Neoliberalism and Governmentality in the EU

8/13/2019 Neoliberalism and Governmentality in the EU

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Neoliberal Governmentality in the European Union:

Education, Training and Technologies of Citizenship

by

Katharyne itchelli

Forthcoming: Environment and Planning D: Society and Space

!ntroduction

As a political philosophy of governance neoliberalism is an

ongoing formation with different moments and sites in its

evolutionary trajectory. Although articulated and implemented in

different ways depending on context most scholarsacross

disciplinesconcur that it is a philosophy premised on a mantra

of market rationality and the active encouragement of laissez

faire economic systems worldwide. !see e.g. "teger# $%%&' (ickell

and )eck# $%%*' +omaroff and +omaroff# $%%,' -iroux# $%%&' -ill#

$%%*.

/uch of the scholarship on neoliberalism can be broken down

into three distinct analytical categories: as policy framework#

as ideology# or as viewed through the lens of governmentality

!0arner# $%%%.ii 1ith respect to the provision of empirical data

it is neoliberalism as seen through the lens of governmentality

that is most commonly underresearched. -overnmentality can be

understood as a way of explaining the establishment and exercise

of political power# one in which the concept of government is

broader than management by the state' it also involves the

regulation of populations through multiple institutions and

technologies in society. 2n Foucault3s conceptualization#

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governmentality refers to 4the conduct of conduct5 and ranges

from the governing of others in all aspects of life to the

governing of the self !Foucault# ,66,. (hese processes#

moreover# are mutually constitutive# indicating 4how the modern

sovereign state and the modern autonomous individual codetermine

each other3s emergence5 !0emke# $%%,: ,6$. -overnmentality also

takes many forms in society# from the guidance of families to the

ethics of care and the management of the soul !see# e.g. the work

of 7onzelot# ,686, 9loch et al# $%%*' +ruikshank# ,666' ose#

,66%.

+ritics of this literature point out that despite the

theoretical call for detailed# indepth analyses of the

circulation of power in multiple empirical sites and despite the

intellectual heritage of Foucault# most studies of

governmentality are generally abstracted from actuallyexisting

subjects and spaces !see 0arner# $%%%' ;3/alley# ,66technologies3 and >assemblages3 of state power so

brilliantly outlined by the theorists.

1e need to encourage moreexcavations of the extension of

neoliberal governmentality in multiple# evolving forms and sites

and from both >topdown3 perspectivesi.e. the formations of

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political rationalities: new state technologies and policy

initiatives# the definitions of new discursive fields# ideologies

of selfcontrol# etc.' andfrom socalled >bottomup3 realmsthe

processes and forms of subjectivity formation of the enterprising

individual over time: the general and particular responses to new

technologies and rationalities of state institutions and actors#

the evasions# resistances# enablements# exclusions and?or

motivations for individual behavior which occur alongside and in

relation to new forms of contemporary 4government.5

(his is obviously a daunting task and thus my caveat is

that these projectssuch as the one 2 outline hereshould be

considered experiments in putting together several pieces of an

ultimately incomplete puzzle. ather than splitting them apart# 2

believe we must theorize ideological coercion and direct

dominance alongside and in conjunction with various forms of

consent# persuasion and technologies of the self# thus

interrogating how these processes function conjointly in the

extension of neoliberalism worldwide !cf. "parke# $%%&. 2

attempt to do this here through an investigation of recent shifts

in the philosophy# practice and experience of educational reforms

promoted for high schools students by the @uropean nion !@

over the past decade.

@ducation is a critical site in which to do this kind of

analysis' not only is the link between the formation of schools

and the formation of society a vital one in terms of

understanding the shifting technologies of citizenship and state

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society relations through time !see# e.g. Ball# ,6C,# but also

students !i.e. children are particularly impressionable

>subjects3 whose formation in schools and families has

historically been of great interest to hegemonic powers worldwide

!9loch et al# $%%*' Franklin et al# $%%&.

(he @ is an important contemporary venue in this regard as

well# as it is now undergoing a number of critical changes. (he

increase in /ember "tates from ,D to $D in /ay# $%%& has already

had numerous ramifications for neoliberal economic policy !see#

e.g. "mith# $%%$. 9ut perhaps more importantly# new methods of

governance such as the ;/+ !;pen /ethod of +oordination reflect

the extension of neoliberal governmentality in all spheres of

social and civic life !1alters and Baahr# $%%D' "avio and )alola#

$%%&. ;verall these changes have great implications for

education and training# employment and social inclusion# and the

constitution of young 4@uropean5 subjects.

"pecifically in this paper 2 argue that increasingly

neoliberal forms of governmentality are evident in the @ducation

and +ulture directorate of the @uropean +ommission !@+.iii(his

isespecially the case visEvis the institutional philosophy of

how immigrants and second generation 4minorities5 should be best

integrated !through education into @uropean society. 9oth the

policies and the programs associated with education and training

are becoming more oriented towards the formation of mobile#

flexible and selfgoverning @uropean laborers and less oriented

towards an institutionalized affirmation of civic awareness or

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the importance of respect for and valuation of individual and

group difference. (his represents a fairly substantive

philosophical and practical transformation over the past five to

ten years.

2n educational affairs the @+3s explicit role is to

encourage cooperation between /ember "tates and to develop a

4@uropean5 dimension in the realm of education.iv (he inculcation

of a @uropean dimension was initially formulated# at least in

part# as involving the incorporation of minorities !mainly

immigrants who had not been effectively integrated within their

national societies. For example# @dith +resson# the education

commissioner from ,66D,666# wrote in ,66C:

Across the community# the proportion of denizens living in the/ember "tates is bound to rise in the decades to come as aconse=uence of mobility between /ember "tates as well asinflows into the +ommunity from the outside# and the assertionof the right to difference by minority groupsindigenous orotherwiseis now a wellestablished feature of @uropean socialand political life. (his means that learning to livepositively with difference and diversity is becoming a coredimension of the practice of citizenship in @urope.v

(his type of minority incorporation was projected to be

beneficial for the overall aim of increasing @uropean social

cohesion# and documents such as the above encouraged educational

programs and exchanges for the expresspurpose of promoting the

cultural awareness of difference as positive for @urope. (he

@+3s effort to create a democratic citizen of @urope was a clear

educational considerationat least in terms of a narrative of

effective governance. (he early concept of lifelong learning#

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for example# which was initially promulgated in the ,68%s by non

governmental organizations such as @"+;# concerned the holistic

formation of a wellrounded# civically aware# personally

fulfilled and criticallyminded citizen.vi (his emphasis lingered

for a time in @+ documents as well.vii

;ver the last several years however# one can discern a

shift to a different kind of emphasis particularly with respect

to the constitution and training of @uropean laborers. (he new

program priorities focus on individual pragmatism and on the

skills and mobility needed for economic success rather than on

the formation of a democratic person operating within the

framework of 4ethical liberalism5.viii (he most fre=uent

references in contemporary educationrelated documents and

programs are to global competitiveness# a shifting labor market#

and the necessity to constantly adapt to a changing knowledge

based economy. )erpetual mobilization and constant movement are

presented as the answers to the >inescapable3 ramifications of

globalization# as well as to the changing terms of employment and

the national >problems3 of integration for immigrants.

