Neuroendocrine Regulationof Immunity

8 Feb 2002 9:39 AR AR152-06.tex AR152-06.SGM LaTeX2e(2001/05/10)P1: GJC10.1146/annurev.immunol.20.082401.104914

Annu. Rev. Immunol. 2002. 20:125–63DOI: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.20.082401.104914

NEUROENDOCRINE REGULATION OF IMMUNITY∗

Jeanette I. Webster, Leonardo Tonelli,and Esther M. Sternberg§National Institute of Mental Health, Section on Neuroimmune Immunology and Behavior,Bldg 36, Room 1A 23 (MSC 4020), 36 Convent Drive, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-4020;e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

Key Words glucocorticoid, immune response, inflammatory/autoimmune disease,HPA axis, cytokines

■ Abstract A reciprocal regulation exists between the central nervous and im-mune systems through which the CNS signals the immune system via hormonaland neuronal pathways and the immune system signals the CNS through cytokines.The primary hormonal pathway by which the CNS regulates the immune systemis the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, through the hormones of the neuroen-docrine stress response. The sympathetic nervous system regulates the function ofthe immune system primarily via adrenergic neurotransmitters released through neu-ronal routes. Neuroendocrine regulation of immune function is essential for survivalduring stress or infection and to modulate immune responses in inflammatory dis-ease. Glucocorticoids are the main effector end point of this neuroendocrine systemand, through the glucocorticoid receptor, have multiple effects on immune cells andmolecules. This review focuses on the regulation of the immune response via theneuroendocrine system. Particular details are presented on the effects of interrup-tions of this regulatory loop at multiple levels in predisposition and expression ofimmune diseases and on mechanisms of glucocorticoid effects on immune cells andmolecules.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The immune system has for many years been known to be influenced by gluco-corticoids, and glucocorticoids have been used in the treatment of inflammatorydiseases since the 1940s. In fact, Kendall, Reichstein, and Hench received theNobel Prize for this discovery in 1950 (1). Since then extensive research hasshown the pharmacological effects of glucocorticoids on many aspects of immunecell function (2, 3). However, until recently the fact that glucocorticoids play an

∗The US Government has the right to retain a nonexclusive, royalty-free license in and toany copyright covering this paper.§Corresponding author.

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126 WEBSTER ET AL.

essential physiological role in regulation of the immune system in health and dis-ease was not fully appreciated. An understanding of the physiological mechanismsinvolved in glucocorticoid secretion and their regulation of the immune systemunder both normal and disease conditions is fundamental to our understanding ofthe pathogenesis of inflammatory disease and ultimately for the development ofeffective therapies for such diseases.

Recent studies have shown that this physiological regulation of the immunesystem by glucocorticoids is only one part of an extensive regulatory networkbetween the central nervous system (CNS), neuroendocrine system, and immunesystem. This network of connections through nerve pathways, hormonal cascades,and cellular interactions allows the CNS to regulate the immune system locallyat sites of inflammation, regionally in immune organs, and systemically thoughhormonal routes. In turn through similar connections, the immune system alsoregulates the CNS. During inflammation, cytokines produced at the inflammatorysite can signal to the brain and produce the symptoms of sickness behavior andfever (4, 5). Cytokines are also expressed in areas of the brain, e.g., glia, neurons,and macrophages, and play a role in both neuronal cell death (6, 7) and survival(8). Cytokine-mediated neuronal cell death is thought to play an important rolein several neuro-degenerative diseases, such as neuro-AIDS, Alzheimer’s, mul-tiple sclerosis, stroke, and nerve trauma. In addition to this growth-factor rolewhen expressed within the CNS, cytokines produced in the periphery can func-tion as hormones and can stimulate the CNS by several mechanisms. They canpass the blood-brain barrier (BBB) at leaky points, for example at the organumvasculosum lamina terminalis (OVLT) or median eminence. They may be activelytransported across the BBB in small amounts (9). In addition they can rapidlysignal the CNS through the vagus nerve (10, 11). They can influence the brainby activation of second messengers, such as nitric oxide and prostaglandins, afterbinding to receptors on endothelial cells (12, 13). While a full understanding of thisbidirectional communication between the CNS and immune systems is important,this chapter focuses only on the regulation of the immune system by the CNS,mainly though the neuroendocrine system and the adrenergic system. For furtherinformation on the regulation of the CNS by the immune system see the review byMulla & Buckingham (14).

The CNS regulates the immune system through two major mechanisms: (a) thehormonal stress response and the production of glucocorticoids, and (b) the auto-nomic nervous system with the release of noradrenalin. The CNS can also regulatethe immune system locally via the peripheral nerves with release of neuropeptidessuch as substance P and locally produced corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH).This latter mechanism is not the focus of this review; for further information onthese refer to the following articles (15, 16).

The main regulator of the glucocorticoid effect on the immune system is thehypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) (Figure 1). The main componentsof the HPA axis are the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) in the hypothalamus of thebrain, the anterior pituitary gland located at the base of the brain, and the adrenal

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NEUROENDOCRINE REGULATION OF IMMUNITY 127

Figure 1 Diagram of the routes of communication between the brain and immune system,including the HPA axis, sympathetic nervous system, and cytokine feedback to the brain.

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128 WEBSTER ET AL.

glands. CRH is secreted from the PVN of the hypothalamus into the hypophysealportal blood supply and stimulates the expression of adrenocorticotropin hormone(ACTH) in the anterior pituitary gland. ACTH then circulates in the bloodstream tothe adrenal glands where it induces the expression and release of glucocorticoids.

The HPA axis is subject to regulation both from within the central nervous sys-tem and from the periphery. Glucocorticoids, themselves, feed back to negativelyregulate the HPA axis, exerting their negative feedback at the hypothalamic andpituitary level. The HPA axis can also be regulated by other factors such as the sym-pathetic nervous system, cytokines, and other neuropeptides, such as arginine va-sopressin (AVP) (17). CRH is also negatively regulated by ACTH and itself, as wellas by other neuropeptides and neurotransmitters in the brain, e.g.,γ -aminobutyricacid-benzodiazopines (GABA-BDZ) and opioid peptide systems. CRH is posi-tively regulated by serotonergic, cholinergic, and histaminergic systems (18).

The connections between the neuroendocrine system and immune system pro-vide a finely tuned regulatory system required for health. Disturbances at anylevel of the HPA axis or glucocorticoid action lead to an imbalance of this systemand enhanced susceptibility to infection and inflammatory or autoimmune disease.Overstimulation of the HPA axis with excessive amounts of circulating glucocorti-coids and overall suppression of immune responses lead to enhanced susceptibilityto infection, whereas understimulation results in lower circulating levels of glu-cocorticoids and susceptibility to inflammation. Dysregulation may also occur atthe molecular level and in this instance would result in glucocorticoid resistanceat a molecular level leading to enhanced susceptibility to inflammation. A detailedunderstanding, therefore, by which the CNS and neuroendocrine systems regu-late the immune system at the systemic, anatomical, cellular, and molecular levelswill inform not only the pathogenesis and treatment of inflammatory/autoimmuneconditions and infectious disease but also conditions predisposing to susceptibilityand resistance to these illnesses.

EVIDENCE FOR ROLE OF ENDOGENOUSGLUCOCORTICOIDS IN REGULATIONOF IMMUNE FUNCTION

Changes in the levels of circulating glucocorticoids, such as during exercise andwith circadian rhythms, are associated with changes in cytokine levels and pro-duction by leukocytes (19–23). Such studies provide circumstantial evidence thatphysiological fluctuations in glucocorticoid levels, in the range of those seen withcircadian variations or stress, are associated with altered immune function. How-ever, animal models have provided the strongest proof that endogenous glucocor-ticoids are essential physiological regulators of the immune response and inflam-matory/autoimmune disease.

