a v e r a g e m a n u f a c t u r i n g e m p l o y e e w a s h i g h e r i n s o c i a l d e m o c r a t i c

    c oun t r i e s . ( W e l f a r e he r e i s de f i ne d a s t he u t i l i t y , t a k i ng i n t o a c c oun t r i s k

    a v e r s i o n , o f a l o t t e r y c o m p o s e d o f m a r k e t i n c o m e , u n e m p l o y m e n t

    c o m p e n s a t i o n , a n d s o c i a l w a g e . ) T o p u t i t s i m p l y , t h e o n l y c o u n t r i e s i n

    t h e w o r l d i n w h i c h a l m o s t n o o n e i s p o o r a f t e r t a x e s a n d t r a n s f e r s a r e

    t hos e t ha t p u r s ue s oc i a l de m oc r a t i c po l i c i e s . 27

    W h a t s e e m s t o m a t t e r f o r e c o n o m i c p e r f o r m a n c e a n d s o c i a l w e l f a r e ,

    t h en , i s n o t j u s t d e m o c r a c y i n g e n e r a l b u t sp e c i f i c d e m o c r a t i c

    i n s t i t u t i ons a nd po l i c i e s . I nde e d , t he c o r r e c t que s t i on i s no t w he t he r

    d e m o c r a c y a s w e h a v e k n o w n i t w i l l d e v e l o p i n t h e c o u n t r i e s t h a t h a v e

    r e c e n t l y e x p e r i e n c e d a c o l l a p s e o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m , b u t r a t h e r w h i c h

    s o rt s o f d e m o c r a t i c in s ti tu t io n s , a n d w i t h w h a t e c o n o m i c o u t c o m e s , a r e

    l i k e l y t o e m e r g e .

    M o d e r n i z a t i o n v i a I n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n

    W h i l e t h e c a u s e s o f t h e c o l la p s e o f g r o w t h i n t h e g l o b a l S o u t h a n d

    E a s t a r e h a r d t o d i a g n o s e , t h e m o s t c o m m o n r e s p o n s e t o i t s e e m s e a s i e r

    t o i d e n ti f y . I t i s b e s t d e s c r i b e d a s m o d e r n i z a t i o n v i a

    i n t e r na t i ona l i z a t ion . D i f f e r e n t po l i t i c a l f o r c e s in the c a p i t a l is t S ou t h a nd

    t h e p o s t c o m m u n i s t E a s t se e n o a l t er n a ti v e b u t to e m b a r k o n t h e N o r t h -

    W e s t P a s s a g e - - - a r o a d t h a t w o u l d l e a d t h e i r so c i e t ie s t o th e F i r s t

    W o r l d , f o r s o m e t h e N o r t h , f o r o t h e r s t h e W e s t . T h i s i s a s t r a te g y

    o f t r y in g t o a d o p t t h e p o l i ti c a l, e c o n o m i c , a n d c u l t u ra l p a t t e r n s

    ( d e m o c r a c y , m a r k e t s , a n d c o n s u m e r i s t i n d i v i d u a l i s m ) t h a t d o m i n a t e t h e

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    Capitalism Socialism and Democracy/Przeworski

    a d v a n c e d c a p i t a l i s t w o r l d . M o d e r n i z a t i o n b e c o m e s s y n o n y m o u s w i t h

    in te rna t iona l iza t ion .

    T h e p o l i ti c a l a n d e c o n o m i c p r o g r a m t h a t g u i d e s th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t

    p o l i ti c a l f o r c e s t h r o u g h o u t E a s t e r n E u r o p e is t o j o i n t h e W e s t o r

    r e e n t e r E u r o p e . T h i s p r o g r a m i s b a s e d o n w h a t w e m i g h t c a ll t h e