(his current rhetoric is accompanied by multiple @

treaties which promote the standardization# homogenization and

international certification of educational skills# allowing and

encouraging a greater mobility across international borders. And

instead of a concept emphasizing democratic tools# personal

development and critical thinking# lifelong learning has

transmogrified into a concept primarily affirming the constant

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formation and reformation of work skills !see 9agnall# $%%%'

/atheson and /atheson# ,66


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A social democratic impulse remains and is actively

struggled over within the internal framework of the @+# but as 2

discuss further in the following section of the paper# the

general trend is now towards a stronger neoliberal structure of

governance !-ough# $%%&' Agnew# $%%,' "tanding# ,668. Bowever#

recognizing the institutional policy apparatuses through which

neoliberalism is advanced is =uite different from suggesting that

social disciplining or the >production of the neoliberal self3 is

ever completely secured.

For example# in several centralcity /arseille high schools

@+ education and training programs for schoolage children !such

as +omenius# have not reached a singleteenager# a majority of

whom are the children of orth African immigrants.ix2n one sense

then these students have been effectively excluded from the

democratic possibilities of @ citizenship as it is envisioned

and implemented through current educational programs. 9ut at the

same time# many have been able to create a relatively secure

space of local# multicultural >citizenship3 at the scale of the

city. (hey have also been able to engage in multiple types of

international exchange networks with the countries of their

parents3 origin !often former French colonies. Although

fre=uently marginalized and excluded from French national and

@uropean opportunities they are at the same time relatively

cocooned from the accelerated rhythms and frenetic pace of the

marketoriented# @uropean >knowledge community.3 (hus# in the

case of these students# contemporary techni=ues of self

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production and regulation which encourage market disciplinesuch

as the @+ education and training programsremain largely

ineffective technologies of citizenship.x

"ocial #emocracy and Neoliberalism in the EU

2n the past two decades there has been an extension and

entrenchment of neoliberal reform policies# ideology and

technologies of production and control worldwide. (he ways that

this entrenchment is playing out# however# varies considerably as

a result of individual geographies of urban# regional and

national development# historical formations of liberalism and

social democracy and class relations# among other variables !)eck

and (ickell# $%%$' /itchell# $%%&a. As both state policy and

discourse neoliberalism often coexists with other accumulation

regimes in contradictory ways and its extension is fre=uently

contested by multiple actors. As a result its entrenchment is

always geographically and politically uneven and incomplete

!0arner# $%%%' -ough# $%%$.

Although neoliberalism has become the dominant paradigm in

the @ over the past decade it exists in an often uneasy tension

with other accumulation regimes# most notably the social

democratic project of the Heynesian era.xi7espite their

contrasting logics# for the last two decades these accumulation

regimes have existed in tandem# with internal divisions and

ongoing struggles particularly evident in the realms of social

policy and the politics of @uropean social cohesion !osamond#

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$%%$. 2n the sphere of educational policy# for example# the

battle over both philosophical mandates and practical issues such

as funding priorities is incessant.xii

As projects of capital both the social democratic project

and the neoliberal project are primarily concerned with

establishing stable frameworks in which capital accumulation can

continue. 9ut the means through which capitallabor relations are

managed and the productionreproduction nexus maintained are

=uite different between the two regimes. ;ne primary

consideration in the ways these differences play out occurs as a

result of class struggle. As -ough !$%%&: ,6* astutely

observes# both the neoliberal and social democratic regimes are

projects which 4reproduce relations of exploitation5 and are

4premised on labor as an active agent.5 +learly the historical

and geographical formation of classes and their mutually

constitutive relations affects the manner in which neoliberalism

becomes extended# entrenched and?or resisted in different

contexts.

(his said# it is imperative to note that the 4active

agency5 of labor is also premised on social relations other than

class alone. 2mmigrant laborers# /uslim laborers and female

laborers# for example# are often defined and?or selfdesignate

through multiple# crosscutting affiliations# all of which are

affected by existing power relations in society. (he management

of >labor3 then# as a contrasting logic within social democratic

and neoliberal regimes# must be analysed not just as a project of

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reflecting the varying agents and institutions involved in its

production !)eck and (ickell# $%%$.

+learly the >project3 of neoliberalism remains highly

contested in the @ and should be recognized as one that is

hybrid and contextual# often cohabiting and?or overlapping with

other regimes. Further# as characteristic of the general

features of neoliberalism it moves through different phases and

involves a specific assemblage of technologies and strategies

associated with each phase !0arner# $%%*. +urrently a social

democratic project in the @ remains and is given expression at

the regional scale through geographical redistribution programs

and social funds such as the @7F !@uropean egional 7evelopment

Fund and the @"F !@uropean "ocial Fund. 2t also has a

significant presence in specific sites and countries where

traditions of active labor politics and local democratic

governance have strong historical roots. As -ough !$%%&: ,6&

notes# these types of redistributive policies and programs are

actively solicited and protected through the agency of workers#

who have effectively 4impeded austerity offensives5 in certain

sectors and geographical sites.

;verall however# a broadbased social democratic project is

losing ground to a neoliberal one involving a complex mix of

4third way5 type claims to fairness# social justice# social

cohesion and 4open5 government# accompanied by a sharp

institutional transition to a more marketdriven logic$ (he third

way rhetoric seems to promote a gentler# fairer government

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through partnerships and various methods of decentralized

decisionmaking# but in effect these changes act to increase both

individual and regional competition# devolve responsibility to

specific >agents3 and to further undermine welfarist principles

of redistribution and responsibility !1alters and Baahr# $%%D.

