BRAND IMAGE IN MULTI-CHANNEL

FASHION COMPANIES

Thesis no. 2020.18.04

Thesis for One-Year Master, 15 ECTS

Textile Management

Linnea Lindstedt Sofia Kleist

Title: Brand image in multi-channel fashion companies

Publication year: 2020

Author: Linnea Lindstedt, Sofia Kleist

Supervisor: Sandhiya Goolaup

Abstract Branding has become increasingly important in order to distinguish a brand from numerous

competitors in the fashion industry. An effective way to differentiate the brand from others has

shown to be through the brand image, which is why managers should work on sustaining a

positive brand image. Managing brand image through different sales channels has become even

more important due to the rise of multi-channels. The integration and effort of offline and

online channels can result in both enhanced purchase intention and brand image. Previous

literature has shown how purchase intention can be derived from the level of congruity between

the consumer’s self-image and the brand’s image. Despite this, most previous research is

conducted from a company perspective, why this research intends to provide theoretical

contributions from a consumer perspective. This is particularly important for fashion brands,

as for the ever-changing and highly competitive characteristics of the fashion market.

Furthermore, an understanding of consumers’ perception of brand image in different sales

channels has been missing in previous research. Therefore, the aim of this research is to

investigate how consumers perceive brand image of multi-channel fashion companies for the

purpose of providing insight into how brand image should be managed through different

channels.

Using a qualitative perspective, this explorative research conducts ten semi-structured

interviews with women and men between the ages of 18 and 63, that are experienced within

fashion consumption in online and offline channels. Analysis of the research findings indicates

that there are 13 attributes that consumers consider as most prominent for brand image; six

offline attributes and seven online attributes. For the offline image, it emerges that the

surrounding environment, products and collections, price and value, store personnel and

service, reputation are prominent attributes. For online, easy access and navigation, design and

aesthetics, merchandise description, price and value, communication, services and reputation

are prominent. It is also found that interviewees find it highly important that the image is

consistent through different channels so that the brand conveys a holistic image.

Keywords: branding, brand image, multi-channel, store image, website image, fashion

Table of content 1. INTRODUCTION 6

1.1 Background 6

1.2 Problem discussion 7

1.3 Purpose 9

2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 10

2.1 Brand image 10

2.2 Channel image attributes 13

2.3 Offline image 15

2.3.1 Functional attributes of offline image 16

2.3.2 Psychological attributes of offline image 17

2.4 Online image 17

2.4.1 Functional attributes of online image 18

2.4.2 Psychological attributes of online image 19

3. METHODOLOGY 21

3.1 Research approach 21

3.2 Choice of context 21

3.3 Sample selection 22

3.4 Data collection 22

3.5 Interview coding and data analysis 24

3.6 Quality of the study 25

3.7 Reflection of the method 26

4. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 27

4.1 Connection between channels 27

4.2 How do consumers perceive brand image offline? 28

4.2.1 Surrounding environment 28

4.2.2 Products and collections 29

4.2.3 Price and value 30

4.2.4 Promotions and marketing 30

4.2.5 Store personnel and service 31

4.2.6 Reputation 31

4.3 How do consumers perceive brand image online? 33

4.3.1 Easy access and navigation 33

4.3.2 Design and aesthetics 34

4.3.3 Merchandise description 34

4.3.4 Price and value 35

4.3.5 Communication 36

4.3.6 Services 37

4.3.7 Reputation 37

4.4 Final discussion 38

4.4.1 Different characteristics of attributes 39

4.4.2 Overall perception of brand image 40

5. CONCLUSION 43

5.1 Theoretical and managerial implications 43

5.2 Limitation of the research 44

5.3 Future research 44

Reference list 45

Appendix 1 - Interview guide 52

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Marketing and branding are increasingly important in today's fashion industry. The discipline

of marketing is a bridging function that connects the immaterial properties of fashion with the

concrete realities of fashion (Posner 2011). Marketing can form a holistic system, connecting

the goals of a firm with the desires, ideas, and actual needs of a consumer. As companies are

matching in their abilities to offer fashionable products at reasonable prices and quality, the

relevancy of branding as an important tool is increasing (ibid.). Fashion branding has changed

as the number of retailers has exploded. As a consequence, consumers have countless

alternatives to choose from. The right product, in the right place at the right time is according

to Kim and Sullivan (2019) no longer sufficient. Instead, they explain that consumers are

looking for something extra that is emotionally connecting, especially when it comes to fashion

brands (ibid.). That is where branding gets to shine.

The phenomenon of branding has been seen in several forms for centuries, serving as a tool to

distinguish goods of one producer to another. The Greeks and Romans, and probably even

others before them, used branding of products in trade as a means to make a name for

themselves (Room 1998). Bastos and Levy (2012) explain the early rise of branding activities

as the human desire to become a person of consequence, to create an identity, and to create a

context of inclusiveness while at the same time uniqueness. Despite this, branding has

historically not been considered a major academic marketing activity (Bastos & Levy 2012)

and thereby not been prioritized by managers, but as time has changed, so has the attention for

branding (Perrey & Spillecke 2013).

The companies’ focus on brands and branding has gradually increased during the 20th century.

Cherington’s (1920) early works on branding explain the concept as a rising phenomenon in

marketing and sales practice, effectuated by salesmanship, and advertising practices. He further

explains that the use of trademarks and labels, accompanied by quality, is essential in branding

and that proper and successful work with branding is the most prominent method of sale (ibid).

Clark (1927) further emphasizes the importance this implies for individual producers selling

standardized products as branding tends to establish an idea of quality and character among

potential customers. As the supply of retail products increased during the mid-20th century,

consumers were forced to make choices between brands offering similar products. Keller

(2002) argues that creating a strong brand can provide companies with several benefits, both

bottom-line and others. He further states that as a consequence, branding practices have been

applied in all kinds of settings ranging from retail stores to physical products or places (ibid.).

According to Keller and Lehmann (2006), brands serve as markers for the companies’ offer.

They argue that brands have a big impact on consumers as they can simplify choice, give

promises regarding quality, reduce risk and induce trust, and reflect the overall experience that

consumers have with the product (ibid). Keller (2002) acknowledges that creating a strong

brand has numerous positive effects on macro as well as micro levels. On a macro level, this

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can entail market leadership, while a micro perspective might imply product-related effects

such as brand associations and familiarity, increasing consumer confidence, positive attitude

towards the brand, and purchase intention (ibid.).

Today, the intangible asset that is their brand is to many companies one of their most valuable

assets (Keller 2002). As a result, branding is more frequently seen as a potential source of

competitive advantage (Perrey & Spillecke 2013), and as a way to create brand equity. Brand

equity is defined as the consumer’s perceived added value that is associated with a product

offered by a company, accrued by the brand beyond the product’s functional or utilitarian value

(Aaker 1991; Ambler 2003; Keller 1993). Biel (1992) states that brand image is the most

important driver of brand equity. Brand image can be defined as how consumers think of a

brand, thus, the perception of the brand in the eyes of the consumers (e.g. Grubor & Milovanov

2017; Lee, James & Kim 2014). According to Lee et al. (2014), brand image is a highly critical

component of brand equity. They assert that brand image is the basis of making better and more

informed strategic marketing decisions. Further, they claim that brand image is an effective

way to differentiate one brand from another, why managers should put effort into seeking,

selecting, sustaining, and supporting a positive brand image (ibid.). For retail companies, this

can be argued to be especially important given the highly competitive nature of the industry

(Ailawadi & Keller 2004).

Previous literature has used brand image as a way to explain certain consumer behaviors

regarding motivations for purchase (Rehman & Ihsan 2017; Erdil 2015; Reza-Jalilvand &

Samiei 2012). Gardner and Levy (1955) suggested that products have a physical nature, but

also social and psychological, which can explain why consumers have certain feelings, ideas,

and attitudes towards a brand or a product. According to them, this is an indication of why

brand image is crucial in regard to the purchase decision process (ibid.). Dobni and Zinkhan

(1990) explain that the reason why some products are purchased or avoided can be derived not

from their physical qualities, but from the level of congruity between the brand’s image and

the ideal self-image of the buyer. The rise of online retailing has led to even further competition

in the retail industry, contributing to further implications for brand image. Landers, Beatty,

Wang, and Mothersbaugh (2015) claim that one issue of prevailing interest is how the

incongruence between online and offline channels affect outcomes such as attitudes towards

the brand. As consumers increasingly shop in multiple channels, this becomes more and more

important (Rangaswamy & van Bruggen 2005). Kwon and Lennon (2009a) acknowledge how

retailers therefore must understand how to manage brand image through both offline and online

channels.

1.2 Problem discussion

Since there are innumerable fashion brands, branding becomes both complex yet highly

important for companies in order to differentiate themselves and thus provide consumers with

an attractive offering. Išoraitė (2018) asserts that a product or a service can achieve recognition

in a saturated market only if it is accompanied by a strong brand image. She further highlights

that brand image can be perceived as an emotion, which itself is an intangible asset enabling

long term prosperity (ibid.). Consumers tend to make buying decisions that are formed by the

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image consumers have regarding themselves (Onkvisit & Shaw 1987). The image individuals

want to convey and associate themselves with contributes to specific consuming behaviors

which is important to have in mind from a marketing perspective (Heat & Scott 1998).

Since 1950, the concept of brand image has occurred frequently in branding literature (Dobni

& Zinkhan 1990). It has been clarified that brand image is an effective way of gaining brand

equity within the branding practice (e.g. Zhang 2015; Lee et al. 2014). Despite this, the

definition of brand image has changed over time, and there seems to be no widely accepted

definition until today. As a consequence, the concept of brand image tends to be unclear and

misinterpreted in a way that is far from its original meaning (Lee et al. 2014). This has also

resulted in a lack of consensus on how brand image constructions will be operationalized

(Dobni & Zinkhan 1990).

Since online consumption has led to further increased competition in the retail industry and a

shift in the market structure, multi-channel retailing has almost become required (Kwon &

Lennon 2009b). In a highly competitive environment, this ought to put pressure on brands to

convey a consistent brand image through all channels. Research on multi-channeling indicates

that online and offline channels complement each other (Trotter 2016; Wang & Goldfarb 2017).

Gefen (2000) argues how the combined effort of offline and online activity and the integration

between them can enhance both customer loyalty and the brand image of a retailer. Landers et

al. (2015) further acknowledge that since the growth of multi-channels, it has become

considerably important to manage the brand image through different channels. Previous

research pertaining to brand image in multi-channels has largely focused on how offline brand

image has a clear impact on the online brand image (Kwon & Lennon 2009b; Hahn & Kim

2009). According to Palmer and Griffith (1998) the online channel function as an extension to

the image of the company. The perception of the online channel is depending on how consistent

it is with the offline channel (ibid.). Kwon and Lennon (2009a) argue that the brand image will

deteriorate if the operations are inconsistent through the different channels. They further

suggest that there is a reciprocal relationship between the different channels regarding brand

image. Despite the widely acknowledged interplay of online and offline brand image creation,

there are however limitations in previous studies regarding how this should be managed in

practice. The knowledge of how consumers perceive brand image and what they emphasize in

different channels are barely existing.

Little academic research has provided understanding into issues such as how consumers

perceive brand image in various types of channels of a multi-channel brand. This is also in line

with the rapid change in market dynamics due to the increased number of channels and changes

in consumption patterns that have resulted in lack of research on how brand image should be

managed in multi-channel companies (Landers et al. 2015). Nor does previous research provide

exhaustive insight into how consumers think that brand image in one channel might relate to

brand image in another channel. There is also a distinct lack of research on brand image in

fashion companies, as most previous studies are implemented in a general context. As

differentiation through branding is highly critical for fashion brands in today’s fashion market

(Kim & Sullivan, 2019), along with the lack of knowledge regarding brand image strategies

for multi-channel retailers, this research aims to provide further knowledge on the subject.