Inbred rat strains, in which altered neuroendocrine responsiveness is associ-ated with differential susceptibility and resistance to autoimmune/inflammatory

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disease, provide a naturalistic, genetically uniform system that can be systemi-cally manipulated to test the role of neuroendocrine regulation of various aspectsof immunity. Lewis (LEW/N) rats are an inbred strain of rats that are highly sus-ceptible to development of a wide range of autoimmune/inflammatory diseasesin response to a variety of antigenic or proinflammatory stimuli. Largely histo-compatible Fischer (F344/N) rats are relatively resistant to these same illnessesafter exposure to the same dose of antigens. These two strains also show relateddifferences in HPA axis responsiveness, with inflammatory-susceptible LEW/Nexhibiting a blunted response, compared to inflammatory-resistant F344/N ratswith an excessive HPA response compared to outbred rats (24–28). Differences inthe expression of hypothalamic CRH (26), pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) (28),corticosterone-binding globulin (CBG) (27), and glucocorticoid receptor (GR)expression and activation (27, 29, 30) have been shown in these two rat strains.A variety of surgical or pharmacological HPA axis interventions in these strainsof rats, as well as in mouse strains, alter the course and severity of inducibleautoimmune/inflammatory disease. Thus, in F344/N rats, treatment with the glu-cocorticoid antagonist RU486 is associated with high mortality and developmentof arthritis in response to injection of streptococcal cell walls (25). Approximately50% of rats die after infection withSalmonella typhimurium, but adrenalectomizedrats suffer 100% lethality after infection with this bacteria (31). Similarly, in mice,adrenalectomy before infection with CMV virus results in lethality but glucocorti-coid replacement prevents virus-induced lethality (32). The high rates of mortalitywithin 12–24 h of exposure to this wide range of antigenic, proinflammatory, orinfectious stimuli across species and strains in which the HPA axis has been inter-rupted pharmacologically or surgically, indicates the importance of an intact HPAaxis to protect against septic shock.

It is also possible in animal models to attenuate inflammatory disease by re-constituting the HPA axis, pharmacologically with glucocorticoids, or surgicallyby intracerebral fetal hypothalamic tissue transplantation. In LEW/N rats eithertreated with low-dose dexamethasone (25) or transplanted intracerebroventricu-larly with F344/N hypothalamic tissue (33), arthritis and carageenan inflammationare significantly attenuated. Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) is in-ducible in LEW/N rats by immunization with myelin basic protein. After initialimmunization these animals experience transient paralysis but then recover to someextent. During the development of the disease and recovery, the production of en-dogenous corticosterone increases, which is essential for survival of the animal. Ifthis endogenous production is interrupted by adrenalectomy, the development ofEAE is fatal. Whereas a subcutaneous steroid implant equivalent to the basal cor-ticosterone levels does not reduce mortality, a dose equivalent to the EAE-inducedcorticosterone levels results in survival rates similar to that of normal animals, butEAE still develops. If a subcutaneous implant of even higher corticosterone levelsis used, however, the animal will undergo complete remission (34).

Such animal studies showing that interruption of the HPA axis predisposesto worse inflammation, while reconstitution attenuates autoimmune/inflammatory

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disease, lend support to the role of glucocorticoid imbalance in exacerbation ofhuman autoimmune, inflammatory, allergic, or infectious diseases. Thus, a bluntedHPA axis response to pituitary adrenal axis stimulation with CRH or insulin, orby psychological stress, has been shown in a variety of autoimmune diseases in-cluding rheumatoid arthritis, SLE, Sjogren’s syndrome, fibromyalgia, and chronicfatigue syndrome, as well as in allergic asthma and atopic dermatitis. Conversely,in humans, excess chronic stimulation of the hormonal stress response with con-comitant chronically elevated glucocorticoids, as occurs in chronic stress situationsis associated with an enhanced susceptibility to viral infection, prolonged woundhealing, or decreased antibody production after vaccination (35–38). Such stressis experienced by caregivers of Alzheimer’s patients, students taking exams, cou-ples during marital conflict, and Army Rangers undergoing extreme exercise andstress. One important mechanism by which activation of the HPA axis regulatesthese immune responses and severity of expression of resultant disease is throughthe effects of glucocorticoids at the molecular level though the glucocorticoid re-ceptor (GR). The next sections describes this important receptor system and itsregulation of target gene expression.

PHARMACOLOGICAL VERSUS PHYSIOLOGICALEFFECTS OF GLUCOCORTICOID

When considering the physiological relevance of the effects of glucocorticoidson immunity, it is important to recognize that glucocorticoids in pharmacologi-cal doses or forms exert different effects than they do under physiological condi-tions. Physiological concentrations of glucocorticoids in the range of 350 nmol/l to950 nmol/l, such as occur during physical or psychological stress, result in mod-ulation of transcription of genes involved in the inflammatory response, whereaspharmacological doses (higher concentration than physiological) result in a totalsuppression of the inflammatory response. There are also differences in potency ofimmune suppression by synthetic glucocorticoids, such as dexamethasone, versusthe effects on immune response to natural glucocorticoids, such as hydrocorti-sone. For example, the synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone exerts a greatersuppression of IL-12 than does the natural glucocorticoid hydrocortisone, whichis consistent with the greater affinity of dexamethasone than hydrocortisone forGR (39).

MODULATION OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEMBY GLUCOCORTICOIDS

There are two receptors for glucocorticoids, the glucocorticoid receptor and themineralocorticoid receptor (MR). Corticosterone has a lower affinity for MRthan for GR. Thus, at low levels, glucocorticoids bind preferentially to MR, and

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only at high levels, i.e., during stress, is GR occupied (39, 41). MR and GR, whichare colocalized in some areas of the brain and in lymphocytes, can bind as het-erodimers to DNA (42, 43), which could have implications for gene transcriptionor transrepression. In the brain, MR has been implicated in a proactive mode, inthe prevention of disturbance of homeostasis, whereas GR has been suggested towork in a reactive mode in the recovery from a disturbance (39, 44). The primaryreceptor for glucocorticoids in immune cells is GR. The availability of glucocorti-coids is also dependent on the expression of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase,an enzyme responsible for the conversion of steroids from the active form, e.g.,cortisol and corticosterone, into an 11-keto inactive form, e.g., cortisone and 11-dehydrocortisone. Two forms of this enzyme exist. The type I enzyme is expressedin liver, brain, adipose tissue, lung, and other glucocorticoid-target tissues and cat-alyzes the regeneration of active glucocorticoids from the inactive 11-keto form.Conversely, the type II enzyme catalyzes the inactivation of glucocorticoids to theinert 11-keto form (45).

Glucocorticoid Receptor and Mechanism of Action

The end point tissue effect of glucocorticoids is mediated by GR (NR3C1) (46).This is a member of the steroid and thyroid hormone receptor superfamily alongwith the progesterone, estrogen, mineralocorticoid, and thyroid receptors, and GRessentially is a ligand-dependent transcription factor. These receptors all have asimilar structure that can be divided into three distinct regions (Figure 2). TheN-terminal domain is involved in transactivation; the middle section is termedthe DNA-binding domain (DBD) and is involved in DNA binding mediated viatwo zinc fingers; and the C-terminal domain or ligand-binding domain (LDB) isresponsible for ligand binding as well as being also involved in transactivation,dimerization, and hsp90 binding (2, 47).

Glucocorticoids circulate in the plasma associated with CBG or albumin. It isgenerally thought that glucocorticoids enter the cell by passive diffusion,

Figure 2 Structure of the glucocorticoid receptor.

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although there is evidence for an active transport out of the cell. GR is located inthe cytoplasm in the unactivated state in a multiprotein complex containing hsp90and immunophilins. These are thought to hold the GR in a conformation that isavailable to the ligand. Upon ligand binding, GR dissociates from this complexand translocates to the nucleus where it binds as a homodimer to target elementsor glucocorticoid response elements (GREs) via its zinc fingers of the DBD. Thebound GR homodimer can then modulate gene expression by modulating the basaltranscription machinery either directly or via cofactors (Figure 3). GR has beeninvolved in both the upregulation and downregulation of genes. Downregulation ofgene expression can occur via so-called negative glucocorticoid response elements(nGRE), e.g., the POMC gene, but mostly gene repression by GR occurs via its in-teraction with other transcription factors such as AP-1 and NFκB (2, 48). It is note-worthy that the reverse can also occur, i.e., AP-1 and NFκB are able to repress GRfunction.

When GR was first cloned, two clones for GR were found that differed in theC terminus (49). This second receptor, GRβ, is a splice variant of GR that isidentical to GR but is lacking the last 50 amino acids. Instead it has a unique 15–amino acid C terminus. This receptor is located in the nucleus regardless of ligand

Figure 3 Schematic diagram of the mechanisms of action ofthe glucocorticoid receptor.

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status, but it can also be found in the cytoplasm complexed to hsp90. It does not bindligand and does not activate gene transcription but may act as a dominant negativereceptor in vitro by forming transcriptionally inactive heterodimers with GRα

(50–52). This mechanism of a dominant negative receptor is still under dispute asother studies have shown no effect of GRβ on GRα-mediated transactivation ortransrepression (53–55).