(he most obvious subversion of the overarching principal of

regional evenness and social e=uity has occurred with the

incorporation of new countries with economic levels of growth and

standards of living well below the existing standards for the @

!(hese include -reece# )ortugal and "pain in the ,66%s and ten

central and eastern @uropean countries as of /ay ,# $%%&. As

numerous scholars have demonstrated# this vast augmentation of

regional unevenness increases the opportunities for both the

exploitation of labor and the disciplining of /ember "tates vis

Evis the flows of capital through foreign direct investment

!Agnew# $%%,' 7unford# ,66&' -ough# $%%&' Baynes# $%%,. 2t

effectively depresses wages and eventually will place huge and

increasingly impossible demands on the already strained welfare

systems of existing /ember "tates in areas as diverse as health#

housing and education.

1ith a concerted effort at targeted social and economic

development the admission of the new countries need not

necessarily entrench a neoliberal project. 9ut the move to a

single market# combined with the adaptation of the @uro in $%%$

!under the auspices of the @+9 the @uropean +entral 9ank

institutionalizes a type of abstract monetary policy based on

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price stability and an antiinflationary mandate rather than on

growth and development. (his makes statesponsored development

targeted at the eradication of specific internal ine=ualities or

the protection of particular sectors in society increasingly

difficult. Fiscal monitoring by the +ommission through the

"tability and -rowth )act !"-)# for example# limits the

capacities of /ember "tates to protect welfare benefits through

deficit spending# thus retarding the ability of individual

countries to set their own development course !"torey# $%%&.

+ontinual surveillance of /ember "tates both before and

after admission into the nion acts further to keep potentially

wayward !insufficiently neoliberal impulses in check. 1ith

respect to the recent enlargement process# for example# "mith

!$%%$ shows the instrumental role played by the @ in the

reconstruction of +entral and @ast @uropean economies along

laissezfaire market lines. (hrough a process of geoeconomic

monitoring and with the aid of the @uropean 9ank for

econstruction and 7evelopment# these entering nations were

disciplined to accept as both natural and necessarytheir

wholesale transformation from postcommunist regimes to market

based neoliberal societies. 1hen considered alongside recent

international agreements between the @ and the 1(; binding

/ember "tates into a globally liberal trade regime# the extent of

the @ marketization agenda becomes even clearer !see also

9onefeld# $%%$.

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ather than an >upward harmonization3 into a socially

democratic welfare regime# integration into the @ ends up

instead in institutionalizing 4disciplinary neoliberalism5 !-ill#

$%%,. "torey !$%%& documents# in particular# the multiple

attacks on the state provision of goods and services through the

@3s activist competition policy and through the limits it places

on state aid to publicly controlled >businesses3 such as banks

and airports. 9oth 9renner !,666 and "wyngedouw !,668 likewise#

have demonstrated the key role played by the @ in restructuring

space in a matter beneficial for capital. (his# combined with a

declining interest in social reproduction# manifested

particularly harshly in the recent tightening of asylum laws#

indicates a new direction for the @ as an interventionist actor

and partner with a distinctly neoliberal reform agenda.

Alongside these ideological and policy reforms there are

additional changes in the @ relating to the general decline of

democratic accountability. (he @+9# for example# functions

outside of and away from the messy sphere of individual state

politics. (hus popular democratic pressure !e.g. to protect

state subsidies or welfare policies has no effect on monetary

policy or on the developmental aspirations of cities and nations.

@ventually this disjuncture leads to political apathy# as

witnessed in recent years in declining voter turnout at both

national and @ parliamentary elections.xiii

2n the @ over the last decade there has thus been a strong

trend towards an increasing monetarism and a growing

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liberalization of the market. 2n terms of laissezfaire economic

reform a neoliberal project is clearly on the rise. 9ut what is

the evidence of neoliberal gains in other arenas# for example

those of civil society and the formation of subjectsJ 1hat is

the evidence of neoliberal advancement as seen through the lens

of governmentalityJ At this point 2 would like to turn to the

educational spherea key contemporary forum in the constitution

of both marketrational andstateoriented subjects. 2 begin by

looking at the recent @+ policy agenda in education and then

investigate some of its effects visEvis the production of

mobile# entrepreneurial workers and selfgoverning 4@uropean5

immigrantlaborers.

Education and Training in the EU: Formation Permanente

(he shift in the @3s educational emphasis over the past

several years is most evident in the policy orientation of the

(reaty of Amsterdam !,666 and the (reaty of ice !$%%, as well

as the educational proclamations disseminated from @uropean

+ouncil meetings at 0isbon !$%%%# and +openhagen !$%%$. 2t is

also evident in the new education and training programs and

international agreements that have arisen as a result of these

meetings. 1hile there remains a social democratic logic premised

on the notion of state intervention in various realms# including

creating cohesive communities out of difference# this is rapidly

losing ground to a more economistic emphasis.xiv/ost of the

contemporary international agreements and @ programs now focus

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on strategies of skillsbased training designed to forge all

students !both native born and immigrant into@uropean

citizenship via an increasingly crossborder intra@ labor

market. 2 will examine just three of these recent policy

initiatives and programs as they extend across time and space.

A: TheAmsterdam Treaty: Lifelong Learning

(he concept of lifelong learning was given its first major

boost in the @ in ,66action3 areas of the employment chapter 4represent a

major shift in social policy5 away from universal labor mandates

and standards and towards a vision of employment as the key to

maintaining the @uropean social model !see Addison# $%%$: *%C.