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Increased knowledge of how consumers perceive and assess brand image in multi-channel

fashion companies can provide companies with valuable knowledge in the creation of future

brand image strategies.

1.3 Purpose

The objective of this study is to develop the existing knowledge of how consumers perceive

brand image of multi-channel fashion companies, by applying an explorative methodological

viewpoint. In order to do so, brand image will be reviewed from different perspectives in order

to analyze how consumers interpret the concept of brand image. The intent is further to identify

important constituents of brand image in the eyes of consumers. This will be done by analyzing

offline and online sales channels, which also gives rise to an analysis of whether those

channels’ images are interconnected and how the images are related. This will be done with

the purpose of providing insight into how multi-channel brands should manage brand image

through different sales channels.

The purpose has led to the following research question which is to be examined;

How do consumers perceive offline and online brand image of multi-channel fashion

brands?

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2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Brand image

Brands are an integral part of consumers’ everyday life and play a big role in daily choices

(Grubor & Milovanov 2017). Consumers turn to brands they prefer in terms of the ideas

embedded in their image. Successful brands have numerous loyal customers and they have the

capability to influence and change consumers’ attitudes, behaviors, and lifestyles (ibid).

Having a strong brand has become crucial in the retail industry since it contributes to customer

loyalty and it drives store choice (Azad, Kasehchi, Asgari & Bagheri 2014). Companies further

need to know what attributes in regard to the store drives loyalty and satisfaction (Olsen &

Skallerud 2011), since brand loyalty is one of the main factors impacting the success of the

store (Azad et al. 2014). The associations consumers have to a brand are the reflection of the

brand image, which in turn represents the emotional feelings a consumer has towards a brand.

Authors have taken on different perspectives when defining brand image throughout the years.

A collection of definitions on brand image is presented in table 1. Although not exhaustive, the

table presents a cross-section of definitions from 1957 onwards. Despite brand image still being

a hot topic for research within branding, recent literature tends to rely on definitions from past

literature rather than bringing new contributions. Thus, many of the definitions occurring in

today's literature are from 1960 to 1990. These definitions have been grouped in different

categories based on the conceptual nature of the definitions. Previous researchers have applied

categorization as a means to distinguish conceptual differences and variations (Dobni &

Zinkhan 1990; Lee et al. 2014), though, they are applying a broader definition of brand image

including brand identity, brand personality, brand experience, etc. However, even though this

review emphasizes a narrower meaning of brand image which has led to other definitions being

reviewed, the categorization suggested by Dobni and Zinkhan (1990) is still considered

applicable and relevant. The five categories, or perspectives, of brand image are symbolism,

meanings and messages, personification, cognitive or psychological and blanket definition

(ibid.).

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Tabell 1 Definitions of brand image

Some authors tend to emphasize symbolism in brand image. Definitions that emphasize

symbolism is according to Dobni and Zinkhan (1990) and Levy (1958) used as a general term

explaining that things entail more ideas and feeling than the product actually do itself, as the

product express something beyond its proper purpose. One example of how this is applied in

brand image theory is provided by Summers (1964) who describes brand image as the meaning

that a product has perceived product symbolism. Pohlman and Mudd (1973) also describe how

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the purchased item is conceptualized of two kinds of value; one that is functional and one that

is symbolic. Researchers applying a symbolic perspective seem to view brand image in a wider

perspective where there is added symbolic value to the product. In that way, the symbolic

perspective has similarities to the meanings and messages perspective. Instead of symbolic

value, this perspective is focused on meanings embedded in the product. It appears that the

interpretation of what meanings are varies among researchers (Dobni & Zinkhan 1990), as well

as the perceived meaning to consumers. Levy (1978) expresses that brands are more than just

physical attributes; consumers buy brands because of the meaning associated with it which is

the concept of brand image. Dobni and Zinkhan (1990) also clarify how brand image is the

meaning associated with the brand and further declare how the associations are based on

impressions, experiences, and perceptions or the benefits from the brand derived from

emotional and functional factors.

Previous perspectives differ from the third, emphasizing personification, in the sense that

advocates of personification mean that the product or the brand has its own personality, or that

the attributes of one product are tightly linked to the personality of the consumer (Dobni &

Zinkhan 1990). One example is provided by Sirgy (1985) who states that products are assumed

to have a personality image, just as people do. Other researchers are more detailed in their

personification, as to give the products human attributes. Debevec and Iyer (1986) for example,

explain that advertisers often work to create gender for a brand, while Bettinger, Dawson, and

Wales (1979) describe products as having an age image linked to the product.

The cognitive or psychological perspective is by Dobni and Zinkhan (1990) rather explained

as to how products stress a cognitive or mental process giving rise to the creation of brand

image. They argue that most researchers applying this perspective are influenced by Gardner

and Levy’s (1955) conceptualization of brand image, explaining that image consists of

cognitive and psychological elements that represent different feelings, ideas, and attributes.

The brand communicates the associations it has created as a public object during the time of

existence. Dobni and Zinkhan (1990) summarize cognitive and psychological definitions as

referring to ideas, feelings, attitudes, mental constructs, understandings, or expectations.

Martineau (1957) states that brand image consists of a set of attitudes and feelings and that

brand image is the halo of psychological meanings and the determined aesthetics of a brand is

more than just the physical qualities. Friedmann and Lessig (1987) are in line with Martineau,

as they state that brand image is a mental position, understanding, or evaluation of the product

that develops in a nonrandom way form interaction between perceiver and product stimulus.

Despite different definitions, what all cognitive or psychological explanations of brand image

seem to have in common is the fact that they link the product to the emotions of the consumer.

There are also some broad attempts made to define brand image. Herzog (1963) stands for one

of them, saying that brand image is the sum of total impressions the consumer receives from

many sources. Newman (1957) is another example, expressing that a brand can be viewed as a

composite image of everything people associate with it. Dobni and Zinkhan (1990) question

these definitions’ actual contribution to refined knowledge on brand image, as their definitions

are so broad and imprecise. Despite the critique towards them, their contributions are important

to acknowledge as they provide an initial understanding and a general sense of brand image.

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However, there seem to be almost as many suggestions of definitions as there are numbers of

researchers within the area. Though, it can be interpreted that most definitions are different

ways of expressing similar information out of different viewpoints of the researcher and with

different levels of depth.

2.2 Channel image attributes

Several previous attempts to more deeply explain and evaluate customer perspectives of brand

image have turned to specific attributes that together make up the holistic image of the brand

(e.g. Marks 1976; James, Durand & Dreves 1976). As the definition and scope of brand image

have changed over time, the attributes or dimensions used as indicators adopted to influence

the overall brand image has changed too. There do not seem to be any generally valid

recommendations regarding the number of attributes used, as it varies between different studies

and research fields. The number of attributes used in previous research range from only five

(Ailawadi & Keller 2004; Doyle & Fenwick 1974) to as many as 42 (May 1971). Back in 1974,

Lindquist defined relevant attributes as merchandise, service, clientele, physical facilities,

comfort, promotion, store atmosphere, institutional and post-transaction satisfaction to analyze

brand image, while Doyle and Fenwick (1974) distinguished only five; product, price,

assortment, styling and location. A few years later, Schiffman, Dash, and Dillon (1977)

suggested the following; convenience of store location, price, and deal policy,

guarantee/warranty policy, salesmen expertise, and variety of merchandise. More recent studies

have suggested consumer preference, merchandising, store atmosphere, in-store service,

accessibility, reputation, promotions, facilities and post-transaction service (Thang & Tan

2003) while Ailawadi and Keller (2004) only proposed five; access, in-store atmosphere, price

and promotion, cross-category product/service assortment and within-category brand/item

assortment. Even though the attributes suggested varies slightly depending on the type of study,

the outcomes regarding characteristics of the perceived brand image can be argued to be fairly

consistent.

All of the mentioned studies are focused on store image and do not cover for multi-channel

brand image. However, based on a comprehensive literature review of previously suggested

attributes, Bezes (2014) suggests a measurement index that is common to both store and

website image, enabling a comparison to be made despite the differences in channel properties.

A common measurement can enhance multi-channel customer management, as a step towards

increased customer value and loyalty, as it helps managers to better evaluate and coordinate

their various channels (Bezes 2014; Neslin, Grewal, Leghorn, Shankar, Teerling, Thomas &

Verhoef 2006). The index presented by Bezes (2014) consists of ten channel image attributes;

merchandise/offering, price, layout/atmosphere, accessibility/convenience, promotions,

customer service, store personnel/advice, reputation, institution, and connections with other

channels. However, the frame of measure resulting in those attributes is created in a industry

general context, why the applicability of the measurement in the fashion industry can be called

into question. Tough, in the research of exploring how consumers perceive brand image in

different channels, the attributes presented in previous literature might be considered as

indicative of possible prominent areas.

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Those attributes are in many aspects different from each other. This might entail difficulties in

the creation of general understanding regarding how consumers perceive the image companies

convey through different channels. Further grouping of attributes might be advantageous in

order to get an overall understanding of what attributes affect the image in different channels.

Previous literature has defined store image based upon different categorization of store

attributes. Park, Jarowski, and MacInnis (1986) explain how consumers create an image

associated with a brand based on different functional and symbolic attributes. Keller (1993)

agrees with Park et al. (1986) on how functional and symbolic attributes contribute to

establishing a brand image. He mentions how the associations individuals have towards a brand

are multidimensional and in addition to functional and symbolic attributes, he also addresses

experiential attributes as a dimension. He further explains how the functional benefits are

product-related attributes, the symbolic benefits are usually associated with needs such as

social approval while the experiential benefits are related to the feeling that arises when using

the products or services (ibid.). Thompson and Chen (1998) instead suggest classification based

on concrete and abstract attributes which lead to functional consequences such as time spent in

the store. The concrete attributes represent the physical features of the store such as layout and

price and the abstract attributes are subjective representations of the store, which include for

instance store atmosphere and value (ibid.).

Moreover, Martineau (1958) argues how the store image is based upon tangible and intangible

attributes. Those classification attributes seem to be used interchangeably with functional and

physiological attributes. Verhagen and Van Dolen (2009) acknowledge how there are many

existing classifications of attributes in regard to store image. Regardless of the differences in

classification suggested by different authors, Verhagen and Van Dolen (2009) argue that

tangible and intangible are the most appropriate categories for store attributes since they state

that all attributes are either tangible or intangible in character. They further mention how

tangible factors, also known as functional factors, can for instance revolve around price,

merchandise, and layout. The intangible factors, on the other hand, also known as the

psychological factors, evolves around factors such as the reputation and how attentive the staff

is (ibid.). Kent (2003) also recognizes how the construction of store image includes both

tangible and intangible attributes which are the combination of the functional store’s qualities

and the psychological attributes which the consumer relates to them.

As can be seen, there are multiple ways of classifications applied in previous research.

However, for this study, the classifications functional and psychological will be applied. This

is since this categorization of attributes has been widely used in previous research regarding

the particular subject researched in this study; store image (Kent 2003; Verhagen & Van Dolen

2009; Hu, Xin Liu, Wang & Yang 2012; Bèzes 2014). In addition, functional and psychological

categories are argued to hold most of the categories used in previous research. For instance,

Hu, Xin Liu, Wang and Yang (2012) explain how tangible image is connected to functional

attributes, while the symbolic image is associated with intangible and psychological attributes.