AP-1

GR can modulate gene expression via interaction with other factors, such as NFκBand AP-1. AP-1 consists of a heterodimer of the oncoproteins c-Fos and c-Jun thatbind to an AP-1 consensus binding site in DNA to activate gene transcriptionin response to ligands such as phorbol esters. Although the high-affinity Fos/Junheterodimers predominate, the lower-affinity Jun/Jun homodimers are also capableof binding to the AP-1 site. Glucocorticoids can reduce the DNA-binding abilityof the Fos and Jun complexes by protein-protein interactions and thereby repressAP-1-mediated gene activation (56, 57) (Figure 4). This can also occur through acomposite GRE. This sequence contains a binding site for the receptor and alsofor a nonreceptor factor. For example, GR was shown to repress AP-1 activity atthe composite GRE in the promoter of the plfG gene; this repression was mediatedby the N-terminal domain of GR and could not be mediated by MR (58, 59).

One example of a gene where a composite HRE is involved in the repressionof the gene by glucocorticoids is the hypothalamic hormone CRH. The promoterof this gene contains an AP-1 site closely located to a GRE, and repression of theAP-1-activated gene transcription by glucocorticoids has been shown (60). Thiscould be the mechanism by which glucocorticoids exert their negative feedbackon the hypothalamus to downregulate the HPA axis.

NFκB

Glucocorticoids play a role in immunosuppression through their repression ofNFκB, which is a major factor involved in the regulation of cytokines and other im-mune responses. [For comprehensive reviews on NFκB, see Baldwin (61), Ghoshet al. (62), and McKay & Cidlowski (48)]. NFκB was originally described as adimer of two proteins p65 (RelA) and p50 (NF-κB1), but a whole family of theseproteins has now been described. These proteins all contain a highly conserved300–amino acid domain termed the Rel homology domain (RHD), which is impor-tant for DNA binding and nuclear translocation and dimerization. The proteins p65(Rel A), C Rel, and Rel B contain a C-terminal transactivation domain, whereasp50 (NF-κB1) and p52 (NF-κB2) are present as precursors (p105 and p100, respec-tively), which contain a C-terminal IκB-like region that is removed by proteolysis.The ability of these proteins to form various dimer partners and the specificityof these dimers for different DNA sequences may be fundamental to the cell-specific responses mediated by NFκB. These proteins are present in the cytoplasmas complexes together with the inhibitory protein IκB. This is also now knownto be part of a family of proteins that include IκBα, IκBβ, IκBγ , IκB-R, and the

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Figure 4 Schematic diagram of the mechanism(s) by which the glucocorticoid receptorinhibits the action of NFκB and AP-1.

C-termini of p105/p50 and p100/p52. These all contain multiple ankyrin repeats,which are involved in protein-protein interactions between the IκB and NFκB, anda C-terminal PEST sequence, which is a signal for protein degradation (48).

NFκB is normally located in the cytoplasm associated with the inhibitor IκBprotein. Upon activation, IκB is phosphorylated, ubiquinated, and then degraded.The free NFκB can then translocate to the nucleus where it activates gene expres-sion. NFκB can be stimulated by a variety of factors, including proinflammatorycytokines such as TNF-α and IL-1, physical or oxidative stress, and bacterial orviral proteins (48, 63) (Figure 4).

There have been two schools of thought regarding GR-mediated repression ofNFκB, and data exist to support both. One is that glucocorticoids via GR inducethe expression of the inhibitory protein IκB that then sequesters NFκB in thecytoplasm and prevents it from translocating to the nucleus and inducing gene

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activation (63, 64). This mechanism of repression of NFκB by GR may be limitedto certain cell types, particularly monocytes and lymphocytes. The other modelsuggests that there is a physical interaction or cross-talk between NFκB and GRthat prevents gene expression (63, 65–71). In some cases GR-induced transcriptionis not required, as the anti-glucocorticoid RU486 is also capable of inhibitingNFκB to some extent (67, 72). The region of the GR required for GR repression ofNFκB has been located to the zinc finger region of the DNA-binding region of GR(63, 67). This region has been further defined as two amino acids in the C-terminalzinc finger that are absolutely critical for GR-mediated repression of NFκB; theseresidues are not involved in GR-mediated repression of AP-1 (73). It is plausiblethat these two models are not mutually exclusive or that they are dependent oncell type. One experiment in the A549 pulmonary epithelial cell line has shownthat both these models exist in the same system. In this case, dexamethasone doesinduce IκB expression, but when protein synthesis and therefore IκB productionis blocked, GR is still able to repress NFκB-mediated gene activation although notto the same extent as when protein synthesis is allowed (74).

It has also been suggested that glucocorticoid repression of NFκB activitycould be caused by competition between GR and NFκB for limited cofactors suchas CREB-binding protein (CBP) and steroid receptor coactivator 1 (SRC-1), asit has been shown in Cos cells that this repression can be alleviated by excesscofactor (75). McKay & Cidlowski, however, showed that CBP did not mediateGR repression of NFκB by a competitive model, but rather that CBP functioned asan integrator to enhance the physical interaction between GR and NFκB (76). Thecatalytic subunit of protein kinase A (PKAc) has also been suggested to promotethe cross-talk between GR and NFκB (77).

REGULATION OF IMMUNE-RELATED GENES

Glucocorticoids regulate a wide variety of immune cell functions and expressionof immune molecules through the molecular mechanisms described above. Thus,glucocorticoids modulate cytokine expression, adhesion molecule expression andimmune cell trafficking, immune cell maturation and differentiation, expressionof chemoattractants and cell migration, and production of inflammatory mediatorsand other inflammatory molecules [for reviews see Barnes (78) and Adcock (2)].

Cytokine Expression

Glucocorticoids modulate the transcription of many cytokines. They suppress theproinflammatory cytokines IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-11, IL-12, TNF-α, IFN-γ ,and GM-CSF while upregulating the anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-4 andIL-10.

PROINFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES Glucocorticoids mediate the anti-inflammatoryresponse by downregulating the expression of proinflammatory cytokines such

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as IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α. Glucocorticoids have been shown to downregulate thetranscription of IL-1β, to destabilize IL-1β mRNA (79–81), and to downregulateIL-1α (82). They also upregulate the expression of the decoy IL-1 receptor, IL-1RII (83).

Glucocorticoids regulate IL-6 production not only directly, but also indirectly,through their effects on the cytokines that regulate IL-6. IL-1 or TNF induction ofIL-6 is mediated via NFκB and by another nuclear factor, NF-IL6, in transfectionstudies of these nuclear factors and the IL-6 promoter in HeLa and F9 cells. ThisIL-1-induced induction of IL-6 can be inhibited by glucocorticoid-activated GRvia protein-protein interactions at the C-terminal transactivation domain of NFκB(65, 69, 84). This repression does not require protein synthesis and does not affectthe DNA-binding capacity of NFκB (69). Glucocorticoids also inhibit expressionof IL-11, a member of the IL-6 cytokine family, by inhibition of gene expressionand by destabilization of mRNA (85).

Evidence for these molecular mechanisms of GC regulation of cytokines hasappeared in vivo in disease states. In rheumatoid arthritis patients, administrationof glucocorticoids leads to a decrease in the release of TNF-α into the bloodstream(86). The LPS-stimulated production of TNF-α in monocytes is reduced by gluco-corticoid treatment. The promoter of TNF-α does not contain a typical GRE site,and so this repression by glucocorticoids may occur via other factors involved inthe regulation of TNF-α which have binding sites in the promoter, such as NFκBand AP-1 (87). However, some evidence suggests that the glucocorticoid-mediatedrepression of TNF-α could occur at the level of translation rather than transcription(88).

The transcription of other proinflammatory cytokines is also affected by gluco-corticoids. IFN-γ expression in spleen cells, and blood monocytes is inhibited byglucocorticoids (89, 90). Dexamethasone inhibits basal IL-8 in airway epithelialcells by destabilizing the mRNA via new protein synthesis (91). The expressionof the Th1 cytokine IL-12 and its receptor is downregulated by glucocorticoids(92–94). Effects of glucocorticoids on IL-12 are fully discussed in the section onTh1-Th2 shift.

IL-2 expression in spleen cells is inhibited by glucocorticoids (89), and dexam-ethasone inhibits the ionomycin- and TPA-induced IL-2 expression in FJ8.1 cells.With the promoter for IL-2, the dexamethasone-induced repression inhibits thebinding of NFκB and reduces the binding of AP-1 to DNA. Glucocorticoids notonly affect the action of cytokines by affecting their expression, but they also caninhibit their signaling mechanisms. Thus IL-2 signaling via the Jak-STAT cascadecan be inhibited by dexamethasone (95).

Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is a proinflam-matory mediator. IL-1β-stimulated GM-CSF in bronchial epithelial cells is inhib-ited by dexamethasone by transcriptional mechanisms (96).

ANTIINFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES The major Th2 cytokine is IL-10. In blood mono-cytes varying effects of glucocorticoids, both synthetic and natural, on IL-10 have

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been reported that are dependent on the dose. Low physiological doses of glucocor-ticoids suppress IL-10 expression, whereas high pharmacological doses enhanceIL-10 expression (39, 97a).

IL-4 is a Th2-associated cytokine that is important for the proliferation ofmast cells and attraction of eosinophils to areas of inflammation during responseto IgE stimuli or allergic reactions. Dexamethasone downregulates IL-4 mRNAin mast cells (98, 99) and in lymphocytes (82). The effect of dexamethasone onIL-4 production in T cells is a matter of some controversy and can be at leastpartially explained by consideration of the doses used experimentally. As IL-4is a Th2-associated cytokine and since glucocorticoids induce a shift from Th1-Th2 immunity (see later section), one might expect dexamethasone to induceIL-4 expression. Indeed, in the lymph nodes and spleen of mice IL-4 is inducedin response to physiological concentrations of glucocorticoids both in vivo and invitro (100, 101). On the other hand, consistent with the efficiency of glucocorticoidsin the treatment of allergic diseases, data also exist showing that stress levels ofdexamethasone downregulate IL-4 expression in T cells (89).

Cell Adhesion Molecules and Immune Cell Trafficking

Glucocorticoids reduce the trafficking of leukocytes to areas of inflammation.This occurs via the downregulation of protein molecules involved in the attractionand adhesion of leukocytes to these areas. Dexamethasone inhibits the expressionof intracellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), endothelial-leukocyte adhesionmolecule 1 (ELAM-1) (102), and vascular adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) (103).Glucocorticoids can inhibit the expression of ICAM-1 through inhibition of theNFκB site in the promoter of the ICAM-1 gene (66, 71, 74). Glucocorticoids in-hibit TNF-α–induced VCAM-1 expression but not ICAM-1 in bronchial epithe-lial cells. NFκB sites have been identified in the promoter of VCAM-1, and ithas been suggested that glucocorticoid repression of this gene may occur throughGR-mediated repression of NFκB (103).

E-selectin is an endothelial cell surface adhesion molecule that is important forthe recruitment of leukocytes from the blood. It is upregulated by IL-1β and TNF-αand its expression can be repressed by glucocorticoids. Repression by glucocor-ticoids does not affect NFκB translocation or binding to DNA, which suggestsinterference in transcriptional activation of NFκB (70). L-selectin is involved inthe attachment of blood leukocytes during inflammation, and its expression is de-creased by glucocorticoid treatment in bone marrow cells and polymorphonuclearcells (104).

Chemoattractants and Cell Migration

Cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant (CINC)/gro is a chemoattractant forneutrophils and is therefore important for the accumulation of neutrophils at sitesof inflammation. It is also proposed to be a member of the family that includesIL-8. mRNA for CINC/gro is induced by IL-1β via NFκB, and this induction can

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138 WEBSTER ET AL.

be inhibited by glucocorticoids, which prevent the translocation of NFκB to thenucleus and therefore prevent DNA binding and gene transcription (105).

IL-5 is a chemoattractant for eosinophils and is important for the accumula-tion of eosinophils in inflammatory diseases such as asthma. IL-5 mRNA can bedownregulated by glucocorticoids in mast cells (99) and T cells (106). IL-5 canbe induced by TCR and IL-2 by different mechanisms, and both of these canbe repressed by glucocorticoids. The mechanism of glucocorticoid repression ofTCR-induced IL-5 possibly occurs through AP-1 and NFκB, but these factors arenot involved in the glucocorticoid repression of IL-2-induced IL-5 (107).

RANTES (regulated upon activation normal T cell expressed and secreted) is achemoattractant involved in the recruitment of eosinophils to areas of inflamma-tion. Dexamethasone inhibits mRNA expression in activated and nonactivated cells(108, 109). The cytokines monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), MCP-2, and MCP-3 are downregulated by dexamethasone (108). Downregulation ofMCP-1 occurs posttranscriptionally by destabilization of the mRNA at the 5′ end,although the exact mechanism is unknown (110).

Eotaxin is an eosinophil chemoattractant involved in the accumulation of eosin-ophils in the airways in response to allergic stimuli. Eotaxin mRNA is stimulatedby cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-1β and this cytokine-induced induction isrepressed by glucocorticoids (111).

Production of Inflammatory Mediators

Glucocorticoids also affect the production of inflammatory mediators includingprostaglandins and nitric oxide. Glucocorticoids suppress prostaglandin synthesisat sites of inflammation by several mechanisms. The key stages during the synthesisof prostaglandin are the release of arachadonic acid from membrane phospholipids,which is catalyzed by phospholipase A2 (PLA2), and the subsequent conversion toPGH2 by the action of cyclooxygenase (COX). There are two isoforms of PLA2,secretory PLA2 and cytosolic PLA2. There are also two COX enzymes; COX-1is constitutively expressed, and COX-2 is inducible and thought to be involvedin stimuli-induced prostaglandin synthesis. COX-2 induction by inflammatorystimuli is mediated though NF-IL6 and NFκB regulatory sequences in its promoter(112). Glucocorticoids exert their effect by repression of cytosolic PLA2 and COX-2 mRNA levels (113–115).

Nitric oxide synthase II (NOS II) is the enzyme that produces nitric oxide (NO).NO has been implicated in autoimmune and inflammatory responses. The promoterof NOS II contains a binding site for NFκB, which is required for the cytokineinduction of this gene. Glucocorticoids repress the cytokine induction of NOS II,and this repression does not correspond with an induction of the IκB gene, therebyimplicating a method of protein-protein interaction for this repression (68). iNOSis an inducible form of nitric oxide synthase and is another enzyme involved in thesynthesis of nitric oxide. Dexamethasone inhibits transcription of the iNOS genein rat hepatocytes by the induction of IκB (116).

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Lipocortin 1 (or annexin 1) is expressed in many immune cells and is alsoexpressed in the neuroendocrine system in the hypothalamus and pituitary. It hasanti-inflammatory actions although these mechanisms are not fully understood.One way in which lipocortin 1 exerts its anti-inflammatory action in the periph-ery is by the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis via the inhibition of release ofarachadonic acid, although the exact mechanism is not known. Glucocorticoidshave a dual action on lipocortin 1. Lipocortin 1 is normally expressed and local-ized mainly in the cytoplasm, but it is also localized to the external surface of cellmembranes. Upon glucocorticoid exposure, the amount of lipocortin 1 on the ex-ternal membrane rapidly increases. This externalization is followed by an increasein lipocortin 1 synthesis by the cells in response to glucocorticoids (117).

Other Factors Involved in the Inflammatory Response

Theβ2-adrenoreceptor is involved in the adrenergic control of the immune system(see later section). Glucocorticoids increase the transcription of theβ2-adrenore-ceptor in many cell types, including airway epithelial cells. This transcriptionalregulation occurs via a GRE sequence in the promoter of the gene (118, 119).Other receptors involved in the regulation of the immune system are regulated byglucocorticoids. The transcription of the NK1-receptor, the receptor for substanceP, is inhibited by glucocorticoids probably through an AP-1 site (120). The NK2-receptor is also downregulated by glucocorticoids (121).

EFFECTS ON IMMUNE CELLS

Glucocorticoids, in general, suppress maturation, differentiation, and proliferationof immune cells involved in all aspects of immunity, including innate, T cell, andB cell function and chronic allergic reactions.

Innate Immunity

Monocytes are produced in the bone marrow. Once mature they leave, circulate inthe bloodstream, and after a time enter the tissues and become macrophages.During inflammation, circulating monocytes migrate to the inflammatory sitewhere they become activated. Glucocorticoids interfere with the protective anddefense mechanisms of activated macrophages, rather than resident macrophages.This occurs via their effects on cytokines and other inflammatory mediators suchas prostaglandin synthesis (122). Glucocorticoids at pharmacological concentra-tions induce apoptosis in macrophages and monocytes; and the pro-inflammatorycytokine IL-1β may be involved in prevention of apoptosis, whereas the anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-4 and IL-10 induce apoptosis in these cells (81). Thus,pharmacological or stress levels of glucocorticoids reduce circulating numbersof monocytes, inhibit secretion of IL-1, IL-6, TNF-α, and monocyte chemotacticactivating factors, and impair synthesis of collagenase, elastase, and tissue plas-minogen activator (123).

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140 WEBSTER ET AL.