(he employment that is envisioned in this new scheme is flexible

employment# and the laborers who are to provide the workforce

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must be 4adaptable5 and 4entrepreneurial5 if they expect to be

4employable.5

0ifelong learning features prominently in the employment

chapter of the (reaty and is explicitly linked with the promotion

of a skilled and adaptable labor force for the new# socalled

4@urope of knowledge.5 2n @+ policy documents of this time the

necessity for constant personal mobilization or 4updating5 is a

fre=uent refrain with reference to lifelong learning and is

inevitably linked with the employment re=uirements of a rapidly

changing world. Further# successful employment is implicitly

associated with successful citizenship. (he following =uote# for

example# is taken from the ,668 @uropean +ommission document#

4(owards a @urope of Hnowledge.5 (his was one of the first full

length discussions of the new strategies for education and

training in general and lifelong learning in particular# that was

envisioned for the +ommission3s policy agenda of $%%%$%%


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(his extremely utilitarian vision of lifelong learning as

linked with wealth creation and employability was advanced even

further by @ducation +ommissioner Iiviane eding in several

speeches from $%%% and $%%,.xvi 2n the speeches and policy agenda

of this period there was a clear effort to tie together the

commission directorate of @ducation and +ulture# with the

directorate of @mployment and "ocial Affairs. (he skillsbased#

vocational focus of this cooperative strategy was made explicit

in related documents and speeches. For example# Anna

7iamantopoulou# the +ommissioner for @mployment and "ocial

Affairs# said:

"kill and competence enhancement in the new economy in@urope re=uires that the policy emphasis is shifted towardsincreasing investment in human capital and in raisingparticipation in education and training throughout workinglife. (o keep pace with developments in technology#globalisation# population ageing and new businesspractices# particular attention should be given toworkplace training an important dimension of our strategyfor 0ifelong 0earning...xvii

2n /arch $%%%# lifelong learning was confirmed by the

0isbon @uropean +ouncil as a foundational component of the

@uropean social model. @mployment was a key agenda item of the

0isbon meeting# as was the objective of 4shaping a new @urope5

and becoming 4the most competitive and dynamic knowledgebased

economy in the world.5xviii Following the 0isbon recommendations

lifelong learning was allocated significant funding for the

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period $%%%$%%< from the @uropean "ocial Fund !@"F and was

confirmed as a 4basic component of the @uropean "ocial /odel.5xix

2n the speeches and documents associated with the 0isbon

+ouncil formation permanenteor perpetual mobilization was

projected as constant# inevitable and ultimately beneficial for

society. (he goal of 4shaping a new @urope5 focused on the

importance of the transition to the knowledge economy and the

role of education and training in constituting a new dynamic and

competitive @uropean labor force !odrigues# $%%$' obertson and

7ale# $%%*. 2n this vision the challenge of reformation and

retraining is devolved from the responsibility of the state to

the agency of individuals# who must carefully choose personally

effective learning strategies. For example# the first =uote below

is from the pamphlet# 4A @uropean Area of 0ifelong 0earning#5

!@uropean +ommission# 0uxembourg# ;ffice for ;fficial

)ublications of the @uropean +ommunities# $%%$: ,%. (he second

is from the @uropean +ommission3s web page. !2talics mine.xx

(raditional systems must be transformed to become much moreopen and flexible# so the learners can have individuallearning pathways.

/oreover# as the blackboard gives way to the keyboard andthe concept of lifelong learning becomes a reality#ac=uiring skills and knowledge is increasingly a matter of

individualresponsibility.

1ith the rhetoric of globalization# competition and

lifelong learning there is a strong underlying message of the

necessity for constant personal mobilization and entrepreneurial

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behavior on the part of individuals while at the same time the

emphasis on structural and institutional constraints to these

goals is generally downplayed. Further# the inexorable emphasis

on the individualand on his or her learning choices

interpellates rational# atomized agents responsible for their own

life paths in lieu of groups or classes experiencing collective

dislocation as the result of widespread socioeconomic

restructuring under laissezfaire capitalism. (his accompanies a

more general abdication of welfarist responsibilities in

providing truly viable economic opportunities for workers !/edel

AMonuevo et al# $%%,' -riffin# ,666.

Further# the original personal and social development

emphasis of lifelong learning as found in the earlier ideology of

the ,68%s and of eras past has been relegated to a minor

rhetorical key. +ommunity funds for lifelong learning go

primarily into workplace retraining programs rather than into

curricula emphasizing social or civic education such as the study

of culture# comparative democracy or systems of government. (hus

it seems that with the transformation of lifelong learning over

the past several years @uropean social cohesion is now advanced

primarily through the formation of a flexible and mobile cross

border labor force rather than through the notion of personal

development and the constitution of democratic participants in

society. (his is similar in many ways to the evolution of

lifelong learning in the nited "tates# where an early emphasis

on lifelong learning as creating a wellsocialized#

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>cosmopolitan3 child invested in national narratives of

collective belonging# has morphed into the strategic global

cosmopolitan interested first and foremost in entrepreneurial

success. )opkewitz !$%%*:&8 writes of this new American

lifelong learner:

1hereas the cosmopolitanism of the child of the turn of thetwentieth century was to live as a socialiedindividualwho embodied the national exceptionalism# today there islittle talk of socialization. (he cosmopolitan child livesin networks of communicative norms that order the classroomand family through a problemsolving# active# flexible# andselfmanaged lifelong learner !italics in original.

!: The Bologna Process: "onvergence

(he 9ologna 7eclaration was a pledge signed by twentynine

@uropean countries 4to reform the structures of their higher

education systems in a convergent way.5 (he declaration initiated

a process !the 9ologna )rocess of policy coordination with the

goal of standardizing higher learning across @urope. (he

objectives included the adoption of a 4common framework of

readable and comparable5 degrees at the university level# the

introduction of undergraduate and postgraduate levels in all

countries# 4with first degrees no shorter than * years and

relevant to the labour market#5 the introduction of the @+("

!@uropean +redit (ransfer "ystem# an effort to make course

creditsincluding lifelong learningcomparable and compatible

across @urope' and the 4elimination of remaining obstacles to the

free mobility of students.5xxi

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As with the lifelong learning mandate# the 9ologna process

manifests a strong policy push towards obtaining a @uropean

competitive advantage in the global knowledge economy game !cf.