    E a s t E u r o p e a n s y l l o g i s m . T h e m a j o r p r e m i s e o f t h is s y l lo g i s m is , I f i t

    h a d n o t b e e n fo r c o m m u n i s m , w e w o u l d b e li k e t h e W e s t . T h e m i n o r

    p r e m i s e i s N o w c o m m u n i s m i s g o n e . T h e co n c l u s i o n n o t o n l y a s se rt s

    t h a t E a s t e r n E u r o p e s h o u l d a n d w i l l e m b r a c e t h e W e s t e r n m o d e l , b u t

    a l s o p r o m i s e s t h a t t h i s m o d e l w i l l g e n e r a t e t h e w e a l t h a n d g l a m o r o f

    de v e lop e d c a p i t a li sm. S imi l a r no t ions a r e c u r r e n t in La t in Am e r i c a , a s

    w i t n e s s M e x i c a n p r e s i d e n t C a r l o s S a l i n a s d e G o r t a r i ' s p r o m i s e t o t a k e

    h i s c o u n t r y t o t h e F i r s t W o r l d , o r B r a z i l ia n p r e s i d e n t F e m a n d o C o l l o r

    d e M e l l o ' s t a l k o f

    integrac ro competitiva

    T h i s s t r a t e g y a p p e a r s t o b e w i t h o u t p r e c e d e n t i n h i s t o r y . A l l p r e v i o u s

    a t t e m p t s a t m o d e r n i z a t i o n c o n c e i v e d o f d e v e l o p m e n t a s a p r o j e c t l i n k e d

    t o n a t i o n a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d p o l i t i c a l i n d e p e n d e n c e . A l l p r e v i o u s

    mode r n i z ing l e a de r s a s se r t e d the impor t a nc e o f na t iona l c u l tu r e s , c a l l e d

    f o r po l i t i c a l i n s t it u t ions c o ns i s t e n t w i th na t iona l t r a d i ti ons , a nd e nv i sa ge d

    gr ow th l e d b y n a t iona l i ndus t r i e s a nd o r i e n t e d tow a r d loc a l m a r ke t s . 2g I n

    c o n t r a s t , t h e s t r a t e g y o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n b y i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n e x p l i c i t l y

    a c c e p t s a t l e a s t a pa r t i a l su r r e nde r o f na t iona l sove r e ign ty in t he po l i t i c a l ,

    e c onomic , a nd c u l tu r a l r e a lms . Th i s s t r a t e gy ope ns l oc a l ma r ke t s t o

    f o r e ign pe ne t r a t i on , a bo l i she s c u l tu r a l ba r r ie r s , a nd se e ks t o m od e l

    p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o n p a t t e r n s d e v e l o p e d e l s e w h e r e . C o c a - C o l a i s n o

    longe r t he impe r i a l i s t d r ug bu t t he ne c t a r o f un ive r sa l p r ospe r i t y .

    H i s t o r y s h o w s t h a t e v e n i n t h o s e c a s e s w h e r e m o d e r n i z a t i o n w a s a

    s t r a t e g y o f a u t o n o m o u s n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t , i t t e n d e d t o c r e a t e

    e n o r m o u s t e n s i o n s b y b r i n g i n g a b o u t c h a n g e s i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f

    inc ome , sh i f t s i n powe r r e l a t i ons , a nd p r o f ound c u l tu r a l t r a ns f o r ma t ions .

    F a r f r o m e s c a p i n g s u c h t e n s i o n s , t h e p u r s u i t o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n v i a

    i n t er n a ti o n a li z a ti o n a c t u a l ly e x a c e r b a t e s t h e m . T h e r e a r e t w o r e a s o n s f o r

    th i s . The f i r s t l i e s i n t he s t r a t e gy ' s c ompe t i t i ve na tu r e : a l l c oun t r i e s

    c a n n o t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y h a v e a p o s i t i v e b a l a n c e o f p a y m e n t s . T h e r a c e t o

    m o d e r n i z e w i l l i n e v i t a b l y h a v e i t s w i n n e r s a n d l o s e r s . M o r e o v e r , t h e

    winne r s a nd the l o se r s w i l l no t be na t ion - s t a t e s bu t r e g ions , s e c to r s ,

    i ndus t r i e s , a nd pa r t i c u l a r soc i a l g r oups . S ha r p inc r e a se s i n r e g iona l ,

    s e c to r a l , a nd soc i a l i ne qua l i t y a c r os s a nd w i th in na t ions w i l l f o l l ow . A t

    the s a me t ime , t h i s s t r a t e gy r e qu i r e s na t iona l gove r nme n t s t o r e l i nqu i sh

    s o m e o f t h e tr a d it io n a l i n s tr u m e n t s o f e c o n o m i c p o l ic y : t h e y p e g

    e x c h a n g e r a t e s, t h e y a d j u s t d e m a n d t o t h a t o f t h e i r t r ad i n g p a r t n e r s , t h e y

    sub je c t t he mse lve s t o va r ious t a r ge t s a nd c ond i t i ons s e t by in t e r na t iona l

    l e nde r s . As a r e su l t , na t iona l gove r nme n t s su f f e r a s e r ious de c l ine i n

    t h e i r c a p a c i t y to c o m p e n s a t e l o s e r s a n d m a n a g e s o c i a l t e n s io n s g e n e r a l l y .