Neutrophils are involved in the tissue damage that occurs during the innateinflammatory phase of inflammatory disease. In response to injury, neutrophilsmigrate out of the circulating bloodstream, extravasate between endothelial cells,and move to the site of inflammation. Glucocorticoids affect the activation ofneutrophils and also the functions of neutrophils, such as chemotaxis, adhesion,transmigration, apoptosis, and phagocytosis (123, 124). Glucocorticoid regulationof these functions in neutrophils is due to numerous components including regula-tion of cytokines. However, lipocortin 1 also plays a pivotal role in glucocorticoid-induced responses. Glucocorticoids have a dual effect on neutrophils. On onehand pharmacological doses are inhibitory and suppress the inflammatory responsecaused by neutrophil activation and migration. On the other hand, neutrophils arerequired for the response to bacterial infections, and as such their circulating num-bers are increased by pharmacological doses of glucocorticoids through inhibitionof apoptosis (124).

Th1-Th2

Glucocorticoids induce a shift from a Th1 to a Th2 pattern of immunity. Th1immunity or cellular immunity is characterized by the expression of proinflamma-tory cytokines, such as IFN-γ , IL-2, and TNF-β, which lead to the differentiationof macrophages, natural killer cells (NK cells), and cytotoxic T cells that are in-volved in phagocytosis and destruction of invading bacteria or foreign bodies.Th2 immunity or humoral immunity is characterized by the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13, resulting in the differenti-ation of eosinophils, mast cells, and B cells, which lead to an antibody-mediateddefense against foreign antigens. The main inducer of Th1 immunity is IL-12.This can induce the expression of IFN-γ and inhibit the expression of IL-4, whichplays a critical role in the immune response. [For a detailed review on IL-4, seeNelms et al. (125)].

As previously mentioned, glucocorticoids can affect the transcription of manycytokines, generally upregulating antiinflammatory cytokines and downregulatingproinflammatory cytokines, thereby causing a shift from Th1 to Th2 immunity.The glucocorticoid-induced shift of Th1 to Th2 may be due mainly to down-regulation of the Th1 cytokines, thus allowing dominant expression of the Th2cytokines (126, 127). They modulate the expression of IL-12 or its receptor, andthis regulation of IL-12 is thought to be a major mechanism by which glucocor-ticoids mediate the Th1-Th2 shift (94). This glucocorticoid-mediated downreg-ulation of IL-12 occurs by inhibition of Stat4 phosphorylation in the signalingcascade downstream of IL-12, and this inhibition is mediated by GR. This is spe-cific for the Th1-mediated immunity because phosphorylation of Stat6, whichis involved in the signal cascade from IL-4, is not affected by glucocorticoids(93). Glucocorticoids downregulate the IL-12 receptorβ1- andβ2-chains, butthis downregulation occurs after 3 days of treatment, whereas the inhibition of

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Stat4 phosphorylation is seen within 2 h, suggesting that IL-12 receptordownregulation occurs in response to prolonged glucocorticoid exposure (92, 93).Several other neural factors besides glucocorticoids can also induce a Th1-Th2shift; these neural factors include the sympathetic neuropeptides, noradrenalin,and adrenalin (94).

Glucocorticoids differentially affect the survival of Th1 and Th2 cells. Th2NK1.1+T cells, which produce IL-4, are resistant to dexamethasone-induced apop-tosis, and this resistance may be due to the expression of the proto-oncogene Bcl-2(128).

Alterations in Th1-Th2 immunity are characteristic of some autoimmune dis-eases. Rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis (MS), and type I diabetes mellitusare examples of autoimmune diseases in which there is a shift toward Th1-mediatedimmunity with an excess of IL-12 and TNF-α production. Systemic lupus erythe-matosus (SLE) is shifted toward Th2-mediated immunity with an excess of IL-10production (94). In situations where there is an excess of glucocorticoid produc-tion, e.g., in animal models with a hyperactive HPA axis (F344/N rats) or in womenin the third trimester of pregnancy, there is a relative resistance to Th1-associatedautoimmune diseases. Conversely, animals with a lack of glucocorticoids or a hy-poactive HPA axis (LEW/N rats) are susceptible to Th1-associated autoimmunediseases (94, 129). LEW/N rats are susceptible to EAE, a Th1-mediated autoim-mune disease. Spontaneous recovery of these animals is correlated with an increasein glucocorticoids, whereas adrenalectomy results in fatal regression of the diseasebut can be reversed by administration of glucocorticoids, indicating the shift fromTh1 to Th2 immunity (34).

Allergy

Eosinophils are critical in the response to allergic stimuli, and glucocorticoidsboth systemically and topically applied are effective in the treatment of thesediseases. Pharmacological doses of glucocorticoids reduce the circulating numbersof eosinophils probably through many factors including IL-5, IL-3, and GM-CSF.Glucocorticoids also sequester eosinophils in primary and secondary lymphoidtissues, induce apoptosis, and inhibit the recruitment of eosinophils to areas ofinflammation (123, 130, 131).

Basophils are the least abundant circulating leukocyte but are important in IgE-mediated allergic inflammation. Their activation leads to the synthesis and releaseof lipid mediators such as leukotriene C4 (LTC4), which induces changes in muscleand vascular tissue. Glucocorticoids reduce circulating numbers of basophils, im-pair histamine and leukotriene release, and inhibit basophil migration (123, 131).

Mast cells are important for the mediation of inflammatory disease particularlyin response to IgE. Glucocorticoid treatment results in a decrease in mast cells inairways, but the mechanism for this is not certain, and a direct inhibitory effect onmediator release has been disproven (132, 133).

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142 WEBSTER ET AL.

Resident Tissue Immune Cells

Dendritic cells are involved in antigen presentation, and this could assist in theTh1-Th2 shift. Glucocorticoids reduce the number of dendritic cells in an animalmodel and also in human nasal mucosa after topical glucocorticoid application(134, 135). Epithelial cells are involved in inflammation in asthmatic airways,and they are also a target for glucocorticoid therapy in this disease. As describedearlier, glucocorticoids inhibit the expression of cytokines, chemoattractants, andmediators of inflammation in the epithelial cells of the airways. Glucocorticoidsreduce the inflammatory mediator–induced leakage of plasma proteins into thealveolar bronchi (136). Interestingly, endothelial cells of the airways show thehighest expression of GR in human lung (137). Mucosal cells secrete mucus duringinflammation. Glucocorticoids act directly on these cells and inhibit the expressionof MUC2andMUC5AC, the genes that encode mucin (138, 139). Glucocorticoidsalso inhibit mucus secretion via their inhibition of inflammatory mediators.

Effects of Glucocorticoids on Lymphocyte Selectionat the Cellular and Immune Organ Level

Glucocorticoids play an important role in lymphocyte selection via several mech-anisms, including apoptosis and thymocyte differentiation during development.

APOPTOSIS Apoptosis is a mechanism of programmed cell death, which is neces-sary for a homeostasis to exist between cell death and proliferation. For a review onapoptosis, see King & Cidlowski (140). Glucocorticoids induce G1 arrest and apop-tosis in lymphoid cells. There appear to be two mechanisms for glucocorticoid-mediated apoptosis in thymocytes, one for proliferating thymocytes and one fornonproliferating thymocytes. Although separate mechanisms, these two pathwaysdo share some common features such as the activation of GR and the activation ofcaspases. The mechanism of glucocorticoid-mediated cell cycle arrest and apop-tosis is not fully understood, but some cell cycle genes, e.g.,c-myc, cyclin D3, andCdk4, are regulated by glucocorticoids (140, 141). Glucocorticoids upregulate theexpression of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, p57Kip2, which is important inthis glucocorticoids-mediated cell cycle arrest (142).

In T cells, glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis is dependent on protein synthesis,but there is also evidence that it is dependent on repression of genes, such asc-myc. Comparison of the glucocorticoid-sensitive T-cell line 6TG1.1 and theglucocorticoid-resistant variant ICR27TK.3, which contains GR that is incapableof gene activation, indicates that repression of AP-1-induced gene activity is notinvolved in glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis in these cells. DNA fragmentation inthe sensitive 6TG1.1 cells was inhibited by cyclohexamide, indicating that proteinsynthesis is required for glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis. Because inhibitory IκBmolecule is induced by dexamethasone in these cells and becausec-mycis regulatedby NFκB, it has been suggested that glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis could occur

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by repression of gene transcription of thec-mycgene via glucocorticoid-inducedtranscription of IκB or another similar inhibitory factor (64).

Glucocorticoid-mediated apoptosis has also been described in monocytes. Thisoccurs via the death receptor, CD95, a cascade for apoptosis that does not occur inT cells or thymocytes in response to glucocorticoids. In monocytes, glucocorticoidsincrease the expression of membrane CD95 and the ligand, CD95L, and alsoenhance their release. This activates a cascade involving caspase 8 and caspase 3to induce apoptosis (143).