Hwiek and /ickiewicz# $%%&. As noted above# among the many

desired transformations promoted by the declaration are the

transferability of course and degree credits under the new @+("

program. (his is part of a more general strategy to increase the

flexibility of students with the ultimate goal of strengthening

their crossborder employability. According to the 7eclaration:

A clearly defined common goal is to create a @uropean spacefor higher education in order to enhance the employabilityand mobility of citizens and to increase the internationalcompetitiveness of @uropean higher education.xxii

Although the declaration functioned simply as a pledge

towards convergence# the process overall has already had a strong

impact on the education policies of many /ember "tates. 2n

France for example# it has influenced a push towards harmonizing

the time re=uired for postgraduate diplomas. ;ne proposed reform

called 40/75 !licence# mast#re# doctorat establishes a set

number of years !post9accalaureate for each degree# e.g. bacN*#

bacND and bacNC. (his form of standardization# along with many

other recently proposed reforms# was protested by numerous

students in the fall of $%%*. (he students explicitly linked the

French university reforms to the increasing 4nOolibOralisation5

and 4marchandisation5 !commodification of education resulting

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from the 9ologna process and other @uropean pressures to conform

to a single higher education system.xxiii

(he 9ologna )rocess also influenced the creation of @+

programs such as @rasmus mundus in $%%*. @rasmus mundus is an

offshoot of @rasmus# the universitylevel exchange program

positioned under the broad aegis of "ocrates.xxiv 1hile the

original 4@rasmus5 facilitated exchanges between /ember "tate

university students# the new program incorporates non@uropean or

4third country5 states in an explicitly global agenda. (he

program seeks to improve @urope3s competitive advantage in the

provision of higher education. Following the intent of the

9ologna )rocess to ensure the worldwide attractiveness of the

@uropean higher education system# @rasmus mundus emphasizes

international competitiveness# global preparedness and individual

mobility. (he following description of the program is from the

@uropean +ommission:

@rasmus /undus is a new global scheme# providing adistinctly 4@uropean5 offer in higher education. 2t seeks#primarily# to enhance the =uality and attractiveness of@uropean higher education worldwide. "econdly# @rasmus/undus /asters +ourses and scholarships will provide aframework to promote valuable exchange and dialogue betweencultures. 9y supporting the international mobility ofscholars and students# @rasmus /undus intends to prepareits @uropean and non@uropean participants for life in a

global# knowledgebased society.xxv

(he 9ologna )rocess has continued over the last four years

with meetings in )rague and 9erlin and with the agreement of all

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$D @ /ember "tates to create a @uropean Bigher @ducation Area

!@B@A by $%,%. 2n each of these meetings the @+ has promoted

convergence and comparable =ualifications in higher education.

(he overarching goal of these reforms is the creation of a

standardized crossborder plan with compatible systems for both

education and assessment. (his is intended to facilitate and

encourage a new level of international mobility and global

competitiveness for students as well as to provide the tools

necessary for the kinds of educational surveillance and

accountability envisioned by the @ for the future. For example#

in February $%%*# the +ommission presented a set of proposed

4benchmarks5 in education and training to the +ouncil of

/inisters and five were adopted by the +ouncil on D /ay.xxvi(he

term >benchmarking3 is fre=uently used in neoliberal discourse

and indicates a method of establishing standards of

accountability in a constantly evolving competitive context. !see

e.g. 7ean and Bindess# ,66C' 0arner and 0e Beron# $%%*: 1alters

and Baahr# $%%D.

": The Copenhagen Declaration: Transparency

2n the +openhagen 7eclaration it is possible to see how a

strategic approach to lifelong learning combined with the strong

push towards convergence leads to a new technology of control:

Europass. @uropass is the most recent +ommission initiative in

the realm of vocational training. 2t follows from the +openhagen

7eclaration of $%%$ which called for action to 4increase

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transparency in vocational education and training through the

implementation and rationalisation of information tools and

networks# including the integration of existing instruments into

one single framework.5xxvii

@uropass incorporates five existing documents into a

primary one that covers individual workers3 skills and

=ualifications in a 4lifelonglearning perspective.5 (hese

documents include a 4@uropean +I5 outlining personal and

vocational skills !including language skills# the 4/obili)ass#5

which indicates previous transnational mobility# and the

4+ertificate5 and 47iploma "upplements#5 which show vocational

=ualifications and higher education diplomas.xxviii

@uropass is essentially a compact document that vocational

laborers carry with them and which indicates at a glance their

work history and =ualifications. (he pass is a kind of universal

>passport of skills3 which enables them to cross @ borders

easily for workrelated affairs. For state officials and

employers in different /ember "tates @uropass encapsulates an

individual worker3s history in an easily digestible format and

reduces the time needed to evaluate the prospective employee

and?or intra@ migrant. 2n the perception of @uropean

commissioners it improves transparency and hence increases

mobility for workers# who are thus liberated to rationally

distribute themselves according to the dictates of market logic.

1ith @uropass the individual laborer bears the

responsibility for locating >efficient3 maximum employment# now

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extended across ,D !and soon to be $D countries. 9ut more than

this# the pass is part of a larger set of political rationalities

in which the concept of person is ultimately underpinned by the

category of laborer. 2t creates a cognitive shorthand e=uivalent

to the business slogan 4you are the office#5 now constituted

across employment categories as well as across @uropean nations

!cf. /itchell# /arston and Hatz# $%%&. ot only is work thus

e=uated with personhood# but through its links to lifelong

learning# workrelated skills must constantly evolve in a

>rational3 manner in order to ensure the development of the

optimal enterprising individual. Further# the new transparency

associated with @uropass ensures that this evolution can be

monitored and regulated through various instruments of cross

border control. (he following =uote is from the +ommission web

page announcing the new @uropass proposal:

(he @uropean +ommission has just adopted a proposal for adecision of the @uropean )arliament and of the +ouncil on asingle framework for the transparency of =ualifications andcompetences !@uropass. +onceived with an eye to lifelonglearning# the proposal integrates various transparencypromoting instruments into a coherent framework# identifiedby the single label 4@uropass5# which will be accessible onthe 2nternet and to which other instruments may also beadded in the future. +oordination# rationalisation andcomputerisation are the key concepts of the proposal...xxix

)rior conceptions of lifelong learning as primarily

concerned with personal development and the ongoing constitution

of ethical personhood and critical thinking have metamorphized

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into a measurable series of =ualifications attained with respect

to lifelong employability. (ransparency in this regard refers to

the ability of the neoliberal state to survey and monitor these

selfimproving moments. -reater or lesser status# i.e. faster or

slower levels of speed# mobility and employability can then be

indicated on the @uropass. As the worker3s >history3 of

transnational mobility is manifested on the !soon to be

electronic pass# his or her relative ac=uiescence and success in

the project of perpetual mobilization and selfimprovement will

remain as a permanent mark.