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2.3 Offline image

The concept of store image was first defined by Martineau in 1958, saying that store image is

“the way in which the store is defined in the shopper's mind, partly by its functional qualities

and partly by an aura of psychological attributes” (p.47). Since then, several researchers have

come up with further developed contributions. James et al. (1976) defined it as “a set of

attitudes based upon evaluation of those store attributes deemed important by consumers” (p.

25). In 1998, Grewal, Krishnan, Baker, and Borin state that the store image is made up of the

store’s consuming environment, service level, and product quality.

Regardless of the many definitions, store image directly affects customer purchase intention

(e.g. Grewal et al. 1998; Wu, Yeh, Hsiao 2011). Martineau (1958) argues that retail companies

that succeed to project a store image that is close to the target customers’ self-perceived image,

would as a consequence benefit from increased loyalty towards the store. Dick, Jain, and

Richardson (1995) have observed that store image act as an important indicator of store brand

quality. Consumers seem to use small fractions reflecting the store image overall evaluation,

affecting the attitude towards the store and the brand as a whole (ibid.). Previous research

indicates that store image entails managerial and profitability implications for the brand as a

whole. Chowdhury, Reardon, and Srivastava (1998) assert that store image is highly relevant

from a strategic viewpoint. In regard to the impact store image has on profitability, they argue

that it has concrete and consequential managerial relevance (ibid.). Though, Lindquist (1974)

conclude that store image is a complex concept, difficult to manage, deduced from the fact that

it is created from a combination of tangible and intangible factors.

Some store image attributes can be classified as functional in the sense that they are somewhat

objective so that consumers can relatively easily compare attributes of one brand to another

(Myers 2003). This research takes on the same definition of functionality as Mazursky and

Jacoby (1986) suggested, saying that functional qualities of a product or brand refer to tangible

characteristics that can be somewhat objectively compared to competitors or measured.

Consequently, attributes with tangible characteristics such as accessibility/convenience,

layout/atmosphere, merchandise/offering, price, and promotions which can relatively easily be

measured are examples of attributes constituting the functional attributes. As for the

psychological attributes, Myers (2003) explain that those are comprised of more symbolic

meanings, intangible in nature as they originate from the personality image consumers have of

a specific store (ibid.). Saraswat, Mammen, Aagja, and Tewari (2010) explain how those

attributes rather refer to intangible feelings that the consumers experience by visiting the store,

such as a sense of belonging, feeling of excitement or feeling of warmth and friendliness.

Thereby, the intangible attributes of store image are argued to include customer service, store

personnel/advice, reputation, institution, and connections with other channels. Despite the

differences, both functional and psychological attributes are important factors to make up the

total brand image. A discussion on how those attributes have been justified in previous

literature and how they relate to offline image as well as online image will follow.

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2.3.1 Functional attributes of offline image

Attempts to facilitate store image as a managerial tool has led to decomposition of store image

into multiple attributes. Previous research has concluded that accessibility and convenience are

critical makers of a store’s image (e.g. Lindquist 1974; Wu Petroshius & Newell 2004).

According to Samli, Kelly, and Hunt (1998), location affects the store image in the way that it

either enhance or detract the store image. Ailawadi and Keller (2004) disclose that the location

of the store and the distance that the consumer needs to travel to get there are basic criteria in

their store choice decision. Mitchell and Harris (2005) also assess convenience as an important

attribute, referring to the amount of time required to find the store and make a purchase. Bèzes

(2014) describes accessibility and convenience in terms of the impact of store proximity to

consumer nodes as well as ease of accessibility, for example by nearby parking facilities.

Since the first research on store image by Martineau (1958), the impact of layout and

atmosphere of the store have been widely studied. Samli et al. (1998) explain layout as an

important factor for consumers when evaluating a store. According to them, layout represents

the easiness of moving around in-store, the easiness of finding departments, and the

attractiveness of in-store displays (ibid.). Kwon and Lennon (2009a) explain the

interconnectedness between atmosphere and store environment, whereas Ailawadi and Keller

(2004) mention how different elements making up in-store environment affect the store

atmosphere which in turn affects whether or not a consumer visits a store, how much time and

money they spend there. Bèzes (2014) explains how layout and atmosphere can be assessed for

example through the interior and exterior design, product layout, width of aisles, perceived

disarray, and store lifecycle.

Several studies have highlighted the important role of product offering and merchandise in-

store image (e.g Lindquist 1974; Mazursky & Jacoby 1986). Schiffman et al. (1977) describe

the importance in terms of variety of brands, while Samli et al. (1998) add product quality,

width of assortment, and familiarity of the brands. Birtwistle, Clarke, and Freathy (1999) assess

merchandise based on price, quality and fashion, and style. Bèzes (2014) includes all of the

mentioned attributes with the extension of stock for sale. Promotion, addressed as the summary

grouping of sales promotion, advertising, display, trading stamps and symbols and colors

(Lindquist 1974) are also frequently occurring in assessing store image. Greenberg, Sherman,

and Schiffman (1983) state that promotions are one of the most prominent factors in

consumers’ decision making. Previous literature indicates a close relationship between

promotions and price, and how consumers witness the importance it has for the overall store

image. Schiffman et al. (1977) show that price and promotion are of great importance to the

majority of shoppers. Ailawadi and Keller (2004) claim that pricing and promotions are crucial

for retail brands and that it is tightly connected to other attributes of store image. The impact

of promotion is, for example, depending on the store atmosphere as the likeliness of promotion

leading to consumption is depending on the time spent in-store (ibid.). Samli et al. (1998)

suggest that customer perceived importance of price can be assessed from value, lowest

everyday price, and the lowest advertised price. Birtwistle et al. (1999) instead claim that price

solely reflects value for money, which is the most important factor when deciding where to

17

buy. According to Bèzes (2014), price and promotions are about maintaining competitive

prices as well as managing sales promotions, bonuses and happenings, and promotional events.

2.3.2 Psychological attributes of offline image

Reputation has in many studies been used as an attribute to understand perceptions of brand

image (e.g. Lindquist 1974; Schiffman et al. 1977; Samli et al. 1998). Thang and Tan (2003)

refer to reputation as the impression of stores in the minds of the consumers. They further

explain that reputable stores advantage from securing consumers’ trust as they entail a

phycological assurance of quality or worth. This also affiliates to a pride of ownership of the

products (ibid.). Bèzes (2014) denotes that reputation can be analyzed from safety, integrity,

reliability as well as policies for returns, exchanges, and warranty.

As presented previously, Bèzes (2014) presents advice or sales personnel as one attribute of

brand image. Samli et al. (1998) assert that sales personnel’s knowledge, helpfulness, and

friendliness enhance the customers’ responsiveness, assurance, and empathy during the retail

experience. Schiffman et al. (1977) consent and emphasize the importance of well informed,

knowledgeable salesmen in specialty stores. In-store service provided by salesmen is according

to Thang and Tan (2003) likely to have a strong impact on the consumers’ purchasing behavior.

Bèzes (2014) refers to advice as to the level of sales assistance, expertise, and ability to compare

alternatives. This differs from the next attribute, services, which comprise ease and speed of

transaction, after-sales services, deliveries, ease of credit, and extended partner offers (Bèzes

2014). Thang and Tan (2003) express that consumers consume the intangible merchandise

offered through in-store services, hence stores that provide good services infuse consumers

with a favorable perception, leading to repeated visits. Samli et al. (1998) assess service

policies as an important contributor to a store’s image, and propose the following attributes as

indicators; no-hassle return policies, replacement of defective items (under warranty), easy

cash checks and layaway policies.

The previous research on the connection with the other channels is inadequate as mentionings

in previous literature are few. Yet, Bèzes (2014) argues that the attribute is particularly

important in a multi-channel environment. Choi and Lee (2003) prove this by explaining that

the consumers’ perceived risk is reduced by the relationship between the store and the website.

Institution of the brand refers to the credibility of the source behind the channel (Bèzes 2014;

Korgaonkar & Karson 2007). According to Bèzes (2014), institution is evaluated through

information about the company and the history and record of the company.

2.4 Online image

There is a level of uncertainty when shopping online since the customer do not have the

possibility to physically inspect the products (Aghekyan-Simonian, Forsythe, Kwon &

Chattaraman 2012). Due to this, it is even more important to be able to rely on the image of a

brand (Chang & Tseng 2013), this is because customers tend to rely on the brand name when

it comes to assessing the quality of products online (Aghekyan-Simonian et al. 2012). Hence,

the company needs to establish a positive brand image to entice consumers to the online store.

18

It is imperative to offer good quality and reduce the customers’ costs and risks (Chang & Tseng

2013). Furthermore, various attributes have shown to have an influence on the perceived brand

image and the purchase intention (Van der Heijden & Verhagen 2004), one example being the

design of the website (Aghekyan-Simonian et al. 2012). Chang and Tseng (2013) argue that

the website image consists of tangible/functional and intangible/psychological attributes,

similar to the offline store. As there is no evidence that the functional and psychological

attributes of online image are different from offline image, Bèzes (2014) suggests that the same

classification is applicable for both channels, whose argument is applied in the current study.

Thereby, the functional attributes are argued to be accessibility/convenience,

layout/atmosphere, merchandise/offering price, and promotions, while the psychological are

argued to be customer service, store personnel/advice, reputation, institution, and connections

with other channels. In the section below, attributes that previous literature argues have an

impact on online brand image will further be addressed.

2.4.1 Functional attributes of online image

Accessibility and convenience are the basis of online websites since online shopping can be

done whenever and wherever. An important factor regarding convenience in online stores is

that it should be easy and not time-consuming to browse (Szymanski & Hise 2000). In order to

reach customer satisfaction, the content of a website must be carefully organized since

customers want to be able to navigate easily and quickly, for instance by categorizing the

different products logically (Katerattanakul & Siau 2003).

The layout and atmosphere of the website also concern with how organized the website is, the

ease of browsing, and navigation efficiency (Bèzes, 2014). Kwon and Lennon (2009a) address

how the atmosphere is important in regard to the design and aesthetic of the website, how

pleasing and inspiring it is to visit the website will ultimately affect the online store image. A

report presented by Kwon and Lennon (2009a) shows that the physical store might be affected

by the layout of the website, as 30 percent of the respondents stated that they would not visit

the offline stores of a specific brand if the design of the online store was unappealing. Bèzes

(2014) additionally mentions how the loading speed of the webpage is an imperative factor.

Further, the website should be consistent and have a clear explanation of the products (ibid.).

The merchandise offered on a website is also of great importance, as customers’ overall

perception could improve if the online merchandise is viewed in a positive way. Szymanski

and Hise (2000) mention product information and product offerings as important factors for

assessing merchandise. They state that companies should focus on offering exceptional product

assortment to get satisfied customers and improve the ratings of the online store. Meeting

customer needs is more likely if having a superior assortment, especially when the products

requested not are extensively distributed, for instance, limited products that are only available

online. Offering good quality products would according to Szymanski and Hise (2000) also

improve the assortment and customer attitude towards the online store. Since the search costs

are lower when consuming online, consumers are more likely to buy products with good

quality. In turn, failed products and the costs associated with that will decrease. Returning

merchandise and the loss of reputation when products are failing is an example of these costs

19

(ibid.). Katerattanakul and Siau (2003) mention how it is imperative to have a variety of

products, while Chen and Lee (2005) emphasize how websites should offer clear descriptions

and pictures of the products they offer. Information about delivery time and availability should

also be included (Katerattanakul & Siau 2003). Bèzes (2014) also highlights the importance of

the assortment range, both its width and depth. Features that are distinctive for the website

should also be considered as essential attributes in relation to brand image.

Price and promotion are also known to be important factors for an online store since good

prices will attract a bigger group of people (Katerattanakul & Siau 2003). Chen and Lee (2005)

also mention how special offers are an enticement for customers. Van der Heijden and

Verhagen (2004) continues by explaining how value for money concerns the customers’

decisions when consuming online. However, price and promotion are insignificant factors if

the design and atmosphere of the website are unpleasing (Katerattanakul & Siau 2003).