EFFECTS OF GLUCOCORTICOIDS ON THYMOCYTE DIFFERENTIATION AND SELECTION

During the process of thymocyte differentiation, immature CD4− CD8− thymo-cytes rearrange theβ gene locus of the T cell receptor (TCR) to express pre-TCR.These then divide and begin to express CD4+ and CD8+ and rearrange theα geneof TCR to express matureα/β TCR but at low levels. These CD4+ CD8+ lowTCR cells then undergo selection, either positive or negative selection. Preciselywhat factors determine positive versus negative selection is not understood. Invitro in the presence of glucocorticoids alone, thymocytes/hybridomas undergoglucocorticoid-mediated apoptosis, whereas in the absence of glucocorticoids andthe presence of activated TCR, these cells undergo activated-mediated apopto-sis. Culture in the presence of both results in survival, and this balance betweenglucocorticoids and TCR has been termed mutual antagonism. To explain howselection occurs, it has been proposed that where the CD4+ CD8+ low TCR thy-mocytes do not recognize self-antigen/major histocompatability complex (MHC),there is a greater ratio of GR to TCR stimulation, and these cells will die of neglectthrough glucocorticoid-mediated apoptosis. If these thymocytes strongly recog-nize self-MHC, with a resultant higher ratio of TCR to GR activation, then thesecells will die by negative selection through activated-mediated apoptosis. If thereis an intermediate recognition of the MHC, a balance exists between the GR andTCR activation, and these cells will be selected by positive selection and willfurther differentiate into mature CD4+ or CD8+ thymocytes (144, 145). Evidencefor this mutual antagonism has been provided by studies in which inhibiting glu-cocorticoids results in thymocytes with a low-to-moderate avidity for self-MHCbeing forced into activated-mediated apoptosis (negative selection), rather thanbeing rescued and undergoing positive selection as would occur in the presenceof glucocorticoids (146). Furthermore, in these conditions thymocytes that do notrecognize self-MHC are rescued rather than undergoing glucocorticoid-mediatedapoptosis (147).

Thymocyte selection is active during fetal and neonatal period, but the levelsof glucocorticoids circulating in the fetus are low because some level of pro-tection from maternal glucocorticoids is provided by the placenta that containshigh levels of the GC-catabolizing enzyme 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase.This apparent lack of glucocorticoids in the fetus and the necessity of them forthymocyte differentiation has led to the hypothesis that there may be local produc-tion of glucocorticoids in the thymus during development (145). Indeed, cultured

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thymic epithelium cells do produce pregnenolone and deoxycorticosterone, andthis production can be increased by ACTH. This production of glucocorticoidswas specific to thymic epithelium cells and was not observed in cultures of thymo-cytes, macrophages, or dendritic cells. The P450 hydroxylase enzymes involvedin the production of glucocorticoids, specifically corticosterone from cholesterol,have been shown in thymic epithelium cells (144, 145, 148). Murine thymus alsocontains all the enzymes required for the production of glucocorticoids fromcholesterol (149).

In hybridomas, activated-mediated apoptosis is caused by the upregulation ofthe ligand for Fas, Fas ligand (FasL). Glucocorticoids prevent this upregulationof FasL, probably by the glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper (GILZ) gene,but do not interfere with Fas itself. Another mechanism by which glucocorti-coids may inhibit activated-mediated apoptosis is the activation of glucocorticoid-induced TNFR family related (GITR), which can inhibit CD3-mediated but notFas-mediated apoptosis. In some diseases there could be a shift in this balance.Thus, in cases where glucocorticoids are overexpressed, this balance could beshifted such that a higher level of activated TCR cells survive and thus a greaterpopulation of thymocytes that recognize self could survive (145). Indeed, in au-toimmune disease models in animals and in patients with the autoimmune diseasemultiple sclerosis, there is a higher basal level of glucocorticoids (145, 150).

The involvement of glucocorticoids in thymocyte differentiation and selectionis still a matter of some controversy. Generation of transgenic antisense mice forthe 3′ untranslated region of GR under the control of a T cell–specific promoterled to mice with a twofold reduction of GR mRNA and protein. The thymus oftransgenic homozygotes were 90% smaller than controls, and there was a decreasein CD4+ CD8+ thymocytes and a secondary decrease in CD4+ CD8− and CD4−

CD8+ thymocytes, which indicates the necessity of glucocorticoids in thymocytedevelopment and differentiation (144, 145). However, in similar transgenics underthe control of a different promoter (a neurofilament promoter), GR levels weredecreased in all tissues, and there was an associated increase in circulating ACTHand corticosterone. Unlike the T cell–specific antisense animals, no differencein CD4+ CD8+ thymocytes was found (151). In the GR knockin mice, whichare deficient in dimerization and are therefore unable to activate gene transcrip-tion by GR, the thymocyte population was described as being normal althoughglucocorticoid-mediated apoptosis was reduced and no extensive analysis wasperformed (152).

Recently, GR knockout mice have been described that die at birth [day 19 of em-bryogenesis (E19)]. However, during embryogenesis, i.e., up to E18, these animalshave apparently normal thymocyte populations and T cell development, suggestingthat GR in this case in not necessary for the entire process of T cell developmentand differentiation (153, 154). The reason for these differences between animalmodels is not completely clear, but one significant difference between these dif-ferent transgenic animals and knockin animals may result from secondary effectsof the disrupted HPA axis (145).

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DISRUPTION OF THE HPA AXIS AND DISEASE

Animal Models

Animal models have been useful in understanding the pathogenesis of autoim-mune/inflammatory disease. Many animal models exist in which a blunted HPAaxis response has been associated with susceptibility to autoimmune/inflammatorydiseases. These include the obese strain (OS) chicken as a model for autoimmunethyroiditis (155), certain mouse lupus (SLE) models (156, 157), and the inbredrat strains, LEW/N and F344/N rats, as described earlier. For a review on theseand other animal models for inflammatory diseases, refer to Jafarian-Tehrani &Sternberg (158). It should be noted, however, that many genes and many chromo-some regions, each with small effect, contribute to susceptibility to autoimmunediseases, such as SLE (158a) and inflammatory arthritis (158b). While some ofthese linkage regions contain genes that regulate the HPA axis (158c), many areunrelated or unknown. Such genetic linkage and segregation studies also indi-cate that environmental factors play a large role in variance of disease expression.Thus, many different genetic and environmental factors contribute to autoimmunesusceptibility in addition to HPA or neuroendocrine factors.

Human Diseases

HPA axis responsiveness differs greatly among individuals. Even in healthy in-dividuals considerable intra-individual variability appears in HPA axis responses.Normal healthy volunteers have been subgrouped into high or low responders de-pending on the response of their HPA axis to stimuli (159, 160). Disruptions in theHPA axis or glucocorticoid response could occur at many levels, including at thelevels of the hypothalamus, pituitary, or adrenals, with changes in the expressionof CRH, ACTH or cortisol, or changes in the sensitivity of the system to stimulior suppressive factors. Once cortisol reaches its target tissue, there are then manysteps to inducing gene activation, including entry into the cell, binding to GR,dimerization, translocation to the nucleus, and interaction with cofactors and thebasal transcription machinery. It is conceivable that interruption of any of thesepathways could result in a defective HPA axis or glucocorticoid response leadingeither to a lack of glucocorticoid production or to glucocorticoid resistance andresultant enhanced autoimmune/inflammatory disease. Depending on the specificdefect, patients might or might not respond to exogenous glucocorticoid therapy.For further reading on glucocorticoid resistance syndromes, see the recent reviewby Kino & Chrousos (161).

Disruptions in the HPA Axis or Glucocorticoid ResponseLeading to Glucocorticoid Sensitivity and Resistance

HPA AXIS In patient populations it is often difficult to dissect where a problemlies within the HPA axis, as many of its regulatory components cannot be directly

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measured in blood. Furthermore, inflammatory illness itself stimulates the HPAaxis and alters its regulation (162, 163). Since CRH cannot be measured directlyin peripheral venous blood, CRH responsiveness must be deduced by measuringlevels of ACTH and cortisol, which can be directly measured in peripheral blood. Ablunted HPA axis resulting in low levels of glucocorticoids or a low glucocorticoidresponse to HPA axis stimulation has been implicated in a number of inflammatorydiseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (164–167), systemic lupus erythematosus(SLE) (168), Sjogren’s syndrome (169), allergic asthma and atopic skin disease(170), and chronic fatigue syndrome (171, 172). Patients with fibromyalgia havea low 24-h urinary free cortisol and a reduced response in the secretion of cortisolto HPA axis challenge (173). In patients with multiple sclerosis and a high plasmabasal cortisol level, a normal HPA axis response to oCRH but a reduced HPA axisresponse to AVP were observed (150).