2n the A9+3s of the previous three examples 23ve indicated

some of the multiple sites and spaces of neoliberal ideology and

policy in the educational pronouncements and programs of the

@uropean +ommission. @xamining these types of sites is critical

in conceptualizing the various technologies of power through

which new political rationalities are formed and legitimized !see

e.g. Foucault# ,66,' 0emke# $%%,. Bowever# this type of

analysis does not lend much insight into the particular responses

to these techni=ues of power and to the general recoding of

social life and personhood under conditions of neoliberal

governmentality. 2n the next section 2 give one small example of

the ways in which the neoliberal project in @uropean education

fails in producing neoliberal @uropean subjectsprimarily as a

result of geography# history and the generally sticky

intransigence of existing structures and practices.

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associated with deviation from an inflexible and highly

centralized French educational system. ;ne principal said in a

Ganuary# $%%& interview in /arseille:

(hese programs P0eonardo and +omeniusQ are utilized verylittle# unfortunately. (he reasons are very verycomplicated. (hey are not adapted to the rigidities of oursystem... (he framework of +omenius is narrow and demands alot of involvement and a long time frame and we havedifficulties constructing programs over several years.Also the re=uirements and exams here are such that itbecomes very difficult to manage.xxx

A second principal noted however# that despite the lack of

participation in@sponsored exchanges a number of students had

traveled on school trips# especially to African countries. Be

showed me one informational pamphlet describing an exchange

program with 0omO in (ogo that was funded under the auspices of

the regional center for vocational and technical training for the

/aritime region in France !+@(F). (hese types of shorter

trips were planned by the school and nationally funded.

Fre=uently the sites of these exchanges were based on old

colonial ties rather than the newer economic links with @uropean

partners.

According to a principal at a lycOe professionnel

!vocational high school# the establishment of exchanges such as

this often relied on personal connections and on the voluntary

time and labor of the high school3s teachers and administrators.

9ecause his zone was designated a R@) !one d$%ducation

prioritaire or priority zone and an atrisk school !a special

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designation given for schools in zones of 4experimental

violence5# he was given more staff# supplemental national funds

and greater autonomy in spending the funds and was thus able to

reward dedicated teachers with extra salary. (hese state funds

were directed towards nationalgoals of minority integration and

the alleviation of poverty in atrisk schools and areas of the

country. (he forms of mobility and skills development that were

made possible by these funds were almost always constituted and

extended through previous networks and alliances and focused on

cultural and historical ties as well as economic connections.

1hen 2 asked students if they had traveled much in @urope

or had any personal sense of identity as 4@uropean5 or as

@uropean citizens the overwhelming response was one of

uninterested ambivalence# the e=uivalent of a verbal shrug. "ome

had traveled in @urope# but the majority of these travels were in

southern @urope around the /editerranean region# mainly in

southern "pain and 2taly. As mentioned earlier# none had

participated in a high school @ education or training program.

2n response to similar =uestions about French identity and

citizenship there was more of a slightly =uizzical affirmative#

but without much warmth. Bowever# when 2 asked more generally

about identity and citizenship# framing it as a =uestion of

allegiance# pride# security and feelings of connection# students

responded with fierce pride that they were first and foremost

citizens of /arseille' they were 4/arseillais.5 2n a group

interview at a lycOe in central /arseille# for example# one

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student responded to a =uestion about French identity with the

following remark: 4Kes 2 am French# but above all !surtout of

/arseille.5 1hen 2 asked if /arseille was >really3 French# all

the students laughed and said boisterously and with some

satisfaction# 4&on'5

For these students a sense of personhood and social

citizenship and belonging was un=uestionably associated with the

city of /arseille rather than with either France or @urope and

was based on cultural allegiances and historical ties rather than

with economic motivations or ambitions. (hey felt secure in

/arseille# a city full of immigrants like themselves# but were

afraid of experiencing discrimination and hatred in other regions

of France and in other countries of @urope. 2f they traveled at

all it was usually in southern 2taly or "pain or to the countries

of their parents3 origin# located primarily in orth Africa or

(urkey. (hey had little or no plans to travel for work or

pleasure in the rest of @urope.

For high school students in innercity /arseille thus the

neoliberal @+ educational policy reforms had little or no effect

visEvis the recent instigations towards permanent mobilization

as laborers and the importance of crossborder @uropean mobility

or sense of allegiance. 2n one sense then they are clearly being

left out of the increasingly fastpaced @uropean knowledge

economy and corresponding entitlements to @uropean >citizenship.3

9ut in another sense they have formed strong emotional and

cultural ties to /arseille and feel secure as social citizens at

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a different scale. Further# they have established or maintained

global linkages in others networksthose associated primarily

with the former French colonies.

Conclusion

eoliberal and social democratic policy regimes are both

operative in the @ and are currently contested in many sectors.

2n these struggles it is important to watch for shifting

practices within the institutional apparatuses of civil society#

especially in arenas like education. 2 believe that we are

currently in a transitional moment from a more social democratic

emphasis to a stronger regime of neoliberal governmentality in

the @ and that this is reflected in the contemporary education

and training policy and practices of the @uropean +ommission.

For example# there is a clear movement towards shaping

@urope as the premier 4knowledge economy5 in the world. (he

techni=ues of the self that are brought to bear in this process

include lifelong learning# mobility and adaptability' in a

mutually constitutive fashion these are juxtaposed with state

discourses of homogenization# convergence and transparency. 2n

the @ programs and discourses of the past several years one can

see the production of a fastpaced# mobile and interchangeable

laborer and the simultaneous exclusion of those considered slow#

particularist and?or otherwise >different#3 who cannot or will

not keep up with the recent changes. @arlier concerns of social

liberalism# including the multicultural emphasis on achieving

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diversity as beneficial for civic life and for the development of

ethical personhood have been replaced with a market logic which

underpins all educational policies and ideals.

(he @+3s stress on the necessity for constant mobilization

and selfempowerment through lifelong learning leads to the

growing exclusion of the poorer members in society# especially

immigrant minorities. ather than encouraging the types of social

and educational integration that are practical and attainable for

these groups there is an increasingly cynical narrative which

e=uates greater @uropean movement with greater @uropean social

belonging. (his kind of 4third way5 neoliberalism employs soft

cultural rhetoric alongside hard economic policies# whereby

4inclusion is understood as another means of enhancing

international competitiveness5 !0arner and +raig# $%%D. (hird

way rhetoric such as the 4;pen /ethod of +oordination#5

4partnering#5 or 4social inclusion#5 obfuscates the ultimate

neoliberal goal of extending >common sense3 market rationality

throughout the @. Further it is paralleled by the decline of

both @ and /ember "tate interest in or financial support for the

philosophical ideals of statesponsored multicultural

integration.