Though, Bèzes (2014) explains how specific offers and deals are a way of attracting consumers

to visit the website.

2.4.2 Psychological attributes of online image

In terms of the reputation of a website, people are reported to have more trust in a website with

a good reputation. Lim and Dubinsky (2004) mention how a good reputation is derived from

word of mouth by acquaintances. They further explain that brands that are internationally

recognized tend to have a good reputation even without the need for word of mouth or similar

marketing activities. The company should offer the customers reliability to enhance its

reputation (ibid). Furthermore, a secure transaction process and a safe way to maintain

customer privacy are highly crucial for companies in order to keep a good reputation

(Katerattanakul & Siau 2003). In addition, return and exchange policies, and the possibilities

to do it efficiently and seamlessly are factors that will affect the reputation (Bèzes 2014).

Since there is no physical communication in the online store, the meaning of store personnel

and advice differ noticeably from the offline store. However, it is always important to offer

customers advice even though there is no physical store personnel. Finding other ways of

communication is crucial, which can be done through detailed and appropriate information and

pictures of the products (Katerattanakul & Siau 2003). Bèzes (2014) further addresses the

importance of assistance and services, for example, the possibility to call and ask for advice.

The staff should be helpful, friendly, and of course knowledgeable to increase customer

satisfaction (Spiller & Lohse 1997). Further services on the website can involve specific search

functions that facilitates finding the desired products more efficiently (Spiller & Lohse 1997).

Bèzes (2014) also mentions that it should be easy to cancel an order and the return policies

must be easy and accommodating. Being able to track the shipment is further a favorable

function, as well as being able to choose among different delivery options such as picking up

the product in the store or at a pick-up point, or have it delivered to the home (ibid.).

It is further argued that the online channel should be connected to the other channels in the

company as well, the online store has the possibility to promote the offline store and vice versa.

Steinfield (2004) mentions the possibility to pick up or return a product in the offline store, in

20

turn, this will increase the visit streams to the store. The website should also offer information

about the online store, such as location, opening hours, and events (ibid.). Bèzes (2014) further

mentions easy access to phone-numbers and email-address and a map of the store locations as

useful functions to reduce the distance between channels. Lastly, in this case, the attribute

institution refers to information about the brand. Steinfield (2004) declares how the website

should offer information on the background and history of the brand to inform customers about

the company's journey.

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3. METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research approach

For the present study, a qualitative method has been applied to generate a deeper understanding

of how consumers perceive brand image in offline and online sales channels. According to

Bryman and Bell (2007), qualitative research is engaging with words instead of numbers and

it is the primary choice when social phenomena and human behaviors are being analyzed. By

taking on an explorative methodological viewpoint, this study aims to gain an understanding

of the opinions, attitudes, experiences, and predictions that form the consumers’ perceiving of

brand image, and to understand how that perceiving might differ from different sales channels.

According to Rowley (2012), interviews are argued to be advantageous in research aiming to

gain insight into an unknown topic. She continues by explaining that interviews are a more

flexible way of gathering data than other options (e.g. questionnaires) why interviews are better

for understanding opinions in an area where the previous knowledge is insufficient (ibid.).

Therefore, in order to establish a true perception as possible on how consumers perceive brand

image in a fashion context, semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted. Dobni and

Zinkhan (1990) explain how in-depth interviews are typical techniques while trying to identify

important attributes. In-depth interviews enable the interviewer to step into the world of the

interviewee and thereby get to see and experience the world as the interviewee does

(McCracken 1988). In-depth interviews are described as one of the most powerful methods and

the most revealing one among qualitative methods (ibid.).

3.2 Choice of context

Kim and Sullivan (2019) state that branding strategies are particularly important to fashion

brands, as for the ever-changing and highly competitive characteristics of the fashion market.

It is also argued that the symbolism that is embedded in fashion clothing makes brand image

in a fashion perspective even more important to consumers (Bearden & Etzel 1982; Escalas &

Bettman 2005). Though, there is a lack of knowledge on brand image in a fashion context and

what attributes that are affecting it (e.g. Miller & Mills 2012; Cho & Fiore 2015; Khan,

Rahmani, Hoe & Chen 2015). Therefore, this study intends to investigate brand image through

a fashion brand perspective. Even though fashion companies’ brand image creation is compiled

by the companies’ total interaction with consumers, the focus of this study is narrowed to brand

image in sales channels, and more precisely through brands’ physical stores and webshops.

This is since the physical store and website of the brand are still the largest sales channels as a

percentage of sales, despite recent years new alternative channels for shopping (Amed,

Balchandani, Berg, Hendrich, Poojara & Rölkens 2019). This research will further be focused

on brand-owned channels such as brand store and brand webshop. Other kinds of retail

channels (so-called indirect retail channels) will thereby be left outside of the study. This is

done in belief that brand image is highly depending on the core of the brand and that other

kinds of retailing, such as third-part retailing, is creating noise from other brands’ image and

are thereby negatively affecting the clarity of this study.

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3.3 Sample selection

For the selection of the sample, no attention was paid towards gender as there are no indications

of that perception of brand image are influenced by gender. Thus, the interviews were held

with both women and men where the ages ranged from 18 to 63. All participants were living

in Sweden. In order to participate in the research, all interviewees needed to consider

themselves as well-experienced in the area of fashion consumption in both online and offline

channels. In this way, it was assumed that the participants were (consciously or unconsciously)

familiar with attributes connected to shopping in multiple channels. The individuals that were

requested to participate were acquainted with the researchers, who considered that the intended

interviewee possessed good knowledge in the area covered by the interview and thereby

fulfilled the requirements for participation, hence the sample was a judgment sample. Marshall

(1996) reports how participants are actively chosen in a judgment sampling based on the sample

being the most productive to answer the research question. The researcher tends to evolve a

framework of different factors that may influence a participant’s contribution to the study. This

can be founded from the researchers’ insight into the research area and from existing literature

regarding the area of interest.

The ethical principle regarding anonymity have been followed and therefore fictitious female

names of the interviewees have been used throughout the study. In the table below the

interviewees, their age, and their occupation are presented.

Tabell 2 List of interview participants

3.4 Data collection

Semi-structured in-depth interviews were carried through with the participants. Five interviews

were conducted face to face and five were conducted through phone calls. Due to the fact that

some of the participants were short of time, five interviews were conducted through phone-

calls since it was the most effective solution. Rowley (2012) explains how telephone interviews

have become more frequently used since it is both time and cost-effective. Bolderston (2012)

23

advices how telephone calls should not last more than 30 minutes since the possibility of

inattention might affect quality. In accordance with this, the telephone calls did not last as long

as the face to face interviews, however, all interviews lasted between 30 to 40 minutes and the

quality of the different interview methods felt equally strong. A perceived advantage with the

phone calls was that the interviewee had some distance to the interviewer which could have

reduced the risk of being influenced by the interviewer in some way and it also allowed the

participant to be more open about some topics. In line with this observation, Bolderston (2012)

states that telephone calls might open up for a more honest and richer discussion about certain

topics. Although there are several advantages with telephone calls, a small connection

disturbance was experienced during one of the calls, which interfered with the flow of the

interview slightly which naturally was excluded in the face to face interviews. Another

advantage with the face to face interviews is the possibility to pay attention to facial expressions

and reactions. For instance, if any question felt uncertain there was a possibility to rephrase the

question. It was also easier to see if the interviewee felt very strongly about something.

Bolderston (2012) expresses how it is advantageous to be able to encourage the interviewee

with non-verbal cues, such as smiling, during interviews.

The interviews were based on an interview guide (see Appendix 1) highlighting the main topics

of the interview. The guide was made up of questions that were asked in order to gain an

understanding of the research question. The initial part of the interview guide was made up of

three questions regarding the interviewee and his/her relation to fashion consumption. The

following section of the questionnaire was divided into two parts (offline, online stores) in

order to analyze potential differences in channels. The first part concerns offline stores while

the second part concerns online stores. Those sections are made up of two major questions,

supported by four guiding questions.

Before initiating the data gathering, the interview guide was tested in two pilot-interviews.

Changes (mainly formulations) were made in accordance with the ambiguities expressed by

the interviewees. For instance, it emerged that questions about how the interviewee perceived

the image in either channel became a bit overwhelming for the interviewee, why this was

replaced by simplified terms in order to bypass certain words. Instead, questions like “what do

you like about shopping in the physical stores of the brand” were asked. After the pilot

interview, ten interviews were held which contributed to relevant information and were used

as a basis for the analysis. All interviews were held in Swedish as that was the native language

for all of the interviewees and was therefore believed to instill convenience for them. All

interviews were recorded, and the interviewers were taking support notes along the interviews.

After conducting the interviews, the need for data was considered to be saturated as there were

few new contributions that came up through the later interviews. The interviews were arranged

so that the interviewees got to choose one company that he/she felt they have good knowledge

and experience in shopping from, both from their online and offline store. This was motivated

since there was no aim of examining a particular company’s brand image that was to be

suggested by the interviewers. Instead, it was considered very important that the interviewees

had good knowledge of the brand. This is in order to get access to reflections made by the

participants during actual shopping experiences and not just those that emerge during an

24

interview situation. The interviews followed structured topics, but there were also room left for

the interviewees to talk freely about different interests which made the interview flexible. Once

the interview was done, the interviewer accounted for the answers made so that the

interviewees were given the opportunity to change their statements if they felt misunderstood.

3.5 Interview coding and data analysis

After conducting the interviews, the data was carefully analyzed. Rowley (2012) states that

there are a few generally accepted steps to be followed during the analyzing process which are

organizing the data set; getting acquainted with the data; classifying, coding, and interpreting

the data; and, presenting and writing up the data. Spiggle (1994) explains that there are many

possible ways to process data and proposes that the processing should be done systematically

in order to uncover all possible leads and minimize potential distortion. Rowley (2012) states

that the processing of data should start as soon as the interviews are conducted in order to

become familiar with the material. In accordance with this, the organization of data started as

soon as the interviews were held with translation and transcription of the recorded material.

Cresswell (2007) states that the process of analyzing data from qualitative research is a spiral,

meaning that you need to go through the material several times before reaching the center. This

was particularly distinct in the coding process, as new codes emerged for the researchers the

more the material was processed. Therefore, the coding was conducted in several steps, starting

by reading through all transcriptions. The material was then reviewed a second time and certain

words were highlighted as codes. Rowley (2012) describes codes as the main areas in which

insight has been generated, which are formed depending on the questions asked and the

previous literature. Spiggle (1994) explains categorization as a means of identifying data that

belongs to, represents, or is an example of a more general phenomenon. In this study, codes

were made up of words that were expressed as particularly important by the interviewees, were

mentioned several times, or were in some way expressed as important attributes. Other parts of

the text that did not contribute with interesting information remained uncoded in accordance

with suggestions by Spiggle (1994). In the third round of review, all codes were collected and

grouped into themes out of synonyms, similarities, and connections. At this step, the codes

were also divided into groups connected to online image, offline image, and a third group

covering both. This was collected in three separate coding schemes, where grouped codes made

up columns while interviewees made up rows. All sayings relating to codes were collected in

schemes to easily access and overview the data. This is also an effective way of keeping record

of the data along the entire process of study, which is highly advocated by Spiggle (1994).

Some codes, that were only mentioned occasionally and irrelevant in brand image context were

seen as non-representative and were therefore sorted out. The themes and the codes connected

were then analyzed based on existing knowledge presented in the theoretical framework, which

is to be presented in section four.