    D e m o c r a c y s u f f e r s a s w e l l w h e n d e c i s i o n s t h a t w e r e o n c e c o n t r o l l e d b y

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      6 Journal of emocracy

    e l e c t e d n a t i o n a l o f f i c i a l s p a s s i n t o t h e h a n d s o f a c t o r s w h o c a n n o t b e

    v o t e d i n o r o u t . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n c r e a s i n g i n e q u a l i t y a n d d e c r e a s i n g

    n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y t h r e a t e n s t o e x a c e r b a t e s o c i a l c o n f l i c t s a n d w e a k e n

    na sc e n t de moc r a t i c i n s t i t u t i ons .

    T h e p o l i c y s t y l e i n h e r e n t i n n e o l i b e r a l e c o n o m i c r e f o r m p r o g r a m s

    Since the

    neoliberal 'cure '

    is a painful one,

    w i th s ign i f i can t

    social costs ,

    re forms tend to

    be in i t ia ted f rom

    above and launched

    by surprise,

    independen t ly o f

    pub l ic op n on

    a n d w i t h o u t t h e

    par t i c ipa t ion

    o f organ ized

    pol i t ica l forces .

    c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h i s p r o c e s s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g

    w a y . S i n c e t h e n e o l i b e r a l c u r e i s a

    pa in f u l one , w i th s ign i f i c a n t soc i a l c os t s ,

    r e f o r m s t e n d t o b e i n i t i a t e d f r o m a b o v e a n d

    l a u n c h e d b y s u r p r i s e , i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f

    p u b l i c o p i n i o n a n d w i t h o u t t h e p a r t ic i p a t io n

    o f o r g a n i z e d p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s . R e f o r m s t e n d

    t o b e e n a c t e d b y f i a t , o r r a i l r o a d e d t h r o u g h

    le g i s l a tu r e s w i thou t a ny c ha nge s r e f l e c t ing

    t h e d i v e r g e n c e o f i n t e r e s t s a n d o p i n i o n s .

    T h e p o l i t i c a l s t y l e o f i m p l e m e n t a t i o n t e n d s

    t o w a r d r u l e b y d e c r e e ; g o v e r n m e n t s s e e k t o

    m o b i l i z e t h e i r s u p p o r t e r s r a t h e r t h a n a c c e p t

    t h e c o m p r o m i s e s t h a t m i g h t r e s u l t f r o m

    pub l i c c onsu l t a t i on . I n t he e nd , t he soc i e ty

    i s t a ugh t t ha t i t c a n vo te bu t no t c hoose ;

    l e g i s l a tu r e s a r e g ive n the impr e s s ion tha t

    t h e y h a v e n o r o l e t o p l a y i n t h e e l a b o r a t i o n

    o f po l i c y ; na sc e n t po l i t i c a l pa r t i e s , t r a de

    un ions , a nd o the r o r ga n iz a t ions l e a r n tha t t he i r vo i c e s do no t c oun t . The

    a u t o c ra t ic c h a r a c t e r o f s u c h W a s h i n g t o n - s t y l e r e f o r m s h e l p s t o

    unde r mine r e p r e se n ta t ive i n s t i t u t i ons , pe r sona l i z e po l i t i c s , a nd e nge nde r

    a c l ima te i n wh ic h po l i t i c s be c ome s e i t he r r e duc e d to f i xe s , o r e l s e

    i n f la t e d i n t o a s e a rc h f o r r e d e m p t i o n . T h u s e v e n w h e n n e o l i b e r a l re f o r m s

    m a k e e c o n o m i c s e n se , t h e y w e a k e n r e p r e s e n t a ti v e i n s ti tu t io n s . I n P o l a n d ,

    t h e f o u r i n s t i t u t i o n s e n j o y i n g t h e g r e a t e s t c i t i z e n c o n f i d e n c e w h e n t h e

    f i r s t p o s t c o m m u n i s t g o v e r n m e n t c a m e i n t o o f f i c e i n 1 9 8 9 w e r e t h e t w o

    h o u s e s o f p a r li a m e n t , th e M a z o w i e c k i g o v e r n m e n t , a n d t h e C a t h o l i c