(he movement away from a stateled valuation of difference

as >positive3 for @urope is already having direct conse=uences

for immigrants of color. 2t has become the individual3s

responsibility to integrate effectively and if he or she does

not# it is projected as a =uestion of individual choice rather

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than the failure of liberalism3s universalist and egalitarian

claims.xxxi (hese transformations are broadly linked with macro

economic shifts relating to the promotion of flexible

accumulation as a new regime of capital accumulation. (he

economic changes moreover# occur alongside the discourse of

competition and individual entrepreneurialism connected with the

rise of neoliberalism as a political philosophy of governance.

2t remains important to acknowledge however# that

neoliberalism is a broad set of often contradictory programs#

techni=ues and practices and never completely secured. (he

extension of neoliberal reform policies in @ education and

training has un=uestionably had an exclusionary effect on high

school students in /arseille# who as a result of history#

geography and economic circumstances are unable to access

@uropean citizenship through the new initiatives and programs.

9ut neoliberalism as a project of disciplining and the abstract

organization of subjects at a distance remains partial and

fragmentary. For example when viewed with an eye towards the

constitution of neoliberal subjects it is evident that the

current policies have been unsuccessful in producing and

regulating the young >/arseille3 citizens.

(he evasion of various technologies of control manifests

the multiple systemic disjunctures and possibilities for a wider

politics of counterhegemony. 2t is always important to recognize

the many ways that the seemingly seamless assemblages of

neoliberal state power fails to actually connect. Bowever it is

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also politically responsible to note the often unconscious and

fragile nature of these disconnections. 2n the case of the young

students from /arseille# these practices are still very much

4weapons of the weak.5 At this time they do not form the basis of

a viable political formation and whether and to what extent they

may do so in the future remains an open =uestion.

36


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)eferences

Addison G# $%%$# 40abor policy in the @: the new emphasis on

education and training under the (reaty of Amsterdam5 (ournal

of La)or *esearch$*!$ *%**,C

Agnew G# $%%,# 4Bow many @uropesJ European +r)an and *egional

StudiesC $6*C

Al"ayyad # +astells / $%%$# @ds. uslim Europe or Euro-.slam:

Politics, "ulture, and "itienship in the Age of

/lo)aliation!ew Kork: 0exington 9ooks

Asad (# $%%* 0ormations of the Secular: "hristianity, .slam,

odernity !"tanford: "tanford niversity )ress

9ack 0# Heith /# Hhan A# "hukra H# "olomos G# $%%$# 4ew

labour3s white heart: politics# multiculturalism and the

return of assimilation5 Political 1uarterly8$ &&D&D&

9agnall # $%%%# 40ifelong learning and the limitations of

economic determinism5 .nternational (ournal of Lifelong

Education,6!,

9loch /# Bolmlund H# /o=vist 2# )opkewitz ( $%%*# @ds. /overning

"hildren, 0amilies and Education: *estructuring the 2elfare

State!ew Kork: )algrave /ac/illan

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9onefeld 1# $%%$# 4@uropean integration# the market# the

political and class5 "apital and "lass88 ,,8,&$

9renner # ,666# 4-lobalisation as reterritorialisation: the re

scaling of urban governance in the @uropean nion5 +r)an

Studies*

9rubaker # $%%*# 4(he return of assimilationJ +hanging

perspectives on immigration and its se=uels in France#

-ermany# and the nited "tates#5 in Toward Assimilation and

"itienship: .mmigrants in Li)eral &ation-States@ds. Goppke

+# /orawska @ !9asingstoke: )algrave /acmillan# *6DC

+omaroff G# +omaroff G $%%,# @ds. illennial "apitalism and the

"ulture of &eoli)eralism!7urham: 7uke niversity )ress

+ruikshank 9# ,666 The 2ill to Empower: Democratic "itiens and

3ther Su)4ects!2thaca: +ornell niversity )ress

7ean /# Bindess 9# ,66C /overning Australia: Studies in

"ontemporary *ationalities of /overnment !+ambridge:

+ambridge niversity )ress

7onzelot G# ,668 P,686Q The Policing of 0amilies trans. obert

Burley !ew Kork: )antheon 9ooks

38


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7unford /# ,66 41inners and losers: the new map of economic

ine=uality in the @uropean nion5 European +r)an and *egional

Studies , 6D,,&

@tzinger B# $%%*# 4(he rise and fall of multiculturalism: (he

case of the etherlands5 in Toward Assimilation and

"itienship: .mmigrants in Li)eral &ation-States @ds. Goppke

+# /orawska @ !9asingstoke: )algrave /acmillan pp. D6Cnew @urope3: geo

economic power and the new @uropean architecture of

integration5 Political /eography$,

/d.: owman and 0ittlefield )ublishers

"torey A# $%% 4(he @uropean )roject: 7ismantling social

democracy# globalising neoliberalism5The 0oundation for the

Economics of Sta)ility!F@A"(A. (his article can be found at

the following web site:

http:??www.feasta.org?documents?democracy?storey.htm.

!accessed Gune# % $%%&. +ited with permission of the

author.

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"tanding -# ,668# 4(he new insecurities5 in The 1uestion of

Europe@ds. -owan )# Anderson ) !0ondon: Ierso pp $%*$,6

"wyngedouw @# ,668# 4@xcluding the other: the production of

scale and scaled politics5 in /eographies of Economies@ds.

0ee # 1ills G !0ondon: Arnold pp ,


47/53

1alters 1# Baahr G B# $%%D /overning Europe: Discourse,

/overnmentality and European .ntegration!0ondon: outledge.