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3.6 Quality of the study

Reliability and validity are important factors in order to maintain a high level of research

quality. However, there is a discussion about the relevancy of the concepts regarding qualitative

studies. Sandberg (2005) discusses how it is complex to assess the reliability and validity in

qualitative studies since the study is an interpretation of the experienced social reality. He

explains the issue with grasping positivistic criteria when defending the results of interpretive

approaches since it is not in accordance with ontology and epistemology. For this reason,

reliability and validity need to be adapted to qualitative research, in order to validate the

knowledge about something as true.

The chosen interviewees are argued to be highly relevant for the study because of their previous

experiences with online and offline shopping. This experience was assessed as the primary

knowledge needed to have an understanding of brand image, which was required for

participation in the study. The interviewees were also firmly informed about the purpose of the

study before being interviewed. This is according to Sandberg (2005) one way to establish the

communicative validity of a study. Sandberg (2005) highlights communicative validity as one

criterion when trying to achieve truth in qualitative studies. The interviews were conducted

according to the interview guide, which consisted of quite few questions. However, the

questions in the interviews were substantiated with follow-up questions such as “Can you

elaborate further?” and “Why is that so?” in order to gain a deeper and more elaborated

understanding of the interviewees' experiences. Sandberg (2005) explains how follow-up

questions are another advantage when aiming for communicative validity, the interviewer gets

involved in a deep discussion with the interviewee to gradually reach a deeper understanding

by asking further questions.

After conducting the interviews, the material was carefully examined and analyzed in order to

make sure the material was interpreted correctly. The material has been handled thoroughly as

the interviews were recorded and carefully transcribed. Careful handling of the material will

according to (Bryman & Bell 2007) contribute to a more accurate analysis of the material. They

further mention the advantages of listening to the recordings several times and how it enables

the interviewer to pay more attention to the interviewees during the interview. Lapadat and

Lindsay (1999) also highlight the importance of transcribing the interviews thoroughly. Since

the researchers are able to listen to the interviews several times and reviewing them, a deeper

understanding regarding the matter will be derived (ibid.). The interviewees were able to

validate the result of the study in order to confirm that the results agree with reality. Having a

dialogue with the participants so the participants will be able to confirm that the findings are

valid, is according to Sandberg (2005) another way to establish communicative validity. Lather

(1993) explains how the analysis of material should be about searching and finding

contradictions, and not only about looking for consistent and similar interpretations of the

social world. This is a way to establish transgressive validity, hence truth in interpretive

approaches (ibid.).

Complete records of all stages have been held during the process, so everything can be

reviewed continuously throughout the process. The study has been carefully reviewed several

26

times by the researchers and the supervisor which according to Bryman and Bell (2007)

indicate a level of dependability. Sandberg (2005) explains how it is favorable to analyze the

transcripts several times, which is another way to justify the knowledge within interpretive

approaches. Furthermore, the researches have acted in good faith when not letting personal

values or beliefs affecting the result. Bryman and Bell (2007) mention this as a level of

confirmability which parallels objectivity.

3.7 Reflection of the method

As there are several ways of gathering data for qualitative research, each with advantages and

disadvantages, there is no consummate method. However, this section will discuss the risks of

deficiencies with the chosen method.

A judgment sample was chosen for the interviews based on the fact that chosen interviews were

assessed to possess the knowledge that was relevant for the study. However, Holme and

Solvang (1997) acknowledge the issues with interviewing acquaintances since certain

expectations can arise. Although, no issues emerged while interviewing the participants since

all interviewees gave detailed responses and seemed eager to express their feelings and

experiences. Although, since the interviewees are friends and familiars with the interviewers,

most with similar socio-cultural conditions, this aspect might impact the findings leading to

similar answers. For this reason, it would be interesting to interview people with different

socio-cultural backgrounds and examine if there are distinguishable differences. Another

reflection made regards the age range of the sample. It is an advantage to have a large age range

because it does not exclude anyone, however, the perception and importance of image may

differ significantly between an 18-year-old compared to a 63-year-old. For this reason, it is

difficult to apply the study to specific companies that may have a narrower target group.

Furthermore, the interviews were conducted in Swedish with the idea that the interviewees

would have easier to freely elaborate on certain feelings and opinions. However, Filep (2009)

acknowledges how there are some challenges when analyzing and translating data. For

instance, the meaning of certain words and phrases might differ in different countries. For this

reason, it is important to make sure the meaning of the phrases do not get “lost by translation”,

why both researchers took part in carefully translating all material step by step.

Suffering from disadvantages connected to qualitative methods, the result of the study cannot

be generalizable to any specific population but solely relevant to the purpose of the study.

However, this is according to Bryman (2012) common in qualitative studies. The study is also

hard to replicate since the purpose is to get a deeper subjective understanding, which again,

applies to all qualitative studies.

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4. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

Analysis of the findings shows that there are several attributes that form an important part of

the interviewees' perception of brand image. Ten interviewees provided their view of brand

image based on their previous experience when shopping from a self-selected brand, which

indicated that the interpretation and perception of brand image are unique to each person, as

the responses varied. How the interviewees valued different characteristics of brand image also

varied, with the result that the meaning of brand image varied depending on the interviewees’

values and subjective experience of what are the most valuable constituents of their chosen

brand. Though, the findings include several similarities regarding important elements brought

up by the interviewees, although highlighted in different lights. Through analysis, those

emerged as the attributes affecting brand image the most; six offline attributes and seven online

attributes that will be presented in the following sections.

4.1 Connection between channels

It emerges from the analysis that fashion brands should mediate a holistic feeling through all

channels in order to enhance the brand image. The interviewees believe that the feeling

obtained when visiting an offline store should be consistent with the feeling in the online store.

Palmer and Griffith (1998) explain how the perception of the online store depends on the

consistency with the offline store. The interviewees explain their positive impression towards

the brands that create a holistic concept that feels trustworthy through all channels. This is how

Julie express her opinion about consistency through both channels:

“I often use the website to get a first impression and to arise interest that makes me want to visit the store.

So, they are surely connected. Therefore, it is important that they provide the same feeling and garments

that I have seen online. They must be coordinated and tightly connected, in an omni-perspective” - Julie

Julie tends to get her first impression from the website, but some interviewees are in line with

Palmer and Griffith (1998) who state that the online store function as an extension to the image

of the company. Some interviewees expressed that they probably would not appreciate the

website of a brand if they did not like the offline store in the first place. Although, it seems like

there are certain criteria a website must follow, such as having an easily navigable website to

not deteriorate the brand image. The analysis implies that the interviewees to some extent take

the consistency between channels for granted and would not reflect on the consistency until

encountering a website that is perceived as significantly worse in comparison to the offline

store or vice versa. Michelle explains how she feels;

“I assume that I will be met by the same information, products, and artistic expressions regardless of the

channel I decide to visit” - Michelle

However, it also emerges that the website of a brand can improve the brand image even if the

physical store is viewed in a negative light. Helen explains how the website of a specific brand

has improved her overall perception of the brand image. She explains her opinion as follow:

28

“Many companies usually fail in one (channel) or the other. H&M for example, I think it is easy to

navigate there but I think the stores are a bit messy… On H&M, I would prefer to shop online because I

do not like the store. It is very individual from brand to brand” - Helen

The findings indicate that the consistency and interaction through both channels are important.

Some services offered by the brand through connections between the channels will contribute

to a positive idea about the brand. Steinfield (2004) mentions the possibility to pick up and

return orders in the offline store. It is also stated that consumers appreciate and value these

services. This will in turn increase the visit streams to the store, which is favorable for the

brand. It is also common that consumers tend to either browse online and buy the products in-

store or vice versa. The analysis shows that fashion brands must focus on interactions between

the channels and conveying a consistent brand image through both channels.

4.2 How do consumers perceive brand image offline?

The analysis indicates that store image is a construct of several attributes. The number of

attributes one interviewee regards as affecting the image of a physical store is varying between

the interviewees, as it seems to be based on the valuations of each individual. Regardless of the

variety of attributes that are highly valued by any specific participant, what they all have in

common is the feelings and thoughts about what is expected from an appealing image. The

following section will discuss the answers provided, where functional and psychological

attributes of store image have been discussed by interviewees in regard to fashion brands.

4.2.1 Surrounding environment

The analysis of the findings shows that physical stores advantage from many touchpoints with

the consumer as consumers are affected by several impressions from physical attendance in

stores. This also involves interaction with most senses, such as touch, sight, smell, and hearing

which extends the impressions received. One of the participants, Michelle, explains it like this;

“The store is important for the image since it allows all the senses to be involved. Other channels do not

have the ability to touch you in that many ways” - Michelle

A majority of the interviewees describe that the surroundings are of great importance for how

the image of the store is perceived. The physical attributes of the store, such as interior and

store layout are expressed to be of great importance. The interviewees further describe the store

image to be affected by a range of dimensions, such as the arrangement of products, interior,

music, staff and other consumers, as well as cleanliness and organization. Several interviewees

state that colors and the degree of trendiness are affecting the perception of the store

atmosphere. Likewise, providing a spacious store layout is considered to contribute to many

benefits. Several interviewees describe that there is a relation between a spacious layout and

increased perceived accessibility of the products. Avoidance of narrow spaces and tightly hung

racks are expressed to improve the ability to easily see the products, whereas crowded spaces

in the store are repeatedly described as having a negative impact on the image. Several

interviewees also describe that a store layout with clear departments is perceived to increase

the convenience of shopping. This is in accordance with previous statements by Samli et al.

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(1998), who claim that the layout represents the ease of moving around in-store. Though Samli

et al. (1998) and Bèzes (2014) argue for layout as an attribute on its own, this analysis shows

that there are several other dimensions tightly connected to the ease of moving around and the

level of thriving in store, why it is argued that the attribute favorably should represent a greater

extent. For example, it emerged that convenience is highly affected by the cleanliness of the

store and the sorting and structure of products. While Samli et al. (1998), Ailawadi and Keller

(2004) as well as Mitchell and Harris (2005) rather emphasize the location of the store as crucial

for the convenience of the store, this analysis however indicates that the actual convenience is

found within the physical space. The definition of the surrounding environment thereby

encompasses the structure of products, cleanliness, layout, convenience in-store, and

atmosphere.

4.2.2 Products and collections

The analysis indicates that the products offered in-store are important contributors to the

perception of the brand. Yet, it was found that consumers’ perception of store offered products

as appealing was considered a prerequisite for the consumer to visit the store, rather than

something enhancing the brand image. Most of the interviewees mentioned the importance of

an appealing product offering in passing, rather implicit than spoken. However, it turned out

that certain preferences were highlighted regarding product offerings. A majority of the

interviewees expressed a desire for appealing products. Among the emerging terms that were

used for describing appealing products were “simple yet fashionable” (Angelina), “made of

good quality and materials” (Michelle), “trendy” (Sarah), “cool streetwear clothes” (Lisa).

Previous literature establishes the quality of the products as influencing factors of brand image

(Samli et al. 1998; Birthwistle et al. 1999). Though, this analysis indicates that what products

a customer finds desirable is influenced by other factors as well, depending on the valuations

of the consumer. As Michelle highly values quality, her desire for the product offering is

formed accordingly. For Angelina on the other hand, it is more important that the products

offered are simple and fashionable in accordance with her interests. Though, what they all

expressed is a desire for the products to match their expectations and requests. Hollie explains

how this is rather a prerequisite for visiting the store, which is representative of all of the

interviewees;

“The products itself are most important of course. The items offered are what makes me decide on where

to go in the first place“ - Hollie

Besides the design and attributes of products, the interviewees also emphasize the width and

depth of the collection. This was uttered as the importance of a thoughtful width of collection,

as well as a reasonable number of products. Some interviewees expressed that the width of

assortment could be favorable in some cases, while in other cases could be perceived as

unspecialized. This has previously been mentioned by Samli et al. (1998) who establish the

width of assortment as one factor affecting image. For the reason mentioned, the attribute of

products comprises the width and depth of collection as well.