    C h u r c h . E i g h t e e n m o n t h s i n to t h e e c o n o m i c r e fo r m s , t h e t h r e e i n s t it u ti o n s

    t h a t e n j o y e d th e m o s t c o n f i d e n c e w e r e t h e a r m y , t h e p o l ic e , a n d t h e

    C hur c h , i n t ha t o r de r .

    I t is s o b e r i n g t o n o t e h o w o f t e n s t r a te g i es o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n h a v e

    f a i l e d i n t h e p a s t . J o i n i n g t h e F i r s t W o r l d c l u b o f d e m o c r a c y a n d

    p r o s p e r i t y i s n o m e a n f e a t . S i n c e W o r l d W a r I I , o n l y G r e e c e , J a p a n ,

    P o r t u g a l , a n d S p a i n h a v e d o n e i t . S o u t h K o r e a a n d T a i w a n m a y b e o n

    t h e t h re s h o ld ; c e r t a i n l y t h e y a r e t h e m o d e l s t h a t e v e r y o n e w a n t s t o

    i m i t a t e . Y e t w h i l e s u c h a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s a r e n o t i m p o s s i b l e , t h e y h a v e

    b e e n e x c e e d i n g l y r a r e .

    I s t h i s r oa d to t he F i r s t W or ld t he on ly a l t e r na t ive a va i l a b l e t o t he

    l e s s de ve lope d c oun t r i e s o f t he Ea s t a nd S ou th? I s t h i s s t r a t e gy v i a b l e

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    Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy/Przeworski

    57

    e c o n o m i c a l l y ? C a n i t g a i n a n d k e e p l o c a l p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t i n th e f a c e o f

    m a s s i v e d i s l o c a t i o n s c a u s e d b y e c o n o m i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d i t s a t t en d a n t

    s o c i a l c o s ts ? W h a t s o r ts o f c u l tu r a l f o r c e s , n a t i o n a l i s t i c o r r e l i g i o u s , i s

    t h is s t r a te g y l i k e ly to u n l e a s h ? W h e r e i s i t l i k e l y t o l e ad , e c o n o m i c a l l y

    a n d p o l i t i c a l ly ? W h a t k i n d o f a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r d e r w i l l it c r e a t e ? W h a t

    w i l l h a p p e n i f a n d w h e n t h e s e s t r a t e g i e s f a i l t o g e n e r a t e p r o s p e r i t y ?

    M y a r g u m e n t t h r o u g h o u t h a s b e e n o n l y th a t w e m u s t t a k e s u c h

    q u e s t i o n s s e r i ou s l y . F r e e d o m a n d m a t e r i a l s e c u r i ty a r e t h in g s t h a t m o s t

    p e o p l e p r i z e h i g h l y , b u t i d e o l o g i c a l z e a l te n d s o n l y t o i n c r e a s e h u m a n

    s u f f e r i n g - - a n d m a n y o f t h e c u r r e n t l y f a s h i o n a b l e p o l i c y p r e sc r i p t i o n s a r e

    b a s e d o n n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n z e a l . E v e r y t i m e I a p p l y f o r a g o v e r n m e n t

    r e s e a r c h g r a n t , I a m r e q u i r e d t o s i g n a f o r m d e c l a r i n g t h a t I w i l l n o t

    e x p e r i m e n t o n h u m a n s u b je c t s . I w i s h g o v e r n m e n t s h a d t o d o t h e sa m e .

    N O T E S

    1. The first statement, by Barbara Labuda, a leader of Solidarity and parliamentary

    deputy, is quoted in Zbigniew Domaranczyk, 100 dni Mazowieckiego (Warsaw:

    Wydawnictwo Andrzej Bonarski , 1990). The second is f rom Eco nom ics M inister Vladim ir

    Dlouhy of the Czech and Slovak Federat ive Republic , quoted in the

    Financial Times

    (London), 6 February 1991; while the last is from Poland's former finance minister Leszek

    Balcerowicz,

    Financial Times

    (London), 16 July 1990.