47


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i(he research for this article was made possible by the support of a grant

for esearch and 1riting from the Gohn 7. and +atherine (. /acArthur

Foundation. /any thanks also go to 1alter )arker and three anonymous

reviewers who offered helpful comments on an earlier draft of the paper.

ii2n the first category neoliberalism is conceptualized as a policy reform

program 4initiated and rationalized through a relatively coherent

theoretical and ideological framework5 !0arner# $%%%: 8. 2n the second#

neoliberalism is seen as part of a struggle for dominance over the ideas

!and minds of the social formation. 2n the third category# neoliberalism

is perceived as discourse# a 4system of meaning that constitutes

institutions# practices and identities in contradictory and selfidentified

ways5 !0arner# $%%%: ,$. 2n this latter formulation neoliberalism leads

to the emergence of institutions and practices !technologies of governance

that facilitate and encourage individual and group conformity to market

norms.

iii1hen discussing policy proposals and reforms 2 will refer to the @uropean

+ommission rather than the @uropean nion.

iv(his 4@uropean5 dimension was promoted initially through university and

secondary school exchange programs. (he first educational exchange

programs under @+ auspices were launched in ,6CD with @rasmus for

university students and +ommett for vocational training. +ommett operated

until ,66& and was then replaced by the 0eonardo da Iinci vocational

program. @rasmus continues to operate.

v@dith +resson# Foreword: 40earning for active citizenship#5 @uropean

+ommission# @uropa: @ducation and (raining ,66C 7-TT22 publication of the

@. (his document can be found at:


49/53


50/53

now as part of a long laundry list of policy reform >positives3 of which

the most privileged and numerous are those relating to skills# adaptability

and mobility. For a longer discussion of the terminology related to

4ethical liberalism5 and its associated meanings see /itchell# $%%*: *6*'

/anzer# ,66&.

ix@mpirical data on innercity high schools !lyc%es= in /arseille was

derived from interviews with five principals and with approximately $%%

students !interviewed in classsize groups ranging from 8 to $%.

Fieldwork was conducted in /arseille in $%%*$%%&.

x7ean and Bindess !,66C defined technologies of citizenship as those

improving self esteem and empowering people to further their own ends# but

always within the context of the market economy.

xi(he typologies for differing accumulation regimes varies between

disciplinary literatures and can often become confusing. Bere 2 refer to

the first as a social democratic political formation in concert with a

Heynesian welfare state economic project. (his is fre=uently labelled a

4Fordist5 regime. (he second is a neoliberal political formation in concert

with a flexible or laissezfaire economic project# labelled variously as

4postfordism#5 4disorganized capitalism#5 4flexible accumulation#5 and

4network capitalism.5 A neomercantilist regime was also promoted early on

in the @ as a 4fortress @urope5 protectionist strategy favoring @uropean

business interests. (his regime was to be aided and entrenched via the

single market and the @/ !@uropean /onetary nion. /any saw a united

@urope as an 4opportunity to protect the >@uropean model of society#35

including its social democratic traditions from the 4potentially

destructive forces of globalisation and neoliberalism5 !van Apeldoorn#

$%%,: 8


51/53

,6C%s by a strong lobby of international businesses including the @(

!@uropean oundtable of 2ndustrialists# who favored a neoliberal version

of the single market !"ee "torey# $%%&.

xii Author3s interview with a member of the @ducation and +ulture directorate

of the @uropean +ommission# 9russels# /arch# $%%&.

xiii(he recent @ parliamentary elections of Gune ,*# $%%& are a good example

of declining voter turnout across the spectrum of old and new /ember

"tates. "ee# e.g. (homas Fuller and Hatrin 9ennhold# 4After voters revolt#

doubt on @ charter#5 .nternational 8erald Tri)une# Gune ,D# $%% p. ,.

xivFor example the former @ducation +ommissioner @dith +resson wrote

enthusiastically about democratic participation and the constitution of a

pluralist @urope. As a national politician she was a member of the

socialist party and a political appointee of FranVois /itterand. "he was

replaced in ,666 by the current commissioner# Iiviane eding# a

conservative +hristian 7emocrat from 0uxembourg. As one of her first major

policy actions eding pushed an economistic conception of lifelong learning

to the forefront of the @+ educational agenda. (he biographies of these two

+ommissioners manifest some of the continuing internal tensions between the

social democratic and neoliberal projects within the @ administration.

xv@uropean +ommission# @uropa @ducation and (raining# 4(owards a @urope of

knowledge5# published ,668. (his document can be found at:

http:??europa.eu.int?comm?education?doc?other?orient?orieUen.html!accessed

Ganuary $6# $%%&.

xvi"ee for example# Iiviane eding# 4A @uropean area of lifelong learning:

empowering @uropeans in the knowledgebased economy and society.5 "peech

given ovember $,# $%%,. 7: 2)?%,?,


52/53

pUaction.gettxtWgtXdocW2)?%,?,


53/53

exchanges in vocational training. +ombined @ annual funding for the two

programs is approximately @uro &%% million.

xxvhttp:??europa.eu.int?comm?education?programmes?mundus?indexUen.html

!accessed Guly 8# $%%&.

xxvi"ee: http:??europa.eu.int?comm?education?policies?introductionUen.html

!accessed Guly 8# $%%&.

xxvii4@uropass: a new instrument for better recognition of =ualifications and

skills in the enlarged @urope.5 9russels# Ganuary 8#$%%&. (his document can

be found at: http:??europa.eu.int?rapid?start?cgi?guestfr.kshJ

pUaction.gettxtWgtXdocW2)?%&?,&Y%YA)27XlgW@XdisplayW!accessed Ganuary

$8# $%%&.

xxviii2bid.

xxix2bid.

xxx(ranslated from the French by the author.

xxxi2 would argue that the recent legislation in France prohibiting the

/uslim headscarf and other >ostensible3 religious symbols in schools is an

example of a type of educational reform that ultimately places the

responsibility for assimilation on the individual immigrant or minority

student. 2f a /uslim girl 4chooses5 to wear a scarf regardless of the law

she can !must be excluded from the educational system because of her

unwillingness to assimilate to French secular norms. For further

discussion see -okariksel and /itchell# forthcoming.
http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/programmes/mundus/index_en.htmlhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/introduction_en.htmlhttp://europa.eu.int/rapid/start/cgi/guestfr.ksh?p_action.gettxt=gt&doc=IP/04/14%7C0%7CRAPID&lg=EN&display=http://europa.eu.int/rapid/start/cgi/guestfr.ksh?p_action.gettxt=gt&doc=IP/04/14%7C0%7CRAPID&lg=EN&display=http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/programmes/mundus/index_en.htmlhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/introduction_en.htmlhttp://europa.eu.int/rapid/start/cgi/guestfr.ksh?p_action.gettxt=gt&doc=IP/04/14%7C0%7CRAPID&lg=EN&display=http://europa.eu.int/rapid/start/cgi/guestfr.ksh?p_action.gettxt=gt&doc=IP/04/14%7C0%7CRAPID&lg=EN&display=

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Neoliberalism and Governmentality in the EU

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