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4.2.3 Price and value

The importance of pricing of products was by most interviewees presented in a similar way as

the importance of products itself; to many, reasonable pricing is a prerequisite for deciding on

where to shop in the first place. Regardless of the occupancy, the interviewees expressed certain

preferences regarding price. Though, this was not mentioned in terms of monetary funds, but

rather of how much one was willing to pay in relation to the perceived value of the product.

This might be explained by Birthewistle et al. (1999) suggestion that price solely reflects value

for money. From that perspective, the price might be an attribute that should not be disregarded

from any segment. Though, the scope of the research is too small to generate reflections beyond

the group of interviewees making up the basis for analysis. Furthermore, based on the analysis,

it appears like the pricing narrates something about the image which can either be in line with

or contradicting the overall image of the store. Julie explains it as;

“Price creates expectations of a certain image. The price strengthens the trustworthiness of what image

they try to communicate” - Julie

It is also stated that price leads the consumers’ expectations of the product they are about to

purchase. In the same way, the assessment of price in relation to value seems to be reflecting

the surrounding experience containing service and quality of the purchase. This emerged as

interviewees expressed flexibility in the valuation of products in regard to other dimensions

affecting store image. It also appears that interviewees were willing to expand the price limit

offline compared to online since they benefit from the service to be able to bring home the

product immediately.

4.2.4 Promotions and marketing

The analysis shows that the meaning of promotion according to most interviewees was different

from the meaning presented in previous literature on store image. Promotions in the context of

sale promoting actions were not at all mentioned as a factor affecting the perceived brand

image, as Bèzes (2014) argues. Though, according to the interviewees, promotion in the sense

of marketing and advertising is claimed to impact the overall image of the brand. Promotion in

this scene was suggested as a means to improve the image, where interviewees gave examples

of how brands transformed their image to the better or worse as a result of successful or

unsuccessful promotions. Helen gave an example of how she experienced a positive

transformation as a result of influencer marketing and different collaborations. She explains it

like;

“For example Gina Tricot, it felt like they a couple of years ago were on their way out of the market,

they felt very untrendy. They had a lot of products that I did not like at all. Buy now I feel like they have

rebranded totally, by investing a lot in influencers, design-collabs, and different collaborations. I can feel

that when I enter their stores now, the stores look very different from before. They have changed a lot

and I feel `wow what a difference´ “ - Helen

Several interviewees stated that they appreciated promotions involving influencer marketing,

designer collaborations, and other collaborations such as crossover store activities. This seems

to not only affect the perception about promotion itself, but also other attributes constituting

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store image. This conclusion is reinforced by Ailawadi and Keller (2004) statement that

promotions are tightly connected to other attributes of brand image. The interviewees

experience that the surrounding environment can be improved by successfully managed

crossover activities, as it contributes to an unexpected happening. It also emerged that products

might be perceived as more appealing once they can be associated with influencers or famous

designers.

4.2.5 Store personnel and service

The analysis indicates that the interviewees emphasize the role of store personnel, though, their

expectations on the staffs’ role varied. It appeared that even though the interviewees were not

in need of or wanted advice, they still had a perception and expectation of how the store

personnel would behave. It also emerged from the analysis that several of the interviewees’

expectations of the store personnel were set in relation to the previous perception of the brand

image of the store they visited. Visiting a store where you have a positive relation to the brand

image would increase the expectations of the service provided by store personnel in that

specific store. This is captured in a quotation provided by Julie, saying that;

“I expect a certain level of service. I want to be met by nice personnel and I want to feel that there is a

higher degree of love and consideration in the things I buy. If I buy a nice shirt at (& Other) Stories, I

expect it to be carefully wrapped in tissue paper, which I won’t do at for example H&M “ - Julie

This indicates that store personnel are included as contributors to the image. When the store

personnel’s role fulfilled the expectations of the interviewees, they would strengthen the image

and the opposite would occur when they did not meet the expectations. It appears as the

perception of what is expected from the personnel was very individual. One example of this is

as some interviewees mentioned the impact of the degree of sales orientation as one factor

affecting store personnel image, where too high or too low degree would harm the image. The

perception of what is too high or too low though seems to vary depending on interviewee and

occasion. This is also argued by Bèzes (2014) as an important factor in assessing how well

store personnel contribute to the store image. Beyond that, Samli et al. (1998) highlighted that

friendliness enhances the shopping experience, which is also indicated in this study. This was

substantiated through the analysis, as interviewees multiple times confirmed the positive value

contribution from friendly personnel. Though, is also emerged from the analysis that the store

personnel should preferably act like helpful acquaintances rather than focusing only on sales,

which desirable behavior has not been stated in previous literature. It also appeared as the store

personnel at the same time are expected to possess high knowledge about the brand and their

products. For some of the interviewees, the importance of sales personnel was less palpable, as

they did not have any expectations regarding the service provided by staff. Those interviewees

had a more objective attitude towards products, its function, and design, why they did not

consider store personnel or advice as influencing factors.

4.2.6 Reputation

A majority of the interviewees witness that the reputation of the store and the brand provides

psychological security when they are about to purchase and carry a brand. Reputation seems to

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serve as a reassuring contribution to consumers’ brand decisions. This is indicated as

interviewees explain that the image surrounding a brand creates a desire to shop that specific

brand and creates an endeavor to be a part of that brand society. This is captured in a quote by

Hollie, who expresses this in the following sentence;

“They are good at creating a desire for their products by creating a concept surrounding their clothes,

this is something you want to be a part of” - Hollie

What creates this desire seems to be derived from “current trends” (expressed by Sarah) and

“an idea of what is considered socially accepted” (expressed by Helen). Some interviewees

also describe that they are more likely to tell their friends about purchases from a brand that

has a good reputation. This is in line with Thang and Tan’s (2003) statement about reputation

positively affecting the pride to own certain products. Thang and Tan (2003) further claim that

reputable stores advantage from securing trust and higher perception of quality or worth in the

minds of the consumer. This is as well indicated in the analysis where Lisa was asked if she

thought that she is affected by a specific brand's reputation. Her response indicated that

uncertainty or unclear own opinion could be backed up by a generally known view, as she

replied;

“I think so. I mean, I think they have a good reputation, it is a very well-known brand worldwide, so they

must be doing something right” - Lisa

The analysis also indicates that a bad reputation could negatively impact the interviewees’

purchase intention of that brand. One interviewee expressed how she felt ashamed of buying

clothes from a brand that had a negative reputation, while another interviewee refuses to go to

a certain brand since they had a reputation for treating their staff unpleasantly. Thereby, the

reputation seems to affect the credibility of the brand in one way or another. Negative

reputation as the examples provides seem to negatively affect the interviewees previewing of

the brand’s credibility and what values that characterizes the brand. The analysis further

indicates that knowledge about the company behind the brand is guiding the consumers in the

choice of store. Some interviewees mentioned the history and core values of the brand as factors

affecting the brand image and the reliability of the store. Julie provides one, saying that;

“(& Other) Stories are very good at driving their storytelling. They create a concept that is reliable“

- Julie

Reliability seems to be an important matter affected by brand history and brand beliefs. Some

interviewees seem to link reliability to the level of communication provided by the company.

One example is how transparency regarding sustainability concerns could either enhance or

diminish the reliability of the image. Michelle described the importance by saying;

“The brand must be concerned with sustainability and mediate their beliefs to the consumer” - Michelle

Though, she continues by directing criticism towards stores’ way of providing information that

she considers necessary for making informed decisions.

“I think I know much about the values of the stores I regularly visit. But much of such information is

more easily available online. I think that should be made available also in stores. The beliefs of the brand

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should be more considered by all consumers in my opinion and then it has to be more transparent in all

steps“ - Michelle

As the influence of history and record is rather weak through previous literature, this analysis

provides extended information regarding how positive or negative information about the

history and values of the brand affects the brand image. It also provides an indication of how

reputation, or institution as previous literature refers to (Bèzes 2014; Korgaonkar & Karson

2007), relates to credibility and how it is affected by reputations. It appears as the interviewees’

view of the institution of a brand is mostly concerned with getting to know the brand in order

to increase the knowledge of it and enhance reliability towards it.

4.3 How do consumers perceive brand image online?

Based on the interviewees’ responses, online browsing seems to be a daily occupation to the

majority which puts more pressure on companies in succeeding with conveying brand image

through several channels. The easy access to online websites implies being, in accordance with

the interviewees’ reflections, one of the foremost reasons to frequently visit online websites.

Chang and Tseng (2013) explain how people tend to rely on the brand name when visiting a

website since there is a lack of physical contact with the products. However, if the website does

not meet the expectations based on the brand name, the image might diminish. The analysis

shows how several online attributes are required to create a good consumer perception of the

website and in extension, an appreciated brand image.

4.3.1 Easy access and navigation

It is clear that one of the main reasons the majority of the interviewees visit a brand’s website

over the store is because of the easy access to it. It appears that online websites function as an

inspiring platform where the visit does not always end up in a purchase. However, it appears

enjoyable scrolling and searching for inspiration and new trends. Paula explains how browsing

on fashion websites is a repeating occupation of hers:

“I go to different websites a lot to see all the clothes, but I do not always buy anything, but it is interesting

to see what is out there and find inspiration” - Paula

Easy access seems to be a reason why consumers would choose the website above the physical

store. One of the most prominent opinions, which all interviewees agree upon, regarding

important elements on the website is that it should be easy to navigate. This corresponds to

Szymanski and Hise (2000) statement about the great importance of an easily navigable

website. It emerges from this analysis that navigation and categorizing the products are

important elements on websites which is in accordance with Katerattanakul and Siau (2003)

who propose to logically categorize the products to keep the website organized and easy to

navigate on. The interviewee Angelina describes her view of an easily navigable website of a

brand that she likes as follows:

“It is easy to navigate. It is very important that I find the categories that I am interested in. They also

have a reasonable amount of merchandise which is good, since it eases the navigation” - Angelina

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This statement further shows that a reasonable amount of merchandise is an important factor

in order to keep it easy to navigate on the website. It appears from the analysis that several of

the interviewees, in accordance with Angelina, believe that an abundance of products gives an

overwhelming feeling and affects the ease of navigation. To keep the website easy to navigate

on, having a carefully selected assortment appears to be a good approach in addition to

categorization, to facilitate easy navigation. The importance of an easily navigable website

agrees with several studies, Katerattankaul and Siau (2003) and Bèzes (2014) also highlight

how crucial it is to have a website that is easily navigable in order to reach consumer

satisfaction.

4.3.2 Design and aesthetics

The design and aesthetics of a website appear to be important factors for the majority of

participants, it can apply to everything from the choice of colors and structure of the website.

These aspects have an impact on how inspiring the website feels and have the ability to make

the overall experience more satisfying. It appears that the color choices should be consistent in

all associations with the brand. Colors that are easy on the eye like white and pastel colors are

mainly viewed positively according to the interviewees. Another attribute that is brought up as

an important element is that the website, as well as the physical store, should look modern and

uncluttered to enhance the experience of the website. What is viewed as a nice design and

aesthetics are presumably highly individual. However, the analysis shows how modern design

has a positive impact on the feeling of the website and the overall perception of the brand. It

emerges for instance from the interview with Sarah, while she explains the most important

elements of a website, that modernity is meaningful:

“They also have a lot of editorials, they are putting a lot on effort in that. They have the most popular

models and they have really nice campaigns. It feels trendy and modern” - Sarah

She further explains in regard to the physical store:

“They do not feel modern and not luxurious at all. The website is more modern” - Sarah

Based on Sarah's statement, it is arguable that a reason for why she mostly buys clothes online

is because the website feels more modern. Hence, a trendy and modern feeling affects her

opinion about a brand, and “nice campaigns, with popular models” seem to be further ways to

inspire consumers, which once again can be linked to trendiness and modernity. Furthermore,

not solely Sarah mention luxury in a positive light, several interviewees explain a desire

towards a luxury feel, which brands can express through a luxurious design. The participants’

opinions agree with Kwon and Lennon (2009a) who mention the importance of the design of a

website since this will ultimately affect the image of the brand.