ADRENAL GLANDS Isolated glucocorticoid deficiency (IGD) is an autosomal re-cessive disorder, characterized by adrenocortical but not mineralocorticoid defi-ciency. Patients generally have low, undetectable cortisol levels that do not increasewith treatment with exogenous ACTH. Also, the endogenous ACTH levels arehigh. Seventeen-point mutation and frameshifts in the receptor for ACTH havebeen identified that lead to this condition (174–176). Thus, this disease resultsbecause defective ACTH receptors render the adrenal gland incapable of sens-ing the high ACTH levels that continue to be secreted by the pituitary. Thus,despite high levels of ACTH, little or no cortisol is produced. Novel mutationsin the ACTH receptor have also been described in a patient with ACTH hyper-sensitivity syndrome. In this case the patient had normal cortisol levels but low,undetectable ACTH levels (177). There have been some reports of patients withIGD developing autoimmune disease, such as organ-specific autoimmunity andautoimmune-mediated hypothroidism (178, 179).

CORTISOL BINDING GLOBULIN (CBG) The level of CBG in the blood limits theamount of free cortisol available. Changes in the expression of this protein orin its binding capacity could thus also affect the availability of cortisol. In NewWorld primates, the lower levels of CBG and the lower affinity of cortisol for CBGhave been associated with the higher circulating levels of glucocorticoids, whichhave been suggested to compensate for target organ resistance present in thesemammals (180). In some patients with long-standing Crohn’s disease, a partialor complete resistance to steroids has been described; this resistance could bedue to the increased expression of CBG in these patients, thereby limiting thebioavailability of glucocorticoids (181).

11β-HYDROXYSTEROID DEHYDROGENASE This enzyme catalyzes the conversionbetween an active glucocorticoid and inactive glucocorticoid (45) as described ear-lier. Thus, changes in this enzyme could result in differences in circulating or tissueglucocorticoid concentrations. In obese men, an impairment in the conversion of

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the inactive cortisone to the active cortisol was noted, indicating an impairmentin the type I 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and resulting in a drop in plasmacortisol levels (182). A decrease in 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase mRNA inulcerative colitis has also been demonstrated (183).

GLUCOCORTICOID RECEPTOR Glucocorticoid resistance has been associated withmutation of GR. This has been particularly studied in relation to familial gluco-corticoid resistance, a hereditary condition caused by a mutation in the GR withassociated decreased number of receptors, decreased affinity or stability of thereceptor, and a decrease in translocation of the receptor to the nucleus. To date themolecular defects of four families and one sporadic case have been determined.These include three different point mutations in the ligand-binding domain, onein the hinge region, and a deletion in the ligand-binding domain. [For a review seeKino & Chrousos (161)].

A mutation in the GR may not be the only mechanism by which a change in thisgene could affect the sensitivity to glucocorticoids. A polymorphism in codon 363of GR has been described and associated with an increased sensitivity to glucocor-ticoids (184). On the other hand, five polymorphisms in GR (including the one incodon 363) have been described in a normal population, and they cannot be cor-related with glucocorticoid resistance (185). Furthermore, there are patients withglucocorticoid resistance with no mutation detectable in GR, indicating that otherdefects in the steps in the pathway leading to gene activation by glucocorticoidscould result in glucocorticoid resistance (186). The GR has several phosphoryla-tion sites of which the function is unclear. Mutation of these phosphorylation sitesresults in reduced transactivation capability of GR of a minimal promoter and re-duces the stability of the GR protein (187). Such changes as in the phosphorylationstatus of GR could have profound effects on GR function and be one method bywhich glucocorticoid resistance could occur.

GRβ has been proposed to act as a negative regulator of GR function. Thus,variations in the level of GRα and GRβ could also be associated with apparent glu-cocorticoid resistance, both initial and acquired. Glucocorticoid-resistant asthmahas been associated with a higher expression of GRβ on the peripheral bloodlymphocytes (188, 189). GRβ expression is induced by cytokine treatment (190);thus as inflammatory disease progresses and cytokines are produced, induced GRβ

expression could lead to exacerbation or development of glucocorticoid-resistantdisease states (189). Increased expression of GRβ has been shown in mononuclearblood cells from patients with glucocorticoid-resistant ulcerative colitis comparedto similar cells from patients with glucocorticoid-sensitive disease (191). A pa-tient with generalized glucocorticoid resistance and chronic lymphoid leukemiahas been described as having a decreased GR number and a reduced affinity fordexamethasone. This has been shown to be due not to a mutation in the GR but to aredistribution of GRα to GRβ with a reduced expression of GRα and an increasedexpression of GRβ (192). Finally, a polymorphism in exon 9β of the human GRβgene has been found to be associated with rheumatoid arthritis. This polymorphism

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increases the stability of GRβ and thus alters glucocorticoid sensitivity (193).Taken together, these studies suggest that a variety of pre- and posttranslationalchanges in both forms of the GR are associated with autoimmune/inflammatorydiseases.

COFACTORS Although to date a mutation in a cofactor has not been found asso-ciated with glucocorticoid resistance, a recent study into the glucocorticoid hy-persensitive state associated with HIV-1 infection is worthy of comment. Thishypersensitive state is specific to the immune system, the brain, musculoskeletalsystem, and fat and liver with maintenance of an intact HPA system. A HIV-1 ac-cessory protein, virion-associated protein (Vpr), is able to act as a transcriptionalactivator to aid the replication of the HIV-1 virus. This protein contains a nuclearreceptor binding motif (LXXLL) that binds directly to GR and cooperatively en-hances transcription via SRC1a and p300/CBP cofactors (161, 194). Recently, twosisters have been described with resistance to multiple steroids, and this may bedue to a cofactor defect (195).

TRANSPORT PROTEINS A group of ABC transmembrane transporters, MDR pro-teins, have been suggested to be involved in the active transport of glucocorticoidsout of cells. Evidence exists that these proteins can transport glucocorticoids (196,197; J. I. Webster, J. Carlstedt-Duke, unpublished data). These proteins are nor-mally expressed in the blood-brain barrier, and knockout mice have been generatedfor the mousemdr1a. In these knockout mice, an increase in the amount of dexam-ethasone present in the brain indicates that this protein is involved in the regulationof brain glucocorticoids (198, 199). These proteins have been identified throughtheir involvement in the multidrug resistance phenotype (200). Recently, it wasshown that patients with inflammatory bowel disease whom medical therapy hadfailed had an increase in the expression of the human MDR1 (ABCB1) (201).This raises the possibility that these proteins may be another component that couldaffect the effectiveness of glucocorticoid therapy by reducing the concentrationof the hormone within the cells and thus reducing the ligand availability for theGR. The novel orphan receptor PXR is involved in the upregulation of MDR1(202). Because PXR itself is activated by glucocorticoids among many other lig-ands (203), this could possibly represent another mechanism by which acquiredglucocorticoid resistance may develop.

OTHER NEUROENDOCRINE FACTORSAFFECTING IMMUNE FUNCTION

While this review has been focused on the HPA axis and glucocorticoid regulationof immunity and autoimmune/inflammatory disease, many other neural and neu-roendocrine pathways connect with and regulate the immune system at multiplelevels. These include the sympathetic nervous system and adrenergic factors andthe peripheral nervous system and neuropeptides released by peripheral nerves.

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Adrenergic Factors

The adrenergic sympathetic nervous system modulates local immune responses[for a comprehensive review of this topic, see Madden et al. (204)]. Noradren-ergic sympathetic nerve fibers run from the CNS to primary and secondary lym-phoid organs, such as the thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes. These nerve terminalsmake synaptic-like connections with neighboring immune cells releasing nora-drenalin (205). The primary neurotransmitter released from sympathetic nerves,noradrenalin, exerts its effect at the target tissues through its receptor, the adren-ergic receptor. Numerous cells of the immune system including lymphocytes andmacrophages express adrenoreceptors. These are G-protein coupled receptors thatcan be divided into two subgroups—theα- andβ-adrenergic receptors. These canbe further subdivided intoα1-,α2-,β1-,β2-, andβ3-adrenergic receptors. The mostimportant receptor in terms of the immune system is theβ2-adrenergic receptor.Expression ofα- andβ-adrenergic receptors on T and B lymphocytes, neutrophils,mononuclear cells, and NK cells has been described. Activation ofβ2-adrenergicreceptors results in an increase in cyclic AMP concentrations, which can modulatecytokine expression, i.e., decreasing TNF-α and increasing IL-8 (94). It was orig-inally thought that noradrenalin activated theβ2-adrenergic receptor resulting insuppressed lymphocyte function. However, more recent data suggest that it mod-ulates B cell function to protect against or aid progression of immune disease. Ifα-adrenergic receptors are present on immune cells, then activation of these recep-tors will lead to the activation of a different signaling cascade and the activation ofMAP kinases. Activation of this cascade has different effects on cellular activityof immune cells than does activation via theβ2 adrenergic receptor (206–208).Furthermore, there appear to be regional difference in the effects of noradrenalinon immune function. Noradrenalin in the thymus is thought to play a role in mod-ulation of thymocyte proliferation and differentiation, whereas in the spleen andlymph nodes it is thought to be involved in enhancement of the primary antibodyresponse (205).