    2. This posture is puzzling given how flimsy is the knowledge on which this advice,

    and the m oney that fo l low s the words, are based. A s one reads the successive Wo rld Bank

    Development Reports,

    one f inds solid research which speaks in favo r of m obil iz ing pun ic

    savings, supports the importance of incom e equality and o f educational and hea lth

    expenditures for econ om ic growth, and highlights cautionary tales about the dangers o f

    financial deregulation and badly tim ed trade liberalization. Ye t the po licy recommendations

    are as one in insisting on the virtues of markets. The same is true of the International

    Monetary Fund: some of the most skeptical analyses of the Fund 's polic ies come from i ts

    own researchers, whose work has little if any discernible impact on 1MF policy. See in

    particular the studies collected in Mario Blejer and Ke-young Chu, eds., Fiscal Policy,

    Stabilization, and Growth in Developing Coun tries

    (Washington, D.C.: International

    Monetary Fund, 1989).

    3. Joseph A. Stiglitz, W hither Socialism? Perspectives fro m the Eco nom ics of

    Information (Wicksell Lectures, Stockholm, Sweden, 1990), and Th e Invisib le Ha nd and

    M odem W elfare Econom ics (National Bureau of Econo mic Research, W orking Paper no.

    3641, 1991).

    4 . Robert E . Lucas, Jr ., On the Mechanics of Economic Develo pm ent,

    Journal of

    Monetary Economics 22 (1988): 3-42.

    5. Stiglitz, Whi ther Social ism? 12.

    6 . Kenneth A rrow and Georges Debreu, Existence of an Equil ibr ium for a Com peti t ive

    E c o n o m y ,

    Econometrica

    22 (1954): 256-90.

    7 . Arrow, The Ro le of Securit ies in the Optimal Allocat ion of Risk-B earing,

    R e v i e w

    of Economic Studies 3L (L964) 91-96.

    8. Bruce Greenwald and Joseph E. Stiglitz, Externalities in Eco nom ies with Impe rfect

    Information and Incomplete Markets, Quarter ly Journal o f Econo mics 90 (1986): 229-

    64.

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    5 8 J o u r n a l o f D e m o c r a c y

    9 . Th i s d i scu ss i o n fo ll o ws a l m o s t v e rb a t i m Lu i z Ca r l o s B resse r Pe re ira , Jo s6 Mar i a

    Marav a l l , an d Ad am Przewo rsk i , E c o n o m i c R e f o r m i n N e w D e m o c r a c i e s (New Yo rk :

    Camb r i d g e Un i v e rs i t y Pre ss , 1 9 9 2 ) , wh e re t h e read e r can f 'md ev i d en ce fo r t h e p o i n t s

    developed here .

    10. Stanley Fischer et al . , eds. , Lessons o f Economic S tab i l i za t i on and I t s A f t e rma th

    (Cambridge: MIT Press , 1991) , 404-5 .

    1 . Vi t o Tan z i , F i sca l Po l icy , S t ab il i z a ti o n , an d Gro wt h , i n B l e j e r an d Ch u , ed s . , o p .

    cit., 30.

    1 2 . See t h e ex ch an g e b e t ween Brad fo rd DeLo n g an d Wi l l i am Bau mo l co n ce rn i n g

    Pro d u c t i v i ty Gro w t h , Co n v e rg en ce , an d W el fa re i n A m e r i c a n E c o n o m i c R e v i e w 78 (1988):

    1 1 3 8 5 9 .

    13. See Lucas , op . c it .; G ary Becker e t al ., H um an Capi ta l , Fer t i l i ty , and Eco nom ic

    G r o w t h ,

    Journa l o f Po l i t i ca l Economy

    98 (1990): 12-38; and Paul M. Romer,

    E n d o g e n o u s T e c h n i ca l C h a n g e ,

    Journa l o f Po l i t i ca l Economy

    98 (1990): $71-S103.