4.3.3 Merchandise description

The findings further show that all participants highly value clear descriptions and pictures of

the products because the website does not allow the consumer to clearly see and feel the

products. The pictures should clearly show the products from different angles, so the consumer

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will not get disappointed when receiving them. Two of the interviewees also believe that videos

that show the garments in movement add value to the experience. The findings correspond to

Chen and Lee (2005) who acknowledge that a website should offer a clear description and

pictures of the products to strengthen the image of the online channel. Furthermore, the pictures

may also serve as inspiration if photographed in a nice environment, sometimes the pictures

show how to wear the garment in different ways which can create value through inspiration or

digital advice on matching. However, Helen clarifies how websites sometimes can have a

messy impression if they are focusing on mainly having an inspiring website since she believes

it makes it harder to find the desired garment. She explains her view as follows:

“I do not understand that website. Where is the list with everything? It is just a lot messier [...] They want

it to feel like a fashion magazine, which I believe can be the wrong approach. It can be nice too, but it

should be an option; “Would you like to visit the inspiration page or the online shop?” - Helen

This statement shows how there is a fine line between keeping the website inspiring but at the

same time keeping it simple enough for the customers. The interviewees also testify that a

wider range of merchandise offered online is an additional reason to consume online which is

in accordance with Szymanski and Hise (2002) who clarify that focus on the assortment is

important to reach customers satisfaction. Bèzes (2014) also advocates a wide range of products

in order to enhance the experience. The interviewees’ statement, however, contradicts the

findings in regard to easy access and navigation, where the participants state that they prefer a

reasonable number of products. Therefore, it is possible to argue that companies need to pay

attention to keeping a balance in many aspects in regard to the website. For instance, the

participants describe how websites often offer more products and more sizes which enhance

the overall idea about the website. However, there should be a reasonable amount of

merchandise since too many offers will affect the customer negatively because it takes too

much time to view everything, leaving convenience and navigability suffering.

4.3.4 Price and value

The literature argues for the importance of price and promotion, though, it does not seem to be

any significant differences in price criteria when it comes to the offline versus online store.

Therefore, most of the analysis regarding price offline is also applicable in an online context.

However, several participants mention reasonable and good prices as something they consider

when consuming. The participants explain their view in regard to price as follows:

“You can get something very trendy for a good price” - Sarah

“I believe they have a bit more luxury products, but the price is still reasonable” - Michelle

Once again, words such as “trendy” and “luxury” occur and can be argued to be important

when consuming. However, price also has an impact on the purchase decision even though the

clothes should be trendy and luxurious with reference to the statement above. It can be argued

that consumers may perceive the image of a brand as positive, but the products of the brand

might not be in the price range accessible to the consumer, hence the consumer turn to a brand

that fits his/her budget but also lives up to special expectations that will positively affect the

brand image. This is in line with Heijden and Verhagen (2004) who explain that value for

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money is a consideration when consuming and Katterattanakul and Siau (2003) who mention

that price is an important factor since it attracts people to the stores.

4.3.5 Communication

A common perception among the interviewees seems to be that if there is enough information

about the products on the website, the lack of direct contact with staff is insignificant.

Katerattanakul and Siau (2003) state that communication on a website is crucial to enhance the

brand image, it can be done with detailed information and pictures of the products, which ones

again clarifies the importance of clear descriptions and communication as the interviewees call

attention to. However, it emerges from the analysis that some purchase decisions seem to

demand knowledgeable and friendly help, for instance when buying shoes or luxury items. But

overall, the lack of direct contact with staff does not seem to affect the majority of the

interviewees’ perception of a website even though some would prefer to visit a physical store

because of the possibility to ask for help. Instead, other communication and facilitating

functions can favor the visit of the online store, such as the search functions. Spiller and Lohse

(1997) explain that specific search functions that facilitate the finding of desired products more

efficiently can be valuable when lacking personal help. Paula explains her view of search

functions;

“I think that as long as there is a search function it is fine. The search function is almost like the staff

online, so I would not say that I miss it online. But I would say on a more luxury website, they might

lose the luxury feeling since they often mediate that feeling through their staff in the physical store”

- Paula

Once again, this shows that depending on what product one is looking for, the need for direct

contact with staff varies. Furthermore, some of the interviewees even think the brands

communicate better online, even though there is no staff. This has been described in the

following ways:

“The website can actually be better at the information parts than stores can. They might be better at giving

information about garments, sustainability, and history than stores are, even though stores have personnel

which websites do not” - Samantha

And;

“It is easier to get to know the website online since it is easier to communicate with the customer. It is

easier to get information there, so they (online channels) are good at those parts“ - Julie

This shows that several brands put a lot of emphasis on communicating since there is a lack of

direct contact on the website. Good communication will ultimately lead to a positive opinion

regarding the brand’s website according to the findings. The communication through the

website serves to give advice and compensate for the lack of physical and direct contact on the

website. The search function is an example mentioned as a supplement to compensate for the

absence of staff, other services have also shown to have great importance on the online store

and will be further addressed.

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4.3.6 Services

Various services are a huge part of the online store, it appears from the analysis that services

are highly important when consuming online. Services such as easy payment methods are

mentioned as important factors by many of the participants when shopping online. It also

occurs from the analysis that the interviewees value a secure payment method. Klarna is one

example brought up that is perceived as an easy and well-known payment method that can be

decisive in regard to the purchase decision. Angelina mentions a number of different services

that she considers to be important:

“It is important that it is easy, and that I can use Klarna or other easy methods of payment. It also must

be several methods of shipment available, so it does not get more tiresome to shop online than offline. It

is also important that the package arrives looking nice, so it corresponds to my expectations” - Angelina

In accordance with Angelina’s statement, the services should above all work to facilitate the

entire process and make it as smooth as possible as the word easy is mentioned two times.

Bèzes (2014) also mention that different shipment methods are supportive and appreciated

service. A majority of the participants also highlighted the importance of easy return policies.

Preferably, according to two of the interviewees, the brand should offer the possibility to return

the clothes in-store and being able to pick the package up there as well, which is in accordance

with Bèzes (2014) who explains that the store should work as a pick-up point and also offer the

possibility to return the garments in store. Lisa explains her opinion about online services;

“But in general, I feel like the information about the clothes is very important, videos are also helpful to

clearly see the products in addition to the pictures. But what I also value when I shop online is the easiness

of returning the clothes, I want it to be simple. Preferably returning the clothes in-store” - Lisa

Bèzes (2014) mentions how return policies should be accommodating, just as the participants

require. In the statement of Lisa, she also addresses other services such as videos of the

garments, to further ease the process and reduce uncertainty when shopping for clothes online.

However, Patricia mentions how it is a bit of a hassle to return clothes when shopping online

which is a reason to visit the physical store instead: Patricia explains how she feels: “I am a bit

tired of returning clothes that I have bought online”. This shows how the return policies have

become more important to compensate for the lack of direct contact with the products and once

again, ease the process. As shown under communication, search functions are also important

services according to the participants, which correspond to Spiller and Lohse (1997), who argue

that search functions facilitate finding the desired products more efficiently. Compared to the

offline store, services are a much more important attribute in turns of the online store. The

findings show that it is important that brands focus on delivering services that ease the process.

4.3.7 Reputation

It emerges from the analysis that reputation is a crucial factor when assessing a brand. The

findings regarding the importance of reputation in an online context are the same as the offline

context, however, there are some attributes in the online context that will enhance the overall

perception of the brand image. As mentioned in regard to services, a secure transaction process

is a crucial factor for the online store. This is in accordance with Katerattanakul and Siau (2003)

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who clarify how this is especially important if wanting to maintain a good reputation (ibid.).

The previously mentioned easy exchange policies as interviewees regard as important, are

further aspects that according to Bèzes (2014) will have an effect on the reputation. It can be

assumed that these aspects, which are claimed to lead to improved reputation, also will lead to

improved trust towards the brand’s online store. According to Lim and Dubinsky (2004) a

website with a good reputation also advantage from being viewed as more trustworthy.

Furthermore, a brand with a good reputation seems to be a brand that is well recognized. Emma

explains how her perception of a brand is influenced by the knowledge provided by others

about brands, as she explains her viewpoint as follows:

“I think it is because of my daughters that I have more knowledge about different brands. A lot of my

friends also like the store” - Emma

In accordance with the statement of Emma, Lim and Dubinsky (2004) mention how a good

reputation often is derived from word of mouth by friends and family. Angelina also indicates

that her friends’ opinions are significant in the context of consuming clothes.

“I perceive that they are high in trend. That makes it fun to shop there as well, it is fun to tell friends that

any garment is from ARKET when they ask” - Angelina

Angelina’s and Emma’s statements show how friends and family have an impact on their

purchase decision. Angelina’s description further suggests that she want to be perceived in a

special way in front of her friends. It is possible to assume that the reputation of the brand has

an impact on the individual's perceived reputation too and consuming from a specific brand

seems to be about social acceptance. Even though various services are prominent in literature

in regard to the reputation of an online store, presumably all attributes ultimately have an

impact on a brand’s reputation, hence the brand image.

4.4 Final discussion

It appears that fashion companies’ different channels possess different strengths and

weaknesses in their ability to convey brand image as they possess different practical conditions.

This differs from previous literature in multi-channel brand image in a general context, as

previous literature is based on the assumption that the same attributes are valid for both offline

and online brand image as suggested by Bèzes (2014). This research rather indicates that where

one channel seems to burst in ability, the other one tends to see its strength. One example is the

lack of store personnel in online channels due to practical conditions. Though the interviewees’

reflections suggest that the online channel attempts to compensate for the absence of personnel

advisory and interaction with the consumer which seem to have led to a well-developed

communicative ability, that implies some advantages that the physical store personnel do not

possess. It also seems to differ in what consumers consider important attributes depending on

what channel they use. One example is services, which is perceived important in online

shopping as it fulfills the purpose of supplementing for functional deficiencies like trying out

products or bringing them home immediately. Regarding offline shopping, services do not

seem to be considered as equally important to enhance the brand image. Despite those

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differences, the findings reveal that it is important that the entire image is encompassed by both

channels.

4.4.1 Different characteristics of attributes

The analysis indicates that the attributes that consumers find prominent in brand image offline

and online are varying depending on channels. Though some attributes are found for both

channels, the factors through which they are perceived seem to differ. Not unlike suggestions

by previous researchers (e.g. Kent 2003; Verhagen & Van Dolen 2009; Hu, Xin Liu, Wang &

Yang 2012; Bèzes 2014) all attributes are functional and/or psychological in nature. Though

most attributes are more functional or psychological, there is no clear line defining the

difference, hence several attributes possess both functional and psychological characteristics.

The offline attribute surrounding environment is considered functional as this attribute involves

the physical store’s involvement of senses affecting the experience of the store visit. This also

refers to the physical appearance of the store. There are though examples where physical

dimensions can be argued to involve psychological elements. One example is the layout which

is argued to affect the convenience of the visit and atmosphere of the store, which by itself can

be considered a more psychological attribute. However, as it is affected by how the physical

space is arranged, it can still be argued to be mostly connected to physical characteristics. As

for the offline attributes products and collections are considered functional with reference to

Mazursky and Jacoby’s (1986) definition that functional qualities can be referred to as tangible

characteristics. They further state that functional attributes can be objectively compared to

other brands (ibid.), why price is argued to be functional both online and offline.