Sex Hormones

The role of sex hormones, particularly estrogen, in the modulation of the im-mune system is an extensive and important area of research that is not reviewedhere [for further reading, see Jansson & Holmdahl (209)]. It is noteworthy thatthere is a greatly increased risk—in the range of two- to tenfold higher female-to-male ratio—of developing many autoimmune/inflammatory diseases such as SLE,rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis in women compared to men. Regulationof the immune system by estrogens is of particular importance during pregnancy.In this case a balance between glucocorticoid and estrogen regulation probablyplays a role in suppression of the maternal immune system to prevent rejectionof the fetus (209). Animal models have provided evidence for the importance ofin vivo modulation of the immune system by the estrogen receptor (210, 211).There are two receptors for estrogens. Estrogen receptorα (ERα) was the first tobe described (212). A second independent gene was identified in 1996 and termed

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ERβ (213). Knockout mice have shown that both estrogen receptors are importantin a gender-specific manner for thymus development and atrophy (214). In addi-tion, tamoxifen, an estrogen receptor antagonist, has some inhibitory effects oninflammation in LEW/N female rats (215). Sex hormone regulation of the immunesystem also varies with aging; for example, expression of IL-6 is under the controlof sex hormones such as estrogen and testosterone. In postmenopausal women andpostandropausal men, the loss of regulation of IL-6 results in increased concen-trations of IL-6 that is associated with the increased occurrence of inflammatorydiseases with old age such as rheumatoid arthritis, bowel disease, and osteoporosis(84).

CONCLUSION

In summary there are multiple neuro-anatomical, hormonal, and molecular mech-anisms by which the CNS regulates immune function and plays a role in suscepti-bility to and pathogenesis of autoimmune/inflammatory disease. We have focusedhere on the HPA axis and glucocorticoids, the final effector end point of the HPAaxis in regulating immunity. It is clear that even in the case of a single hormone,there are many potential mechanisms at gene, protein, receptor, signaling, and cellfunction levels where dysregulation could lead to disease. Given the many differenthormonal and nerve pathways that regulate immunity, each with its own specificmolecular end points, the potential mechanisms for pathogenesis of autoimmunedisease(s) resulting from disruptions in these interactions is large. Nonetheless, athorough understanding at all levels of the means by which the CNS and immunesystems communicate will provide many new insights into the bidirectional reg-ulation of these systems and the disruptions in these communications that lead todisease. Ultimately this understanding will inform new avenues of therapy.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank Melanie Vacchio for critically reading the manu-script and for useful discussions.

Visit the Annual Reviews home page at www.annualreviews.org

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P1: FRK

February 1, 2002 12:47 Annual Reviews AR152-FM

Annual Review of ImmunologyVolume 20, 2002

CONTENTS

FRONTISPIECE, Charles A. Janeway, Jr. xiv

A TRIP THROUGH MY LIFE WITH AN IMMUNOLOGICAL THEME,Charles A. Janeway, Jr. 1

THE B7 FAMILY OF LIGANDS AND ITS RECEPTORS: NEW PATHWAYSFOR COSTIMULATION AND INHIBITION OF IMMUNE RESPONSES,Beatriz M. Carreno and Mary Collins 29

MAP KINASES IN THE IMMUNE RESPONSE, Chen Dong, Roger J. Davis,and Richard A. Flavell 55

PROSPECTS FOR VACCINE PROTECTION AGAINST HIV-1 INFECTIONAND AIDS, Norman L. Letvin, Dan H. Barouch, and David C. Montefiori 73

T CELL RESPONSE IN EXPERIMENTAL AUTOIMMUNEENCEPHALOMYELITIS (EAE): ROLE OF SELF AND CROSS-REACTIVEANTIGENS IN SHAPING, TUNING, AND REGULATING THEAUTOPATHOGENIC T CELL REPERTOIRE, Vijay K. Kuchroo,Ana C. Anderson, Hanspeter Waldner, Markus Munder, Estelle Bettelli,and Lindsay B. Nicholson 101

NEUROENDOCRINE REGULATION OF IMMUNITY, Jeanette I. Webster,Leonardo Tonelli, and Esther M. Sternberg 125

MOLECULAR MECHANISM OF CLASS SWITCH RECOMBINATION:LINKAGE WITH SOMATIC HYPERMUTATION, Tasuku Honjo, KazuoKinoshita, and Masamichi Muramatsu 165

INNATE IMMUNE RECOGNITION, Charles A. Janeway, Jr. and RuslanMedzhitov 197

KIR: DIVERSE, RAPIDLY EVOLVING RECEPTORS OF INNATE ANDADAPTIVE IMMUNITY, Carlos Vilches and Peter Parham 217

ORIGINS AND FUNCTIONS OF B-1 CELLS WITH NOTES ON THE ROLEOF CD5, Robert Berland and Henry H. Wortis 253

E PROTEIN FUNCTION IN LYMPHOCYTE DEVELOPMENT, MelanieW. Quong, William J. Romanow, and Cornelis Murre 301

LYMPHOCYTE-MEDIATED CYTOTOXICITY, John H. Russell andTimothy J. Ley 323

SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION MEDIATED BY THE T CELL ANTIGEN

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February 1, 2002 12:47 Annual Reviews AR152-FM

CONTENTS xi

RECEPTOR: THE ROLE OF ADAPTER PROTEINS, Lawrence E. Samelson 371

INTERACTION OF HEAT SHOCK PROTEINS WITH PEPTIDES ANDANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS: CHAPERONING OF THE INNATE ANDADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSES, Pramod Srivastava 395

CHROMATIN STRUCTURE AND GENE REGULATION IN THE IMMUNESYSTEM, Stephen T. Smale and Amanda G. Fisher 427

PRODUCING NATURE’S GENE-CHIPS: THE GENERATION OF PEPTIDESFOR DISPLAY BY MHC CLASS I MOLECULES, Nilabh Shastri, SusanSchwab, and Thomas Serwold 463

THE IMMUNOLOGY OF MUCOSAL MODELS OF INFLAMMATION, WarrenStrober, Ivan J. Fuss, and Richard S. Blumberg 495

T CELL MEMORY, Jonathan Sprent and Charles D. Surh 551

GENETIC DISSECTION OF IMMUNITY TO MYCOBACTERIA: THE HUMANMODEL, Jean-Laurent Casanova and Laurent Abel 581

ANTIGEN PRESENTATION AND T CELL STIMULATION BY DENDRITICCELLS, Pierre Guermonprez, Jenny Valladeau, Laurence Zitvogel, ClotildeThery, and Sebastian Amigorena 621

NEGATIVE REGULATION OF IMMUNORECEPTOR SIGNALING, AndreVeillette, Sylvain Latour, and Dominique Davidson 669

CPG MOTIFS IN BACTERIAL DNA AND THEIR IMMUNE EFFECTS,Arthur M. Krieg 709

PROTEIN KINASE Cθ IN T CELL ACTIVATION, Noah Isakov and AmnonAltman 761

RANK-L AND RANK: T CELLS, BONE LOSS, AND MAMMALIANEVOLUTION, Lars E. Theill, William J. Boyle, and Josef M. Penninger 795

PHAGOCYTOSIS OF MICROBES: COMPLEXITY IN ACTION, DavidM. Underhill and Adrian Ozinsky 825

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF NATURAL KILLER CELL RECEPTORS:MULTIPLE MOLECULAR SOLUTIONS TO SELF, NONSELFDISCRIMINATION, Kannan Natarajan, Nazzareno Dimasi, Jian Wang,Roy A. Mariuzza, and David H. Margulies 853

INDEXESSubject Index 887Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 1–20 915Cumulative Index of Chapter Titles, Volumes 1–20 925

ERRATAAn online log of corrections to Annual Review of Immunologychapters (if any, 1997 to the present) may be foundat http://immunol.annualreviews.org/

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Neuroendocrine Regulationof Immunity

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