    1 4 . Pe t e r Mu rre l l , Can N eo c l a ssi ca l Eco n o m i cs Un d e rp i n t h e Re fo rm o f Cen t ra l ly

    P l a n n e d E c o n o m i e s ? Journa l o f Economic Perspec t i ves 5 (1991): 59-76 .

    1 5. Gen e Gro ssm an , Pro mo t i n g New In d u s t r ia l Ac t i v i ti e s : A Su rv ey o f Recen t

    A r g u m e n t s a n d E v i d e n c e ,

    OECD Economic S tud i es

    14 (Spring 1990): 87-125.

    1 6. Ro b e r t Ba r ro , Go v e rn m en t Sp en d i n g i n a S i mp l e Mo d e l o f En d o g en o u s Gro wt h ,

    Journa l o f Po l i t i ca l Economy 98 (1990): S103-25; Ron ald Fin lay , Th e New P ol i t i ca l

    Eco n o my : I t s Ex p l an a t o ry Po wer fo r t h e LDCs ,

    Economics and Po l i t i c s

    2 (1990): 193-

    221.

    17 . See George St ig ler ,

    The Ci t i zen and the S ta t e : Essays on Regu la t ion

    (Chicago:

    Un ivers i ty of Chicago Press , 1975); and Robert D. Tol l i son , Re nt Seeking: A S urvey ,

    K y k l o s 35 (1982): 575-602.

    1 8. Th e sem i n a l fo rmu l a t i o n o f t h is p ro b l em i s Leo n i d Hu rw i cz , Th e D es i g n o f

    Reso u rce -Al l o ca t i o n Mech an i sms ,

    A m e r i c a n E c o n o m i c R e v i e w

    63 (1973): 1-30.

    19. Gaze ta wyborcza (Warsaw), 13 July 1990 (i tal ics added ).

    2 0 . Ad am Przewo rsk i , Pa r t y Sy s t ems an d Eco n o m i c Dev e l o p me n t , Ph .D. d is se r t a ti o n ,

    No r t h wes t e rn Un i v e rs i t y , 1 9 6 6 ; I rma Ad eh n an an d Cy n t h i a Mo rr i s ,

    Socie ty Pol i t ics and

    Economic Deve lopmen t (Ba l t i mo re : Jo h n s Ho p k i n s Un i v e rs i t y Pre ss , 1 9 6 7 ) ; Wi l l i am G.

    Di ck , Au t h o r i t a r i an v e rsu s No n au t h o r i t a r i an Ap p ro ac h es t o Eco n o m i c Dev e l o p m en t ,

    Journa l o f Po l i t i ca l Economy

    82 (1974): 817-27; Sam uel P. Hunt ing ton and Jorge I .

    Do m i n g u ez , Po l i t ic a l Dev e l o p men t , i n F . I . Green s t e i n an d N.W. Po l sb y , ed s .,

    H a n d b o o k

    o f Po l i t ica l Sc i ence

    vol . 3 (Reading , Mass . : Addison -W esley , 1975); Ro bert M. M arsh ,

    D o e s D e m o c r a c y H i n d e r E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e L a t e c o m e r D e v e l o p in g N a t i o n s?

    Compara t i ve Soc ia l Research 2 (1 9 79 ): 2 1 5 -4 8 ; E r i ch W eed e , Th e Imp ac t o f Dem o cracy

    o n Eco n o mi c Gro wt h : So me Ev i d en ce f ro m Cro ss -Na t i o n a l An a l y s i s , K y k l o s 36 (1983):

    2 1 -3 9 ; Ro g e r C . Ko rm en d i an d Ph i l i p G. Meg u i re , M ac ro eco n o m i c De t e rm i n an t s o f

    G r o w t h , J o u r n a l o f M o n e t a r y E c o n o m i c s 16 (1985): 141-63; Atu l Koh l i , De m ocra cy

    an d Dev e l o p m en t , i n Jo h n P . Lewi s an d Va l e r i an a Ka l l ab , ed s . , Deve lopmen t S t ra t eg i e s

    Recons idered (New Bru n swi ck : T ran sac t i o n Bo o k s , 1 9 86 ); Dan i e l Lan d au , Go v e rn m en t

    an d Eco n o mi c Gro wt h i n t h e Less -Dev e l o p ed Co u n t r i e s : An Emp i r i ca l S t u d y fo r 1 9 6 0 -