Regarding easy access and navigation, there is conflicting evidence of whether it is of

functional or psychological nature. One can argue that the layout of the website is reflecting

the layout of a store, and thereby should be considered functional if the assumption that the

same attribute has the same classification regardless of channel is true. There is though

evidence from the analysis indicating that this is done to affect how the consumers feel when

visiting the website, which according to Saraswat et al. (2010) is significant for psychological

attributes. With a base in those conflicting arguments, it can be encouraged to look more deeply

into the relationship in future research. The categorization of merchandise descriptions can be

argued in a similar manner as easy access and navigation. The merchandise of an online store

is functional, yet the description is a way of communicating and giving advice to the customers

which are psychological in its nature.

The attribute promotion and marketing offline is argued to be an attribute of psychological

character, as it concerns actions aiming to affect the customers’ feelings and emotions about

the brand. This differs from previous literature suggestions of promotion as a functional

attribute, as the inherent meaning of the attribute differs from the one explained for promotion

and marketing. The psychological characteristics are indicated in the findings where

interviewees express that marketing actions contribute to the feeling of association with, for

example, influencers. This is further strengthened by Saraswat et al. (2010) definition of

psychological attributes as referring to the feelings of the consumers. They further derive the

consumer sense of belonging, warmth and friendliness as well as excitement to psychological

40

attributes. Several interviewees indicated that they expect store personnel to not only be sales-

oriented but rather act like “helpful acquaint”. For that reason, store personnel and services are

argued to be a psychological attribute. The same accounts for reputation, which both online

and offline substantially refers to how the consumers think of the brand both derived from their

own experiences and others, working as an assuring contribution to the consumers’ own

thoughts and feelings towards a brand.

The online attribute design and aesthetics can be considered as a psychological attribute since

it affects the feeling one gets in terms of how inspirational the website feels, and the overall

experience derived from the website. The attribute communication, that somewhat refers to the

offline attribute store personnel, are argued to be psychological. This argumentation is derived

from the intangible characteristics of communication, aiming to provide knowledge and

security in the purchase situation. Services are argued to be psychological for the same reason

as communication. There are however functional aspects of services as well, with regards to

the practicalities mentioned by interviewees such as delivery and payment options. Though

services, in general, are considered intangible and thereby psychological.

The attributes presented in sections 4.2 and 4.3 are the ones that the interviewees of the study

found most prominent and they are compiled in the following table.

Tabell 3 Compilation of what interviewees believe are the most prominent attributes of brand image

It appears as both functional and psychological characteristics are significant for both offline

and online brand image as the number of attributes relating to them are somewhat evenly

distributed. The distinction between functional and psychological attributes can also be argued

more diffuse as the functional attributes possess many psychological dimensions as well.

Defining functional and psychological attributes of online brand image is more difficult and

somewhat unclear as most attributes possess many intangible characteristics. Furthermore, the

previous research provided on characteristics of online image attributes is very limited which

makes the classification rather arbitrary.

4.4.2 Overall perception of brand image

The analysis of the findings demonstrates how the image brands convey is of great importance

to consumers in the purchase decision process. Even though it was not directly pronounced by

41

the interviewees, various statements showed evidence of how the participants carefully choose

what brand they wanted to be associated with. The brand choices seem to have an effect on

consumers’ own self-perception of why consumers consume from brands that share the same

values as one does. Brand choices also seem to be affected by the perception of what is socially

accepted when trying to obtain a certain image to the surroundings, such as being perceived in

a special way in front of friends and family, which was clearly expressed. Julie communicated

her thoughts on brand image and her wish to be perceived in a certain manner in front of her

friends:

”They have succeeded to create an image so that it is desirable to shop there. Therefore, it is fun to tell

friends that you shop there and leave the store with a bag” - Julie

Social acceptance is recurrent in the findings, for instance, the brands that are appreciated by

the interviewees are repeatedly mentioned in conjunction with words such as popular, trendy,

and modern. The analysis shows evidence of how important brands are in consumers’ lives,

which is in accordance with Grubor and Milovanov (2017) who mention that brands have a big

impact on the everyday life and daily choices made. It was also evident in the analysis that the

interviewees had similar opinions on which brands were perceived in a positive light. This

appeared since several of the participants mentioned the same brands with regard to

appreciation. Grubor and Milovanov (2017) mention how successful brands have several loyal

customers, which seem to agree with the fact that many of the participants were thinking about

the same brands. A strong brand also drives store choice in accordance with Azad et al. (2014).

The five perspectives discussed in connection to brand image; symbolism, meanings and

messages, personification, cognitive or psychological, and blanket definition (Dobni &

Zinkhan 1990), all seem somewhat evident in the findings. However, there are no clear

distinctions between them and the findings do not clearly state what definition is more relevant

based on the interviewee’s responses. However, there seems to be both a functional and

symbolic value when consuming clothes which agrees with Pohlman and Mudd (1973) who

state that both functional and symbolic value is evident when purchasing items. Even though

clothes originally have a functional purpose, it turns out that all participants except one buy

clothes for hedonistic reasons, which can be both linked to symbolism and meanings.

Furthermore, the findings indicate that buying clothes can be a way for consumers to express

themselves. Samantha communicates her opinion as follows:

”I think it is important to wear clothes that give you energy, that expresses who you are as a person and

that strengthens you. So I usually shop as a means to do those things, and not primary to cover my needs”

- Samantha

The statement made by Samantha shows how personification is evident in terms of brand

image. Dobni and Zinkhan (1990) mention how a product can have its own personality and

how the attributes of a product can be linked to the consumer’s personality. This is also evident

in the findings whereas the interviewees talk about values and sustainability for instance, which

can be connected to their own personal values. It is further clear that the perception of brand

image is derived from previous experience and reputation which have led to cognitive and

psychological ideas which Dobni and Zinkhan (1990) mention regarding the consumers’

42

feelings, ideas, attitudes, and understandings about the brand. There cannot be seen that some

interviewees tend to favor one perspective, but rather that all or many definitions appear under

different circumstances during the interviews. It can therefore be argued that the blanket

definition is highly relevant as their conception of a brand’s image is the sum of impressions

from several different attributes and approaches, similar to Herzog’s (1963) description of how

brand image is the total impression derived from many sources. It emerges that the interviewees

have arrived at a perception of a brand, based on many different dimensions, which in this

study are captured in 13 attributes.

43

5. CONCLUSION

The aim of the study was to, through a qualitative research method, provide an understanding

of how consumers perceive brand image offline and online. This is done by reviewing the

concepts and different perspectives of brand image and examining what attributes consumers

find most prominent as makers for the brand image offline and online of multi-channel fashion

companies.

5.1 Theoretical and managerial implications

The research contributes to theoretical and managerial implications in terms of attributes that

are suitable for the evaluation of fashion companies’ brand image offline and online. The

research shows that the perception of brand image and what are important constituents varies

between interviewees as it is based on personal experiences and evaluations, but there are

several prominent similarities as well. The research also indicates that for fashion companies,

the attributes that are considered most prominent by consumers are varying depending on the

channel and can therefore not be adopted equally for different channels as previous research

on brand image in general suggests. This research gave rise to six attributes constituting the

interviewees’ perception of brand image offline, and seven constituting the perception of brand

image online. The surrounding environment, products and collections, price and value,

promotions and marketing, store personnel and services, and reputations are the attributes

suggested for future use for evaluating brand image offline, while it is suggested that easy

access and navigation, merchandise description, price and value, design and aesthetics,

communication, services, and reputation are used for assessing online brand image. Those

attributes are also suggested to be considered by managers in the work of strategically building

brand image on stores and websites.

It is further found that consumers find it very important that the brand image conveyed offline

and online is consistent in the sense that it provides a holistic brand image. There are indications

that the degree to which companies provide a holistic image affects the reliability of the brand,

as well as the overall impression of the brand.

The research also shows that the different perspectives on brand image suggested in previous

literature are all present in one way or another in the consumers’ view of brand image. It is

based on this research not possible to establish one perspective as the proper one, as

interviewees refer to different perspectives in different situations and in relation to different

attributes.

In conclusion, this research contributes to new insights regarding indications of what attributes

are prominent for brand image in multi-channel fashion companies. It is further indicated that

the attributes are varying depending on the channel. This points out directions where further

research is needed in order to provide better understanding and explanations within the

researched area. It also provides indicative references for marketing practitioners who can

benefit from knowing what attributes consumers find important. It is also indicated that it is of

great importance that the different channels are providing a similar image.

44

5.2 Limitation of the research

There are some limitations to the research that should be taken into consideration. The small

number of interviewees making the base for analysis must be taken in regard when evaluating

the theoretical and managerial implications of the study. Findings from ten interviewees

constitute limited generalizability beyond the specific research group without validation from

a larger sample. Even though the results are not meant to be generalizable, this should be

reflected upon when acquiring the results. The reflection should also cover for how the

interviewees were selected. As discussed in section 3.7, deliberated selection of interviewees

might cause selection bias.

There might also be limitations of the research in regard to the choice of method, as a

complementary method of data gathering might have contributed with further, deeper or

broader findings. For example, using focus groups as a complement to interviews could

possibly contribute to further findings if the discussion forum had attracted reflections that the

respondents did not think of themselves regarding the abstract subject brand image.

5.3 Future research

The present study has given rise to suggestions for future research. Based on the limitations

presented in section 5.1, the attributes provided in the analysis should be quantitatively

established in order to be considered applicable for a larger selection. It is further indicated in

the analysis that the previous research on the functional and psychological classification of

attributes is limited and inadequate. There are previous assumptions that the same

classifications can be applied for offline attributes and online attributes. Though, the analysis

indicates that the current assumptions are not accurate; one attribute that is functional offline

might be of psychological character as an online attribute. Faulty classification might lead to

misconceptions about the attributes impact and how it should be managed. It is therefore

suggested that future research investigate this in order to make more accurate conclusions

regarding attributes in multi-channel companies.

It is also suggested to investigate more thoroughly how institutions constituting history and

credibility of brand are affecting other attributes and brand image. Previous literature on

institution is insufficient and there are few theoretical or managerial implications provided. It

is though indicated in this analysis that its meaning in multiple ways affects both other

attributes of brand image and brand image directly.

45

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Appendix 1 - Interview guide

Can you tell a little about yourself?

Do you consider yourself a frequent shopper in online and offline contexts?

What is the main reason for you to shop clothing? (Need, hedonistic etc)

For the following questions, think of a brand you believe have a positive brand image. The brand should operate

both online and offline (though own channels) and you should consider yourself experienced interacting with it.

What brand do you have in mind?

Why did you choose this brand?

Segment 1 - Store brand image

Tell me what you like about shopping in the physical stores of the brand.

Tell me what image you have of the brands physical store.

Support issues:

- What do you believe are the most important elements of a physical store?

- Mention important factors in a store environment that have a positive impact on your visit

- Do you think that the way you perceive the physical store affect your opinion of the brand?

- Do you think the image you have of a brand’s physical store affect how you view the same brand’s online

store?

Segment 2 - Online brand image

Tell me what you like about shopping in the webshop of the brand.

Tell me what image you have of the brands webshop.

Support issues:

- What do you believe are the most important elements of a website?

- How does the overall perception of a website influence your opinion about a brand?

- How does your perception about the online store influence your perception about the offline store?

- Is it important that the brand image is consistent through both channels?

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