    1980,

    Economic Deve lopmen t and Cu l tu ra l Change

    35 (1986): 35-76; John Sloan and

    Ken t L . Ted i n , Th e Co n seq u en ces o f Reg i me Ty p e fo r Pu b l i c -Po l icy Ou t p u t s ,

    Comparat ive Pol i t ica l S tudies 20 (1987): 98-124; Marsh , Soc io log ica l Exp lanat ions of

    E c o n o m i c G r o w t h ,

    S tud ies i n Compara t i ve I n t e rna t iona l Research

    13 (1988): 41-76;

    Ab b as Po u rg e rami , Th e Po l i ti c a l Eco n o m y o f Dev e l o p m en t : A Cro ss -Na t i o n a l Cau sa l i ty

    Tes t o f t h e Dev e l o p men t -Demo cracy -Gro wt h Hy p o t h es i s ,

    Pub l i c Cho ice

    58 (1988): 123-

    4 1 ; Ge ra l d W. Scu ll y, Th e In s t i tu t i o n a l F ram ewo rk an d Eco n o m i c Dev e l o p m en t , J o u r n a l

    o f Po l i t i ca l Economy

    96 (1988): 652-62; R obert J . Barro , A Cross -Cou nt ry Study of

    Gro w t h , Sav i n g , an d Go v e rn m en t (NBE R Wo rk i n g Pap e r 2 8 5 5 , 1 9 8 9) ; Kev i n B . Gr i e r

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    Capi ta li sm Sociali sm and Dem ocrac y/Prze wor ski 59

    and Gordon Tullock, An Empirical Analysis of Cross-National Economic Growth, 1951-

    80, J o u r n a l o f M o n e t a r y E c o n o m i c s 24 (1989): 259-76; Karen Remmer, Democracy and

    Economic Crisis: The Latin American Experience, World Po l i t i c s 42 (1989-90): 315-35;

    Pourgerami, The Political Economy of Development: An Empirical Investigation of the

    Wealth Theory of Democracy,

    Journa l o f Theore t i ca l Po l i t i c s

    3 (1991): 189-211.

    21. Brendan O'Flaherty, Why Are There Democracies? A Principal-Agent Answer,

    Economics and Po l i t i c s 2 (1990): 133-55.

    22. Allan H. Meltzer and Scott F. Richard, A Rational Theory of the Size of

    Government, Journa l o f Po l i t i ca l Economy 89 ( 1981): 914-27.

    23. Mackintosh and Ricardo are quoted in Stefan Collini et al., Tha t Nob le Sc i ence o f

    Pol i t ics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 98, 107.

    24. Thomas Babington Macaulay, Comple t e Wr i t i ngs (20 vols., Boston and New York:

    Houghton-Mifflin, 1900), 17:263-76.

    25. Karl Marx,

    The Class S t rugg le i n France 1848 to 1850

    (Moscow: Progress

    Publishers, 1952), 62.

    26. Brian Barry, The Continuing Relevance of Socialism, in idem, D e m o c r a c y P o w e r

    and Jus t i ce : Essays i n Po l i t i ca l Theory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 529;

    Diane Elson, Socialization of the Market, N e w L e f t R e v i e w 172 (1988), 3-44.

    27. Among the seven countries compared in the most careful research on this topic to

    date, the percentage of persons who are poor after taxes and transfers is 4.8 (195,000) in

    Norway, 5.0 (410,000) in Sweden, 6.0 (3.23 million) in West Germany, 8.8 (1.61 million)

    in the United Kingdom, 12.1 (2.88 million) in Canada, 14.5 (446,000) in Israel, and 16.9

    (36.88 million) in the United States. These figures are from Timothy Smeeding et al.,

    Pover t y I nequa li t y and I ncome Di s t ribu t ion in Compara t i ve Perspec t i ve

    (Washington,

    D.C.: The Urban Institute, 1990).

    28. This is true of Eastern Europe as well. The Soviet Union did attempt to impose its

    own political institutions and economic integration on its satellites in Eastern Europe, yet

    the model of economic development there was to a large extent autarkic: even Stalinist

    development produced large steel mills in each country. Moreover, insofar as this model

    was internationalist it tumed out to be unworkable, precisely because it came up against

    national aspirations.


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